World Classics

Illiad ( Nigam Sir)

The Iliad is an ancient Greek epic poem attributed to Homer. It tells the story of the Trojan War
and the rage of Achilles, a great Greek warrior. The war begins after the Trojan prince Paris
kidnaps Helen, the wife of King Menelaus of Sparta. The Greeks besiege Troy for ten years, and
the poem depicts the battles, duels, and alliances that occur during this time. Ultimately, Achilles
kills the Trojan prince Hector and drags his body around the city, but he is later killed by Paris
with the help of Apollo. The Greeks win the war by tricking the Trojans with the Trojan Horse.
The Iliad is considered one of the greatest works of Western literature. Some of the main themes
of the Iliad include:

1) Honour and Glory: Honor and glory were central to the values of ancient Greek society,
and they are significant themes in the Iliad. The heroes in the poem are driven by a desire
to earn honour and glory through their actions on the battlefield.

2) Fate and Destiny: The Greeks believed in the power of fate and destiny, and this is a
recurring theme in the Iliad. The poem suggests that the gods control human destiny and
that it is impossible for mortals to escape their predetermined fate.

3) War and Violence: The Iliad depicts the brutality and horror of war. It shows the
devastating impact of violence on both the soldiers who fought in the war and the
civilians caught in the middle.

4) Love and Relationships: While war is the primary focus of the Iliad, the poem also
explores the theme of love and relationships. The relationships between the gods and
humans, as well as the bonds between soldiers, friends, and family members, are
important themes.

5) Mortality and Immortality: The Iliad explores the tension between mortality and
immortality. The gods are immortal and powerful, but they are also flawed and subject to
the whims of fate. On the other hand, mortals are vulnerable and ultimately face death,
but they also have the capacity for great courage and heroism.

The Iliad features a large cast of characters, both mortal and immortal. Some of the most
important characters include:

1. Achilles: One of the greatest Greek warriors, who is driven by his desire for honour and glory.
2. Agamemnon: The leader of the Greek army, who is often at odds with Achilles.

