Multiple Intelligences (MI) Multiple Intelligences is a model of intelligence that

differentiates intelligence into specific modalities, rather than seeing intelligence as

dominated by a single general ability. Howard Gardner propounded the theory of multiple

intelligences in 1983. Gardner believed that a major problem in schools as they are organized

and operated today is that they tend to restrict much of their curriculum and teaching to the

linguistic and logical-mathematical dimensions of intelligence (Owens and Valesky, 2007).

Every individual has an element of each of the intelligences (Okebukola, 2002). However,

individuals are smarter in one or two of these intelligences. Teachers through keen

observation of learners’ activities should figure out which type of intelligence a learner is

more gifted with and go on to determine ways of incorporating teaching strategies suitable for

these intelligences into his or her lessons so that every child will benefit from the lesson. This

conception of intelligence as multiple rather than singular forms the primary distinction

between MI theory and the conception of intelligence that dominates Western psychological

theory and much of common discourse. While some contemporary scholars have asserted that

intelligence is influenced by environmental factors (Cole, 1998; Neisser, 1996 Nisbet 2008),

many proponents of the concept of general intelligence conceive of intelligence as an innate

trait with which one is born and which one can therefore do little to change (Eysenck, 1994;

Herrnstein and Murray, 1994; lxvii Jensen, 1998). In contrast, MI theory conceives of

intelligence as a combination of heritable potentials and skills that can be developed in

diverse ways through relevant experiences (Gardner, 1983). For instance, one individual

might be born with a high intellectual potential in the bodilykinaesthetic sphere that allows

him or her to master the intricate steps of a ballet performance with relative ease. For another

individual, achieving similar expertise in the domain of ballet requires many additional hours

of study and practice. Both individuals are capable of becoming strong performers (experts)

in a domain that draws on their bodily-kinesthetic intelligence; however, the pathways along
which they travel in order to become strong performers may as well differ quantitatively (in

terms of speed) and perhaps qualitatively (in terms of process). MI theory is not the only

theory to conceive intelligence as pluralistic. Among others, Thorndike, Bregman, Cobb, &

Woodyard (1927) conceived of intelligence as the sum of three parts: abstract intelligence,

mechanical intelligence, and social intelligence. Thurstone (1938) argued that intelligence

could better be understood as consisting of seven primary abilities. Guilford & Hoepfner

(1971) conceptualized intelligence as consisting of four content categories; five operational

categories; and six product categories; he ultimately proposed 150 different intellectual

faculties. Sternberg (1990) offered a diarchic theory of intelligence that identified analytic,

creative, and practical intelligences. Finally, Ceci (1996) described multiple intelligences as

cognitive potentials that allow knowledge to be acquired and relationships between concepts

and ideas to be considered. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, however, is perhaps

the best known of these pluralistic theories. This notoriety is due to the sources of evidence

on which Gardner drew, and, in part, to its enthusiastic embrace by the educational

community (Armstrong, 2000 and Shearer, 2004). Many hundreds of schools across the globe

have incorporated MI principles into their mission, curriculum, and pedagogy; and hundreds

of books have been written (in numerous languages) on the lxviii relevance of MI theory to

educators and educational institutions (Chen, Moran, & Gardner, 2009). The conception of

intelligence as pluralistic grew out of Gardner’s observation that individuals who

demonstrated substantial talent in domains as diverse as chess, music, athletics, politics, and

entrepreneurship possessed capacities in these domains that should be accounted for in

conceptualizing intelligence. Accordingly, in developing MI theory and its broader

characterization of intelligence, Gardner did not focus on the creation and interpretation of

psychometric instruments. Rather, Gardner drew upon research findings from evolutionary

biology, neuroscience, anthropology, psychometrics and psychological studies of prodigies

and savants (Armstrong, 2000). Through synthesis of relevant research across these fields,

Gardner established several criteria for identification of a unique intelligence thus: • It should

be seen in relative isolation in prodigies, autistic savants, stroke victims or other exceptional

populations. In other words, certain individuals should demonstrate particularly high or low

levels of a particular capacity in contrast to other capacities.

• It should have a distinct neural representation that is, neural structure and functioning

should be distinguishable from that of other major human faculties. • It should have a distinct

developmental trajectory. That is, different intelligences should develop at different rates and

along paths, which are distinctive.

