Food Chemistry 233 (2017) 77–84

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Effect of traditional Chinese cooking methods on fatty acid profiles

of vegetable oils
Yamin Cui a,1, Pengfei Hao b,1, Bingjie Liu a, Xianghong Meng a,⇑
a
College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
b
Technical Center for Inspection & Quarantine of SDCIQ, Qingdao 266002, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 30 November 2016
Received in revised form 7 April 2017
Accepted 15 April 2017
Available online 19 April 2017
Chemical compounds studied in this article:
Oleic acid (PubChem CID: 5368719)
Linoleic acid (PubChem CID: 5280450)
Linolenic acid (PubChem CID: 5280934)
The effect of four frying processes (vegetable salad, stir frying, pan frying, and deep frying) on fatty acid
composition of ten vegetable oils (peanut oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, corn oil, sunflower seed oil, rice
bran oil, olive oil, sesame oil, linseed oil, and peony seed oil) was investigated using GC–MS. The result
showed that trans-fatty acid (TFA) was produced during all processes. Rapeseed oil had the highest
TFA content in vegetable salad oil with 2.88% of total fatty acid. The TFA content of sunflower seed oil
was 0.00% in vegetable salad oil, however, after stir frying and pan frying, it increased to 1.53% and
1.29%, respectively. Peanut oil had the lowest TFA content after deep frying for 12 h with 0.74 mg/g. It
was concluded that a healthy cooking process could be acquired by a scientific collocation.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Fatty acid
trans-Fatty acid
Frying process
Vegetable oils
GC–MS