3. Hector: The prince of Troy and the greatest Trojan warrior, who fights for his family and city.

4. Priam: The king of Troy and Hector's father, who seeks to make peace with the Greeks.

5. Patroclus: Achilles' closest friend and ally, who is killed by Hector.

6. Odysseus: A cunning Greek warrior, known for his intelligence and strategic thinking.

7. Diomedes: A skilled Greek warrior who fights alongside Odysseus.

8. Paris: The Trojan prince who abducted Helen, which led to the start of the Trojan War.

9. Helen: The wife of Menelaus, who is the cause of the Trojan War.

10. Zeus: The king of the gods and the most powerful of the Greek gods, who oversees the
events of the Trojan War.

11. Hera: The queen of the gods and Zeus' wife, who often sides with the Greeks.

12. Aphrodite: The goddess of love and beauty, who supports the Trojans.

13. Apollo: The god of archery and prophecy, who supports the Trojans.

14. Athena: The goddess of wisdom and war, who supports the Greeks.
Comparison between Things fall apart and Heart of Darkness ( Niyati Ma’am)
Much literary criticism finds similarities between two books, merely because they have similar
settings or address superficially similar issues. Such is the case with Conrad's Heart of Darkness
and Achebe's Things Fall Apart. Although these two books do have much in common, and focus
on similar topics, they still have fundamentally different purposes. Things Fall Apart tries to
show that African culture was valuable, not primitive, while Heart of Darkness, strives to
ridicule European activity in Africa, not because it was bad for the Africans, but because in many
ways it was bad for the Europeans. These differences can be found by examining the various
themes that the two books propose, and also are particularly clear after a discussion of the two
books' treatment of race. I will address the two books separately before comparing them
side-by-side.
Things Fall Apart tries to show that African culture, despite its weaknesses, was worthwhile. The
strongest evidence of this is mere numbers – over three-quarters of the book is dedicated to
character development, plot, and description of village life before the white men even enter the
story. When the narrator refers to the Europeans as strange men, it is clear that he does so from
the point of view of an African. But the rub is in the narrator's treatment of the Africans. The
entire book is filled with s such as among these people, a man is judged according to his worth
and not according to the worth of his father,' which serves to tell about the Umuofia people.
Certainly, the village is not a safe place to live, as is shown by Ezeudu's son's death. Still,
Okonkwo’s resulting exile allows Achebe to describe another African village, as well as the
principle of Mother is supreme. In this way is Okonkwo’s exile consistent with the purpose of
the book - to show that Umuofia, and, by extension, African, culture was worthwhile? Another
similar, facet is the fashion in which justice is dispatched in the village. The text it does more
than just dispatch justice; they serve as the spiritual guides for the village. It is possible that some
of the villagers recognize that although the worldly manifestations of the text are people, their
godly representations are necessary for the spiritual and civil maintenance of the village. This is
expressed by Achebe himself when he writes begin Okonkwo’s wives, and perhaps other women
as well might have noticed the second text had the springy walk of Okonkwo.
And they might have noticed that Okonkwo was not among the titled men and elders who sat
behind the row of text it. But if they thought these things they kept them within themselves. This
except gives us great insight into the Umuofia culture. Regardless of what it is, the mere fact that
it gives us this insight is important because it shows the true purpose of the book. The text gives
us great insight into the richness of Umuofia culture because that is the purpose of the book.
Despite all the wonderful descriptions of Umuofia culture, Achebe describes its weaknesses as
well. Of note is the way Nwoye feels that his spiritual needs are not being met, so joins the
Christians. There was a young lad who had been captivated. His name was Nwoye. It was not the
mad logic of the Trinity that captivated him. He did not understand it. It was the poetry of the
new religion, something felt in the marrow. The hymn about brothers who sat in darkness and in
fear seemed to answer a vague and persistent question that haunted his young soul. This also
reveals much about Umuofia.
In particular, it includes the good with the bad; it shows that despite being a rich and varied
spiritual culture, Umuofia also has its deficiencies. Achebe recognizes this and tells about it
alongside descriptions of what is great. More examples can be found in the many cases of
spousal and child abuse, and in the way that twins are discarded. Although it is not the goal of
this book to give a historically accurate account of the culture, these descriptions of the bad
along with the good strengthen the true purpose, because Umuofia's weaknesses make the strong
points seem even stronger purpose of Heart of Darkness.
On the contrary, Heart of Darkness condemns colonialism, not because of the effect it had on
Africa, but because of its effect on Europe and Europeans. This is an important contrast, because
it is key to so many other analyses that one might do on Heart of Darkness. There are many,
varied ways that Conrad comes down upon colonialism. Most prominent is the effect that the
thirst for ivory has on the Europeans. This is a common subject in the book, starting from the
company's doctor measuring Conrad's head, He produced a thing like calipers and got the
dimensions back and front and every other way, taking notes carefully."
Later in the discussion, the doctor comments The changes take place inside, you know." The
doctor clearly knows how the Congo changes a man. The word 'ivory' rang in the air, was
whispered, and was sighed. You would think they were praying to it. A taint of imbecile rapacity
blew through it all, like a whiff from some corpse. By Jove! I've never seen anything so unreal in
my life. And outside, the silent wilderness surrounding this cleared speck on the earth struck me
as something great and invincible, like evil or truth, waiting patiently for the passing away of this
fantastic invasion end Marlow's treatment of the people at the inner station is startling. His
narration shows that they have lost something - they are actually less fulfilled than when they
arrived. This relates to Marlow's repeated use of the image of hollowness with respect to people.
There are many hollow people in the book; The theme here is that when the pressures and checks
of living in a "civilized" society are no longer present, we must make use of "our inborn strength.
Principles won't do." This inborn strength is restraint -The restraint that the natives on the
steamboat possessed, that Kurtz and the pilgrims lacked. There are many other characters that
also meet the hollow description; too many to enumerate. When the constraints of society are
removed, one must rely on internal restraint to maintain one's ethics. Without this restraint,
varying amounts of disaster ensue, with Kurtz as one extreme example. Does this sound good for
Europe? No. This theme clearly shows that exploring the jungle was bad for Europe. One can
also discount many other potential purposes for the book, because of the many racial attitudes
Marlow takes.
Although it can be argued that Marlow is not Conrad in every way, this is still worth
investigating. It's not that Marlow makes racist remarks, but Conrad depicts Marlow as not
caring about black individuals, or treating them as savages. The first clear example of this is the
prisoners. When Marlow states that the prisoners assed with that complete, death-like
indifference of unhappy savages, it is in fact Marlow being indifferent and savage. This is ironic
but does not discount the severity of the situation - again and again Marlow discounts the black
fellows as savages who are not worth worrying about. He doesn't actually take any action against
them, he merely avoids helping them. This seems to not make sense, especially since he calls
some of the black fellows a great comfort to look at. But when one considers that the Africans
are irrelevant to the purpose of the book, this becomes perfectly clear.
Another way that Conrad condemns colonialism is with his treatment of Europe's past. On
several occasions, Marlow refers to Europe as having been a dark place, most notably when he