• It should have some basis in evolutionary biology. In other words, intelligence ought to

have a previous instantiation in primate or other species and putative survival value. • It

should be susceptible to capture in symbol systems, of the sort used in formal or informal

education.

• It should be supported by evidence from psychometric tests of intelligence.

• It should be distinguishable from other intelligences through experimental psychological

tasks.

• It should demonstrate a core, information-processing system. That is, there should be

identifiable mental processes that handle information related to each intelligence (Gardner,

1984). Drawing on these criteria, Gardner initially identified seven intelligences. However, in

the mid1990s, Gardner concluded that an eighth intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, met the

criteria for identification as intelligence as well. Naturalistic intelligence allows individuals to

identify and distinguish among products of the natural world such as animals, plants, types of

rocks, and weather patterns (Gardner, 1999). Meteorologists, botanists, and zoologists are all
professions in which one would likely find individuals who demonstrate high levels of

naturalistic intelligence. In a world where this particular skill is less important for survival

than it was in earlier times, naturalistic capacities are brought to bear in making consequential

distinctions with respect to manmade objects displayed in a consumer society. These eight

intelligences can be defined and summarized thus:

• Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence refers to an individual’s mastery in using language

competently for communication and expression. Armstrong (2000) offers a comprehensive

definition of linguistic competence as the capacity to use words effectively, whether orally or

in writing. This intelligence includes the ability to manipulate the syntax or structures of

language, the phonology of language, the semantics or meaning of language and pragmatic

dimension or practical uses of language. It is also the ability to analyze information and

create products involving oral and written language such as speeches, books, and memos. The

techniques and materials that can be employed in teaching to improve multiple intelligence

are: lectures, debates; large- and small-group discussions; books, worksheets, manuals;

brainstorming; writing activities; word games; sharing time; storytelling, speeches, reading to

class; talking books and cassettes; extemporaneous speaking; journal keeping; choral reading;

individualized reading; memorizing linguistic facts; tape recording one's words; using word

processors and publishing (e.g., creating class newspapers). The teacher can assess this

intelligence by asking the students to make oral reports and give writing presentations of the

respiratory system. •

Logical-Mathematics Intelligence refers to the capacity to use numbers effectively and to

reason well. This intelligence includes sensitivity to use numbers effectively well, sensitivity

to logical patterns and relationships, statement and propositions, functions and other related

abstractions. The kind of processes used in the service of logical-mathematical intelligences

includes: categorization, classification, inference, generalization, calculation and hypotheses

testing. It is an ability to develop equations and proofs, make calculations, and solve abstract

problems. People who lean toward this intelligence tend to do well in math classes, and

typically are good problem solvers. Hirsh (2004) stated that mathematical intelligence

involves a process. A problem must be identified, recognized as something worth solving, an

algorithm is then identified and/or created, and a solution is attempted. Intelligence in this

area requires a true understanding of how mathematics and logic work in the real world, in

everyday life. Understanding the why in mathematics truly indicates an understanding of

mathematic processes. Individuals with heightened logical-mathematical intelligence are also

found to be proficient in recognizing patterns and relationships, making generalizations, and

using the scientific method to form hypotheses, and come to conclusions. The techniques and

materials that can be employed in teaching through the multiple intelligence are:

Mathematical problems on the board; Socratic questioning; scientific demonstrations; logical

problem-solving exercises; creating codes; logic puzzles and games; classifications and

categorizations; quantifications and calculations; computer programming languages; science

thinking; logical-sequential presentation of subject matter; Piagetian cognitive stretching

exercises and Heuristic. For example the teacher can instill this intelligence among students

by asking the differentiate between two related concepts e.g. Aerobic and anaerobic

respiration.

• Visual-Spatial Intelligences refers to the capacity to think visually, orient oneself spatially,

and see the visual spatial world clearly and to execute transformations on one’s initial

perceptions. The intelligence includes sensitivity to colour, line, shape, form, space and the

relationships that exist between these elements. It includes the capacity to visualize, to

graphically represent visual or spatial ideas and to orient oneself appropriately in a spatial

matrix. It is also an ability to recognize and manipulate large-scale and fine-grained spatial

images. Architects, painters, filmmakers, and even navigators are people who are found to
have high levels of spatial intelligence, sometimes referred to as visual intelligence. Spatial

intelligence is referred to as “the ability to think in pictures, to perceive the visual world

accurately, and recreate (or alter) it in the mind or on paper” (Guigon, 1998). Many times,

they are referred to as having an eye for “something”. It could refer to any number of things.