says And this also has been one of the dark places of the earth. To bring up the Roman conquest
of England seems rather cryptic, but the reason can be found when one considers what happened
to the conquerors - England is a far more powerful country than the remnants of the Roman
Empire. The same truth holds for the US, which is presently far more powerful than to stare
England. This is another negative effect of colonialism that Marlow points out that the
conquerors don't stay conquerors forever. Thus, the purposes of the two books have been
enumerated. Still, it is necessary to discuss the two books side-by-side.
One forum in which to do this is racial imagery. Heart of Darkness uses lightness and darkness.
but lightness actually refers to blacks and darkness refers to whites. Achebe, on the other hand.
uses race only as a physical descriptor, as one might describe an individual's height. Both authors
use race in a way that is consistent with their goals. In Heart of Darkness, the Europeans are the
ones tainted by darkness. Is it any wonder then that they get the dark imagery? Conrad is trying
to say that Africa is bad for Europeans. The blacks, who live in Africa, are associated with light
because, for them, the jungle is the only way. Things fall apart takes an entirely different attitude;
Achebe hardly uses race at all.
Achebe describes generalizations made on both sides, such as when Mr Smith is described as
seeing things as black and white. And black is bad. Still, these are merely the racial feelings of
particular characters. They do not carry over to the book as a whole. The reason that Achebe
does not address race much in Things Fall Apart is that the book's purpose - to show that African
culture was valuable - is irrelevant to race. Conversely, the reason that Conrad uses racial
imagery so much in Heart of Darkness is that the book's purpose relates to colonialism, which is
in turn directly tied to race. Race is important, but equally important is the ending. The endings
of the two novels probably bear the most in common than anything else. This commonality is
superficial at best, however. They also both end with ignorant individuals carrying on the same
as before - the Intended in Heart of Darkness, and the District Commissioner in Things Fall
Apart. One contrast, however, is that no one tries to tell the Intended what happened, except
Marlow, and he decides not to because it would be too dark altogether while the District
Commissioner is blind to all that he sees. Both endings are ironic, in a way, as well. Certainly,
the Commissioner's closing about how he might be able to write a whole paragraph on Okonkwo
is ironic, because we have just experienced 200 pages of character development. To reduce
Okonkwo to a paragraph is as ironic as the Intended's eagerness to accept Marlow's falsehood.
Still, these ironies point out differences in the books' purposes. In the end, the district
commissioner represents those who don't think African culture is valuable, possibly out of
having not read the book. The intended's irony represents a final falsehood given to the
Europeans because they can't handle the truth. The implication is that the truth, and, by
extension, the actual events, would be bad for Europe. So the books' purposes are different. The
two books' endings are different. Their treatment of race is different. This is obvious.
Fundamentally, the two books are different. What is not obvious is that they serve fundamentally
different purposes. It is my hope that this essay has helped to make this idea clear-that the two
books, while they address similar topics, are, in fact, dissimilar.
Summary of both
Heart of Darkness and Things Fall Apart: Similarities and Differences
Heart of Darkness and Things Fall Apart are two novels by very different authors. Joseph
Conrad's 1899 novel, Heart of Darkness, tells the story of a European sailor travelling in the
Congo. Things Fall Apart, written by Chinua Achebe in 1958, focuses on a member of the Igbo
tribe in Nigeria. Both novels are commonly contrasted or compared to understand their
differences. Such comparison helps readers understand each work and how they address
real-world issues. For example, comparing the primary characters in each novel, one European
and one African sheds light on how writers portray Africa in literature. While both novels have
several similarities, they approach their subject matter differently. Contrasting both Hearts of
Darkness and Things Fall Apart in an essay should not just list differences and similarities but
explain their meaning through analysis.
Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart
Things Fall Apart follows Okonkwo, a man in Nigeria in the early 1900s who strives to show
that he is the strongest and most hard-working man. Okonkwo is a wrestler famous for never
surrendering. He wants to erase his father's legacy of unpaid debts and neglect. To that end,
Okonkwo works hard to build wealth for himself. He shows strength by beating his wives and
children and being unkind to everyone in an attempt to appear strong and manly.
As the story unfolds, the village elders select Okonkwo to care for Ikemefuna, a child taken in
from another tribe during a peace settlement. When Okonkwo cares for the boy, he is careful to
avoid compassion for fear it could be mistaken for weakness. Later, the Oracle says that
Ikemefuna must die, and the elders warn Okonkwo not to perform the murder because
Ikemefuna is his child. However, Okonkwo needs to feel strong and kills the child himself,
which causes him to fall into a deep depression.
Okonkwo begins to suffer from terrible luck, starting with his daughter falling ill and ending
with Okonkwo's gun misfiring and killing an elder's son. As punishment, the elders exile
Okonkwo and his family to a nearby village for seven years. During Okonkwo's exile, white men
arrive in the area and spread Christianity. Okonkwo's son converts after his father beats him
viciously, and villages everywhere must choose to appease the white men or resist.
Returning from exile, Okonkwo discovers that his village has changed radically with the arrival
of the white men. After a missionary interrupts a ceremony with one of the elders, the villagers
burn down a Christian church. Okonkwo and others are arrested, beaten, and humiliated by the
white men. Okonkwo tries to rally the village to fight back, but he finds that exposure to the
white men has made his people afraid to go to war. Before he can be arrested, Okonkwo hangs
himself. He dies with his reputation tarnished as he feared all his life.
Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness
In Heart of Darkness, Charles Marlow relates his adventures after taking a job to travel to the
Belgian Congo in the early 1900s. When Marlow arrives, he is quickly shocked at the inhumane
treatment of the native Africans by colonial powers. Marlow first hears of Kurtz, one of the
company's most famous agents, while waiting at a station inland. He learns that Kurtz brings in
more ivory than anyone else and is on the verge of promotion. When Marlow arrives at Central
Station, he hears rumours that Kurtz is ill. Marlow must wait to fix the boat that will take them
up the river to find Kurtz, and when he finally gets underway, the journey takes two months.
When they get near Kurtz's base, the ship enters a thick fog and is attacked. The helmsman is
killed, but the attackers are eventually scared away. A Russian, who wandered away from Kurt's
camp, tells Marlow that Kurtz has fashioned himself into a god for the natives. Combined with
the Russian's information, Marlow concludes that Kurtz has gone insane.
After arriving at the camp, Marlow finds the natives' severed heads mounted on posts as a
warning to others. Marlow finds Kurtz and sees that the man is both physically and mentally ill.
Kurtz's followers carry him out to meet Marlow, and Kurtz has to call off another attack when his
followers believe the new arrivals are threatening. Kurtz's activities have begun to hurt the
company, and Marlow learns that Kurtz believes the company wants him dead.
Marlow manages to get Kurtz onto the boat for the return trip. Still very sick, Kurtz dies after
giving Marlow records of his activities and uttering "The horror! The horror!" After returning to
Europe and reflecting on everything he saw, Marlow is disgusted by the supposed "civilized"
nations and their activities in Africa. He keeps Kurtz's papers and only gives a few to the
company. He gives the rest to a journalist to publish as he wishes. When Marlow meets Kurtz's
fiance, he lies and tells her that Kurtz's final words were about her.
Vishad Yoga ( Nigam Sir)

a) Shrimad Bhagavad Gita is a very popular and respected treatise in the Hindu religion. It
depicts the art of living comprehensively. It enjoys a very special place in the
philosophical treatises of the world. There has been end number of commentaries written
on Gita and endless Scholars have tried to interpret Gita from their own perspectives. It
has been translated into almost all the languages of the world.

b) Gita is a part of Mahabharata, it has enjoyed the status of an independent text of

importance. Gita has also been equated with ‘Upnishad’. The meaning of the word
‘Upanishad’ is – ‘Up – ni- sad’ – sitting by the side of. When the disciple sits by the side
of the teacher in true humility and with total surrender and asks questions with genuine
inquisitiveness – true knowledge and wisdom are attained.

c) Arjuna who is in a dilemma at the start of the war goes into total surrender to Lord
Krishna and asks him questions about his duty. The emphasis is also on the musical
quality of ‘Gita’ because the name itself suggests that Lord Krishna has ‘sung’ it – not
just narrated or preached it. At the end of all chapters, we find the word ‘Brahmvidyayam
Yogshashtre’. The true purpose of human life is to attain ‘ultimate knowledge’ –
‘Brahmvidya’

d) Gita also talks about Yoga – simply understanding yoga as explained by Krishna is to
perform the duties with excellence without hoping for rewards or worrying about the
consequences. Thus all chapters are given the suffix of ‘yoga’ – Vishad Yoga, Sankhya
Yoga, Karma Yoga etc.

e) Vishad Yoga is a chapter in the Bhagavad Gita, one of the most revered Hindu texts. It is
also known as the Yoga of Despondency, as it focuses on Arjuna's despair and grief on
the battlefield. This chapter is significant as it provides insight into the nature of suffering
and the path to spiritual enlightenment. Vishad Yoga is the longest chapter in the
Bhagavad Gita, with 47 verses in total.

f) At the beginning of the chapter, Arjuna is overcome with grief and despair as he sees his
relatives and friends on the opposing side of the battlefield. Arjuna is called ‘Gudakesh’
in this chapter. It means the person who has won oversleep, but at a metaphysical level, it
also means the person who is all the time alert. He is filled with doubt about the
righteousness of war and questions the purpose of his actions. In his despair, Arjuna turns
to Krishna, his charioteer, and mentor, for guidance.
g) Krishna, in response, provides Arjuna with a spiritual discourse, outlining the nature of
the self, the path to enlightenment, and the importance of fulfilling one's duty. Krishna
explains that the true nature of the self is eternal and indestructible and that the body and
mind are temporary and subject to change.

h) Krishna then teaches Arjuna about the path to enlightenment, which involves renouncing
attachment to the material world and focusing on the self. He explains that one must act
without attachment to the results of their actions, as this leads to liberation from
suffering.

i) Finally, Krishna emphasizes the importance of fulfilling one's duty or dharma. He

explains that every person has a unique role to play in the world and that by performing
one's duties with detachment, one can achieve spiritual liberation.

j) The teachings of Vishad Yoga have profound implications for our understanding of
suffering and the human condition. The chapter emphasizes the impermanence of the
material world and the importance of focusing on the self. It also highlights the idea that
suffering is a natural part of life, but that it can be overcome through spiritual practice.