Filmmakers and photographers have an eye for taking beautiful photographs or shooting

amazing movies. Painters and sculptors know how to take reality and portray them on canvas,

in marble, or in clay. A chess player with heightened visual intelligence can see hundreds of

moves available on a chessboard without moving a single piece. There are many career

opportunities for people who are gifted with this intelligence. The techniques and materials

that can be employed in teaching through the multiple intelligence are: Charts, graphs,

diagrams, and maps; visualization; photography; videos, slides, and movies; lxxii visual

puzzles and mazes; 3-D construction kits; art appreciation; imaginative storytelling; picture

metaphors; creative daydreaming; painting, collage, visual arts; idea sketching; visual

thinking exercises; graphic symbols; using mind-maps and other visual organizers; computer

graphics software; visual awareness activities; optical illusions; colour cues; telescopes,

microscopes, and binoculars; visual awareness activities; draw-and-paint/computer- assisted-

design software and picture literacy experiences

• Bodily-Kinesthetic refers to the adeptness to comprehend the world through body

experience, to express ideas and emotions and communicate with others physically.

Armstrong (2000) describes bodily kinaesthetic intelligence as having expertise in using ones

whole body to express ideas and feelings and ability in using one’s hand to produce or

transform things. This intelligence includes specific physical skills as coordinate, balance,

dexterity, strength, flexibility and speed as well as tactile and hepatic capacities. It is also an

ability to use one’s own body to create products or solve problems. Those who have this

bodily intelligence are able to use their body in numerous ways to perform any number of
skills. Wright (2003) described bodily intelligence in this way; this is the ability to solve

problems or fashion products using one's body. People such as dancers, athletes, surgeons,

artisans, and musicians exhibit highly developed bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. These

people usually exhibit skills such as good timing, excellent fine motor skills, and many times

a good sense of direction. Dancers typically display both excellent abilities in kinesthetic

movement, as well as touches of musical intelligence. Not only do dancers need to know how

to use their body to tell stories and communicate ideas through movement, but also they must

be able to do this with music. This requires being able to establish tempo, rhythms, and

timing movements to line up with certain sections of the song. The best example of

individuals skilled in both kinaesthetic intelligence lxxiii and musical intelligence are those

who dance professional ballet. The techniques and materials that can be employed in teaching

through the multiple intelligence are: Creative movement, mime; hands-on thinking; field

trips; the classroom teacher; competitive and cooperative games; physical awareness and

relaxation exercises; all hands-on activities; crafts; body maps; use of kinesthetic imagery;

cooking, gardening, and other "messy" activities; manipulative; virtual reality software;

kinesthetic concepts; physical education activities; communicating with body language/ hand

signals; tactile materials and experiences and body answers.

• Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence includes receptiveness to pitch, timbre and rhythm and

sensitivity to music. It also includes such abilities to take cognizance of tonal patterns and

rhyme, awareness of sound such as human, animal, environment sounds and musical

instruments. Armstrong (2000) also provides us with some of the capacities to perceive,

dominate, transform and express musical form. It is also an ability to produce, remember, and

make meaning of different patterns of sound. The techniques and materials that can be

employed in teaching through the musical intelligence are: Musical concepts; singing,

humming, whistling; playing recorded music; playing live music on piano, guitar, or other
instruments; group singing; mood music; music appreciation; playing percussion instruments;

rhythms, songs, raps, chants; using background music; linking old tunes with concepts;

discographies; creating new melodies for concepts; listening to inner musical imagery; music

software and super memory music. For example in teaching the characteristics of living

things in biology, the teacher can make an acronym with the first letter of each of the

characteristics thus: MR NIGER D, meaning movement, respiration, nutrition, irritability,

growth, Excretion and reproduction and death. The teacher can also compose a song with the

acronyms to create fun and retention of knowledge in the classroom.