k) Moreover, Vishad Yoga teaches us about the importance of fulfilling our duty, no matter
how difficult it may seem. By performing our duties with detachment and without
attachment to the results, we can achieve a higher state of consciousness and find
meaning in our lives.

l) In a way, the entire monologue of Arjuna is also the existential hypothesis. In the extreme
attachment and bewilderment, Arjuna is asking ‘Why I am here” and what is the
significance of the actions? Arjuna’s problem is that he considers ‘his own’ and ‘other’
people differently. In this light, both Dhritrashtra and Arjuna are the same – blind with
possessiveness, the only difference is that Arjuna is open-minded to learn and he has
Krishna by his side.

m) The teachings of Vishad Yoga have influenced many prominent figures throughout
history, including Mahatma Gandhi, who saw the chapter as a source of inspiration and
guidance in his struggle for Indian independence. In addition to its spiritual and
philosophical significance, Vishad Yoga is also seen as a work of great literary merit,
with its poetry and imagery inspiring many artists and writers over the centuries.

n) The chapter has been the subject of numerous commentaries and interpretations, with
scholars and spiritual teachers offering their own insights into its meaning and
significance.
o) Overall, Vishad Yoga is a rich and complex chapter that offers a powerful message of
hope and liberation to those who seek spiritual enlightenment. Its teachings continue to
inspire and guide people around the world, making it one of the most influential and
beloved works of Hindu literature.

p) In conclusion, Vishad Yoga is a profound chapter in the Bhagavad Gita that provides
valuable insights into the nature of suffering and the path to spiritual enlightenment. Its
teachings continue to inspire and guide people around the world, offering a powerful
message of hope and liberation from the cycle of suffering.
The Old Man and The Sea by Earnest Hemingway

Background of the Age: "The Old Man and the Sea" was published in 1952, during the
post-World War II era in the United States, a time marked by economic growth and social
change. Hemingway's novel about an ageing fisherman's epic battle with a marlin struck a chord
with readers and became an instant classic.

About the Author: Ernest Hemingway was an American novelist, short-story writer, and
journalist. He was a prominent figure of the Lost Generation literary movement (it was a literary
movement that emerged after World War I, consisting of writers and artists who experienced
disillusionment and loss of faith in traditional values and institutions) and won the Pulitzer Prize
in 1953 for "The Old Man and the Sea." Hemingway's work often dealt with themes of
masculinity, violence, and the human struggle against nature.

Summary of the Text: "The Old Man and the Sea" tells the story of an ageing Cuban fisherman
named Santiago who catches a giant marlin but struggles to bring it back to shore as sharks
attack the fish. Despite his physical exhaustion and the relentless attacks of the sharks, Santiago
remains determined to bring the marlin home. The novel explores themes of perseverance,
determination, and the struggle against the forces of nature.

The novel's portrayal of an individualistic hero fighting against overwhelming odds also
reflected the prevailing cultural and political climate of the Cold War era. The book's heroism
and the triumph of the human spirit in the face of adversity struck a chord with readers during
this period of political and social tension.

In addition to its literary and cultural significance, "The Old Man and the Sea" also had an
economic impact. It became a bestseller and was widely translated, contributing to Hemingway's
personal fortune and his status as a literary icon.

The book's success also helped to establish the modern publishing industry's focus on bestsellers
and popular literature. Overall, "The Old Man and the Sea" has had a lasting impact on literature,
culture, and society, and it continues to be celebrated as one of Hemingway's most enduring
works.

The major themes explored in "The Old Man and the Sea" include:

1. Perseverance: The novel explores the importance of persistence and determination in

achieving one's goals. Despite facing seemingly insurmountable obstacles, the old man,
Santiago, continues to pursue his goal of catching the marlin.
2. The struggle against nature: Hemingway portrays nature as an indifferent and often
hostile force that humans must struggle against. Santiago's epic battle with the marlin and
the sharks highlights the fragility of human life and the power of nature.
3. The cycle of life and death: The novel explores the idea that life is a cycle of birth,
growth, decay, and death. Santiago's reverence for the marlin and his determination to
bring it back to shore even after it has been killed reflects his respect for the cycle of life
and death.
4. Heroism: The novel portrays Santiago as a hero who embodies the values of courage,
strength, and perseverance. His struggle against the marlin and the sharks is a heroic
quest that inspires admiration and respect from the other characters in the novel.
5. Isolation and loneliness: The novel also explores the theme of isolation and loneliness.
Santiago's solitary existence as a fisherman and his struggles on the sea highlights the
emotional toll of isolation and the importance of human connection.
Sultana’s Dream and Padmarag by Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain

Background of the Age: Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain was a Bengali writer, feminist, and social
activist who lived during the late 19th and early 20th century in British India. During this period,
India was undergoing major socio-political changes, with British colonialism and the rise of
Indian nationalism shaping the cultural and intellectual landscape. Hossain was a pioneering
figure in this context, advocating for women's rights and education, and challenging social norms
and gender roles through her writings.

About the Author: Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain was born in today Bangladesh. She was raised in
a conservative Muslim family and had limited access to formal education. However, she learned
to read and write in Bengali and English with the help of her elder brother.

Summary of the Text: Sultana's Dream and Padmarag are two short stories by Rokeya
Sakhawat Hossain that challenge patriarchal norms and imagine alternative futures for women.
Sultana's Dream is a utopian tale set in a world where women have created a society free from
male domination. The protagonist, Sultana, visits this world in a dream and sees women living in
a peaceful and prosperous community where they have access to education, science, and
technology. In contrast, Padmarag is a realist story that depicts the struggles of a young woman
named Manikuntala, who is forced into a loveless marriage and faces social ostracism for
seeking education and independence. Through these stories, Hossain highlights the importance
of education and empowerment for women and critiques the oppressive gender norms of her
time.

Socio-Politico-Economic Impact: Hossain's works contributed to the discourse on women's

rights in India and beyond, highlighting the role of education in women's empowerment and
challenging traditional gender roles.

Cultural Impact: Sultana's Dream and Padmarag provide insight into the cultural and social life
of Bengali women, highlighting their struggles and agency, and have become influential in
shaping the Bengali literary tradition.

Literary Impact: Sultana's Dream is considered a seminal work of feminist science fiction, while
Padmarag is a realist story that has had a significant impact on feminist literature in South Asia.

1. Education: Both stories emphasize the importance of education in women's lives.

Sultana's Dream imagines a world where women have access to education, science, and
technology, while Padmarag depicts the struggles of a young woman who faces social
ostracism for seeking education and independence.
2. Gender Roles: Hossain challenges traditional gender roles and norms in both stories. In
Sultana's Dream, women have reversed their roles and are in control, while in Padmarag,
the protagonist challenges societal expectations of women's roles in marriage and
motherhood.
3. Feminism: Both stories have a feminist perspective and highlight the need for women's
empowerment and equality. They question patriarchal structures and highlight the agency
and resilience of women in the face of oppression.
4. Utopia and Dystopia: Sultana's Dream imagines a utopian world where women have
created a society free from male domination, while Padmarag portrays a dystopian reality
where women face social ostracism and oppression.
5. Freedom and Independence: Both stories depict the struggle for women's freedom and
independence. In Sultana's Dream, women have achieved independence and are free to
pursue their interests, while in Padmarag, the protagonist seeks freedom from the
constraints of societal expectations.
The Garlic Ballads by Mo Yan

Background of the Age: The Garlic Ballads was published in 1988 in China, a time marked by
political and social upheaval, economic reforms, and intellectual debate. The novel reflects the
tensions and contradictions of the era, as the government attempted to modernize the economy
while suppressing dissent and maintaining control over society. The Garlic Ballads is a critique
of the government's agricultural policies and their impact on rural communities.

About the Author: Mo Yan is a Chinese writer who was born in 1955. He is one of the most
celebrated and controversial Chinese authors, known for his vivid descriptions of rural life and
his exploration of Chinese history and culture. Mo Yan's works often address political and social
issues, and he has been criticized for his ambiguous stance on government censorship.

Summary of the Text: The Garlic Ballads is a novel that tells the story of a small town in China
that relies on garlic farming as its primary industry. When the government's agricultural policies
cause a surplus of garlic, the farmers are left with unsold crops and no means of support. This
leads to protests and a violent crackdown by the government, resulting in the deaths of several
characters. The novel explores themes such as corruption, oppression, and resistance, and offers
a scathing critique of the Chinese government's agricultural policies. The Garlic Ballads is
known for its powerful imagery, complex characters, and vivid portrayal of rural life in China.

1. Socio-political impact: The novel critiqued the Chinese government's agricultural policies
and their impact on rural communities, leading to a wider discussion of government
policies and their consequences. It also portrayed the struggle of the rural farmers against
the oppressive government and helped raise awareness of issues facing rural communities
in China.
2. Economic impact: The Garlic Ballads highlighted the impact of government policies on
the agricultural industry and the difficulties faced by small-scale farmers. It helped bring
attention to the economic struggles of rural communities and the need for government
support.
3. Cultural impact: The novel portrayed the traditions and values of rural Chinese culture
and the tension between traditional ways of life and the forces of modernization. It also
highlighted the importance of cultural identity and its impact on individuals' lives.
4. Literary impact: The Garlic Ballads is regarded as a significant work of contemporary
Chinese literature and has been translated into many languages. It helped establish Mo
Yan as a major figure in Chinese literature and contributed to the growth of contemporary
Chinese literature on the global stage.
Some major themes explored in The Garlic Ballads by Mo Yan are:

1. Oppression and resistance: The novel depicts the struggles of rural farmers against
oppressive government policies and corruption. It portrays the effects of government
policies on people's lives, and their efforts to resist these policies and fight for their
rights.
2. Power and corruption: The novel exposes the corrupt practices of local government
officials and the impact of their actions on ordinary citizens. It also explores the ways in
which power can be abused and the consequences of such abuse.
3. Identity and culture: The novel explores the tensions between traditional rural culture and
the forces of modernization. It also examines the role of cultural identity in shaping
individuals' lives and their relationships with others.
4. Environmental degradation: The novel highlights the environmental impact of
industrialization and the consequences of ignoring environmental issues. It portrays the
destruction of natural resources and the impact of pollution on people's lives.
5. Human suffering: The novel portrays the hardships and struggles of the characters in their
daily lives and the impact of their suffering on their families and communities. It also
explores the theme of sacrifice and the lengths to which people will go to protect their
loved ones.
Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy

Background of the Age: Anna Karenina was published in 1877 during the late 19th century in
Russia, a time marked by political and social upheaval, economic growth, and intellectual
debate. It was a time of rapid industrialization and urbanization, as well as a time of censorship
and political repression under the Tsarist regime. The novel reflects the tensions and
contradictions of the era and offers a critique of the rigid social and moral codes of the Russian
aristocracy.

About the Author: Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) was a Russian writer and philosopher, considered
one of the greatest novelists of all time. He was born into an aristocratic family and served in the
Russian army before becoming a writer. Tolstoy's works explore themes such as love, family,
morality, and spirituality, and his writing style is known for its realism and psychological depth.
Tolstoy was also an influential thinker and social reformer, advocating for nonviolent resistance
and the rejection of materialism.

Summary of the Text: Anna Karenina is a novel that follows the tragic story of Anna, a married
woman who falls in love with a young officer, Count Vronsky. As their affair unfolds, Anna's
personal and societal pressures intensify, leading to her tragic end. The novel also explores the
lives of several other characters, including Konstantin Levin, a wealthy landowner who struggles
to find meaning in his life. Anna Karenina is considered a masterpiece of world literature, known
for its complex characters, rich themes, and powerful prose.

Some major themes explored in Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy are:

1. Love and relationships: The novel explores the complexities of romantic relationships
and the consequences of pursuing forbidden love. It also examines the different forms of
love, such as romantic love, familial love, and platonic love.
2. Social class and inequality: The novel exposes the inequalities and injustices of the social
hierarchy in 19th-century Russia. It also highlights the tension between the traditional
aristocracy and the rising middle class.
1. Morality and ethics: Anna Karenina raises questions about the nature of morality and the
conflict between personal desires and societal expectations. It also examines the
consequences of moral transgressions and the role of forgiveness and redemption.
2. Gender roles and expectations: The novel portrays the limitations placed on women in
society and the ways in which they are judged and punished for breaking social norms. It
also challenges traditional notions of masculinity and femininity.
3. Religion and spirituality: The novel explores the search for meaning and purpose in life,
and the role of religion and spirituality in shaping one's worldview. It also critiques the
institutionalized religion of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Socio-politico-economic: The novel critiques the aristocratic society of imperial Russia and
exposes the hypocrisies and corruption of the ruling class. The work also explores themes of
social inequality, poverty, and the role of women in society.

Cultural: Anna Karenina is considered one of the greatest novels in world literature and has
become an iconic work of Russian culture. The novel has been adapted into numerous stage
plays, operas, and films, which have further cemented its place in popular culture.

Literary: The novel is a masterpiece of realistic fiction and is renowned for its vivid
characterizations, intricate plot, and deep psychological insights. Tolstoy's innovative use of
narrative techniques, including his use of free indirect discourse and his skilful handling of
multiple points of view, has influenced generations of writers.
Lord of the Flies by William Golding

Background of the Age: Lord of the Flies by William Golding was published in 1954, during the
post-World War II period in Britain. The aftermath of the war and the rise of atomic weapons had
shaken people's faith in humanity and led to a sense of pessimism about the future. Golding's
novel reflects this sense of anxiety and disillusionment, exploring the darkness that can lurk
beneath the surface of civilization.

About the Author: William Golding was a British novelist, playwright, and poet. He was born in
1911 and served in the Royal Navy during World War II. His experiences during the war had a
profound impact on his writing, shaping his themes and perspectives. Golding was awarded the
Nobel Prize in Literature in 1983 and is widely regarded as one of the greatest writers of the 20th
century.

Summary of the Text: Lord of the Flies is a novel about a group of boys who become stranded on
a deserted island and must fend for themselves without any adult supervision. As they struggle to
survive, they quickly devolve into savagery, with their primal instincts taking over and leading to
violence and chaos. The novel explores themes of human nature, morality, power, and the
dangers of unchecked authority. It is a powerful critique of the darker aspects of human behavior
and the fragility of civilization.