• Interpersonal Intelligence includes the individual’s capacity to understand, perceive and

discriminate between people, mood, feelings, motives, and intentions; Armstrong (2000)

provides further definition of interpersonal intelligence to include the ability to perceive and

make distinctions in the moods, intentions, motivations, and feelings of other people. This

includes sensitivity to facial expression, voice and gestures; the capacity for discriminating

among many different kind of interpersonal cues and ability to respond effectively to those

cues in a pragmatic way. It is also an ability to recognize and understand other people’s

moods, desires, motivations, and intentions. Most people indentified as leaders are considered

to have interpersonal intelligence. They are able to listen and relate to people, and make

decisions based not only their own agenda, but on others. Parents, teachers, mental health

professionals, and in many cases clergymen and government leaders are found to have good

interpersonal relations. The techniques and materials that can be employed in teaching

through the multiple intelligences are: Cooperative groups; interpersonal interaction; conflict

mediation; peer teaching; board games; cross-age tutoring; group brainstorming sessions;

peer sharing; community involvement; apprenticeships; simulations; academic clubs;

interactive software; parties / social gatherings as context for learning and people sculpting.
• Intrapersonal Intelligence refers to the capacity to accurately know oneself, have ability to

understand ones internal makeup; and some words that reflects levels of temperament,

inspiration, motivation. This intelligence includes having an accurate picture of oneself;

awareness of inner moods intentions, motivations, temperament and desires; and the capacity

for self-discipline, selfunderstanding and self-esteem. It is also an ability to recognize and

understand one’s own moods, desires, motivations, and intentions. Intrapersonal intelligence

“entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and

motivations” (Smith, 2008). Those who are considered to be more intrapersonal are very

aware of their own feelings, like being alone, and are capable of lxxv setting and meeting

certain goals. The techniques and materials that can be employed in teaching through the

multiple intelligence are: Independent study; feeling-toned moments; self-paced instruction;

individualized projects and games; private spaces for study; one-minute reflection periods;

interest centers; personal connections; options for homework; choice time; self-teaching

programmed instruction; exposure to inspirational/ motivational curricula; self-esteem

activities; journal keeping and goal setting sessions.

• Naturalist Intelligence refers to pursuing, comprehending and marshalling patterns in the

world, seeing order instead of chaos and who shows proficiency in the recognition and

classification of plants and animals. It is also an ability to identify and distinguish among

different types of plants, animals, and weather formations that are found in the natural world.

Wilson (1998) postulated that naturalist intelligence deals with sensing patterns in and

making connections to elements in nature. Using this same intelligence, people possessing

enhanced levels of this intelligence may also be very interested in other species, or in the

environment and the earth. Children possessing this type of intelligence may have a strong

affinity to the outside world or to animals, and this interest often begins at an early age. They

may enjoy subjects, shows and stories that deal with animals or natural phenomena.
Alternatively, they may show unusual interest in subjects like biology, zoology, botany,

geology, meteorology, paleontology, or astronomy. The techniques and materials that can be

employed in teaching through the multiple intelligence are: colour cues; telescopes,

microscopes, and binoculars; visual awareness activities; peer teaching; board games; field

trips as context for learning; private spaces for study; interest centers; exposure to

inspirational/ motivational curricula; tactile materials and experiences; lectures, debates;

large- and small-group discussions; sharing of stories that deal with animals or natural

phenomena and use of charts that has plant and animal drawings.

In describing intelligence(s) as pluralistic, MI theory conceives of individuals as possessing a

profile of intelligences in where they demonstrate varying levels of strengths and weakness

for each of the eight intelligences. It is a misstatement within the MI framework, then, to

characterize an individual as possessing “no” capacity for a particular intelligence (Gardner,

1999). Individuals may certainly demonstrate low levels of a particular intelligence, but,

except in cases involving severe congenital or acquired brain damage, all individuals possess

the full range of intelligences. It would be equally inaccurate within the MI framework,

however, to assert that everyone demonstrates superiority or giftedness in at least one of the

intelligences (Gardner, 1999). As a pluralistic theory, the fundamental assertion of MI theory

is that individuals demonstrate variation in their levels of strength and weakness across the

intelligences. However,, this variation does not mean that every individual will necessarily

demonstrate superior aptitude in one or more of the intelligences. Gardner also accentuated

two primary claims: l) All individuals possess the full range of intelligences - the

intelligences are what define human beings, cognitively speaking; 2) No two individuals, not

even identical twins, exhibit precisely the same profile of intellectual strengths and

weaknesses. These constitute the principal scientific claims of the theory. Below is a

diagrammatic expression of multiple intelligences Figure 7: A Diagramatic Expression of

Multiple Intelligences lxxvii Sources: Multiple intelligences: New horizons (Gardner, 2006)

questions about the existence of things, which could involve believe about religion.