1. Socio-political impact: The novel explores the theme of power and the dangers of
unchecked authority. It can be interpreted as a critique of authoritarian governments and
the dangers of totalitarianism, which were significant concerns during the post-World
War II period.
2. Economic impact: The novel does not directly address economic issues, but it does
explore the survival instincts that can arise in desperate situations. It raises questions
about the role of competition and cooperation in society and the impact of resource
scarcity on human behaviour.
3. Cultural impact: Lord of the Flies is a powerful work of literature that has had a
significant impact on the cultural consciousness of the time. It has been adapted for film,
television, and stage, and has inspired numerous other works of literature, film, and art. It
has become a widely studied and analyzed text in academic settings, contributing to the
development of new critical perspectives and approaches to literature.
4. Literary impact: The novel is regarded as a classic work of literature and has had a
profound influence on subsequent literary movements. It helped establish Golding as one
of the greatest writers of his time and has inspired countless writers and artists around the
world.
Lord of the Flies by William Golding explores several major themes, including:

1. Human Nature: The novel examines the inherent nature of human beings and suggests
that people are capable of both good and evil. The characters in the novel represent
different aspects of human nature, from the rational and reasonable to the violent and
impulsive.
2. Power and Authority: The novel explores the dynamics of power and the dangers of
unchecked authority. It shows how the boys' struggle for power leads to violence,
division, and ultimately the breakdown of their society.
3. Morality: The novel raises questions about morality and the ethical implications of
actions in desperate situations. The characters' moral compasses are tested as they
struggle to survive on the island, and their actions have lasting consequences.
4. Civilization: The novel examines the fragility of civilization and suggests that it is only a
thin veneer over the primal instincts that drive human behaviour. The boys' descent into
savagery demonstrates how quickly society can break down in the absence of law and
order.
5. Innocence and Experience: The novel contrasts the innocence of childhood with the harsh
realities of the adult world. The boys' loss of innocence as they confront the realities of
survival and violence is a central theme of the novel.
The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam translated by Edward Fitzgerald

Background of the Age: The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam was translated by Edward Fitzgerald
in the mid-19th century, a period marked by significant cultural, social, and political changes.
The Victorian era was characterized by the expansion of the British Empire, industrialization,
and significant advancements in science, technology, and literature.

About the Author: Edward Fitzgerald was an English poet and translator who is best known for
his translation of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Born in 1809, Fitzgerald was part of a group
of writers and artists known as the Pre-Raphaelites. He published several volumes of poetry
during his lifetime but is best remembered for his translation work.

Summary of the Text: The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is a collection of poetry attributed to
the 12th-century Persian poet Omar Khayyam. The collection consists of quatrains, or rubaiyat,
that explore themes of love, mortality, and the meaning of life. Fitzgerald's translation of the
work is known for its lyrical quality and has been widely read and celebrated for its beauty and
depth of meaning. The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam has been a source of inspiration for
generations of readers and has had a significant impact on literature, music, and art.

Socio-Politico-Economic Impact: The translation was published during the Victorian era, a time
of British imperial expansion and industrialization. The Rubaiyat's themes of mortality and the
transience of life resonated with the Victorian audience, who were grappling with the changes
brought on by industrialization and modernity.

Cultural Impact: Fitzgerald's translation of The Rubaiyat introduced Western readers to Persian
literature and culture, expanding their knowledge of the world beyond their own borders. The
work's themes of love and the search for meaning in life have inspired generations of readers and
artists and influenced several literary movements, including the Beat Generation in the 1950s.

Literary Impact: Fitzgerald's translation of The Rubaiyat is considered a masterpiece of English

literature and has had a lasting impact on poetry and literature. Its lyrical style and themes have
influenced several poets, including T.S. Eliot and Robert Frost. The work's popularity also
sparked a trend of translation and adaptation of Persian literature into English, further enriching
the literary world.

The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam translated by Edward Fitzgerald explores several major themes,
including:

1. Mortality and the transience of life: The work reflects on the brevity of human life and
the inevitability of death. This theme is expressed through the recurring image of the
"wine of life," which represents the fleeting nature of human existence.
2. Love and desire: The Rubaiyat celebrates the joys of love and the pleasures of the flesh,
emphasizing the importance of living life to the fullest and enjoying its pleasures.
 3. The search for meaning: The work explores the human quest for knowledge and
understanding, suggesting that ultimate truths may be elusive and unknowable.
4. Nature and the universe: The Rubaiyat often contemplates the beauty and wonder of the
natural world, depicting it as a source of both joy and melancholy.
5. Spirituality and religion: While the work does not espouse any particular religious
doctrine, it does express a sense of reverence for the divine and a belief in the power of
faith to bring solace and comfort to human beings.

Overall, The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam translated by Edward Fitzgerald is a contemplative

work that grapples with the big questions of life, death, love, and spirituality and continues to
resonate with readers today.