1. Introduction ancient Asian cuisine ingredient, is gaining its popularity again

Oil is an essential part of the daily diet. On one hand, inappro-
priate consumption of oil and other dietary fats has been associ-
ated with increased propensities to various cardiovascular and
metabolic diseases (Lissner & Heitmann, 1995). But on the other
hand, dietary fat can provide energy, fat-soluble vitamins and
many other health beneficial compounds, and thus is an indispens-
able part of a healthy diet (Eratte, Dowling, Barrow, & Adhikari,
2017). Olive oil, featured by its high content of monounsaturated
fatty acids (MUFAs) and many bioactive minor components
(Covas et al., 2006), have been associated with good health out-
comes and reduced risks of major chronic degenerative disease
(Sofi, Macchi, Abbate, Gensini, & Casini, 2013). Rice bran oil, an
Abbreviations: FA, fatty acid; TFA, trans-fatty acid; GC, gas chromatography; GC–
MS, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; SFA, saturated fatty acid; UFA,
unsaturated fatty acid; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acid; PUFA, polyunsaturated
fatty acid; ANOVA, analysis of variance; CHD, coronary heart disease; FID, flame-
ionization detector; FAMEs, fatty acid methyl esters; CLA, conjugated linoleic acid;
FDA, the US Food and Drug Administration; GRAS, generally recognized as safe.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mengxh@ouc.edu.cn (X. Meng).
1
The authors contributed equally to this work.
due to its excellent hypocholesterolemic and anti-inflammatory
properties (Ausman, Rong, & Nicolosi, 2005). Peony seed oil is a
recent innovation in China, but expanding its market share quickly,
partly due to its anti-diabetic effects and other health benefits (Su
et al., 2015).
With the rapidly increasing choices of different oils on the mar-
ket but insufficient information on their appropriate use, making
the right choice of dietary oil is becoming an increasingly difficult
task. Many consumers end up choosing one type of oil and use it in
all different dishes. In the traditional Chinese cuisine, oil is used
mostly for making vegetable salads, stir-frying, pan-frying, and
deep-frying. The cooking methods differ in temperature, duration,
and the amount of oil used. The oil in vegetable salads is typically
in small amounts and not heated. In stir-frying, also a small
amount of oil is used, but heated to high temperatures and stir-
mixed with other ingredients for a relatively short period of time.
Pan-frying normally requires slightly more oil than stir-frying, but
the cooking temperature is generally lower and the cooking time is
longer. In deep-frying, food items are coated with batter and then
submerged in relatively large amount of hot oil at temperatures
typically between 177 and 191 °C (Gertz, Klostermann, &
Kochhar, 2000).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.084
0308-8146/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
78 Y. Cui et al. / Food Chemistry 233 (2017) 77–84
It is well known that heating can induce profound changes in the
chemical composition of oils (Chang, Peterson, & Ho, 1978). Unsat-
urated fatty acids (UFAs) in vegetable oils, including monounsatu-
rated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFAs), are associated with decreased risks of coronary heart dis-
ease (CHD) and thus are generally considered to be healthy
(Bendsen, Christensen, Bartels, & Astrup, 2011). However, UFAs
can be converted into trans-fatty acids (TFAs) by thermal oxidative
deterioration during cooking, which is shown to accumulate in
heart, liver, and the tissues in many other organs (Ganguly et al.,
2016), causing increased risks of type-2 diabetes (Papantoniou,
Fíto, Covas, Muñoz, & Schröder, 2010), CHD (Ascherio, Katan,
Zock, Stampfer, & Willett, 1999) and sudden cardiac death
(Mozaffarian, Katan, Ascherio, Stampfer, & Willett, 2006).
Although the health risks associated with TFA intake have been
well recognized, the formation of TFA from partially hydrogenated
vegetable oils during cooking was studied mainly under the deep-
frying condition (Aladedunye & Przybylski, 2009; Bansal, Zhou,
Tan, Neo, & Lo, 2009; Romero, Cuesta, & Sánchez-Muniz, 2000;
Tsuzuki, Matsuoka, & Ushida, 2010), whereas the effect of other
cooking methods, such as stir-frying and pan-frying that are com-
mon in Asian, especially in China, has not been thoroughly studied.
Given the facts that nearly two thirds of the world population live
in Asia, one fifth of the world population is Chinese, as well as the
growing popularity of Chinese cuisine in the globalized world, it is
of great necessity to study how additional cooking methods affect
the formation of TFA.
Instead of studying the chemical changes of cooking oils, previ-
ous comparative studies of different cooking methods mostly focus
on their influences on the nutritional and sensory aspects of food
materials, especially fish (Neff, Bhavsar, Braekevelt, & Arts, 2014)
and meat (Domínguez, Gómez, Fonseca, & Lorenzo, 2014). In addi-
tion, the cooking methods are mostly of European and American
cuisine, such as broiling, baking, roasting, grilling, microwaving
as well as deep-frying. In contrast, Chinese cuisine is characterized
by high content of vegetables instead of meat. It is not uncommon
that the only source of fat in a stir-fired Wok dish comes from the
cooking oil. Especially for the vegetarian population, the cooking
oils count for a large, even major proportion of their daily intake
of fat. Therefore, it is of great importance to study the chemical
changes, particularly the formation of TFA from different dietary
oils, under Chinese/Asian specific cooking conditions. Although
the concept of healthy-cooking is already popular, without con-
crete scientific evidence, it is not possible for consumers to make
informed choices.
In this work, we compare the fatty acid profiles of ten different
vegetable oils, commonly used in Chinese families, under four dif-
ferent cooking methods (vegetable salad, stir-frying, pan-frying
and deep-frying). The fatty acid profiles are obtained using the
gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) technology,
which is the most sensitive and accurate method for determining
the fatty acid compositions (Ecker, Scherer, Schmitz, & Liebisch,
2012; Kandhro et al., 2008), and thus is particularly suitable for
the purpose of detecting and quantifying TFA. Through the system-
atic comparisons of the fatty acid profiles, it could provide
evidence-based recommendations of the optimal cooking oils for
different purposes. It hoped that this would help customers take
better control over their health by making wiser and more confi-
dent shopping choices.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Potatoes, potato starch, and oil samples, including peanut oil,
soybean oil, rapeseed oil, corn oil, sunflower seed oil, rice bran
oil, olive oil, sesame oil, linseed oil, and peony seed oil, were pur-
chased from a local supermarket (Qingdao, China). Potatoes were
cut into elongated pieces (approximately 1 cm  1 cm  4 cm)
and then soaked in water (20 ± 0.5 °C) for 3 min. The process was
repeated until the rinsing water was clear.
All reagents of analytical grade were purchased from Sino-
pharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China), including
methanol, alcohol, potassium hydroxide, diethyl ether, petroleum
ether, isooctane and hydrochloric acid. Methyl tridecanoate stan-
dard (purity >99%) and 52 mixed standards (C4–C22) were pur-
chased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA).
2.2. Control samples
Control samples were the ten kinds of fresh oils, without any
further treatment.
2.3. Vegetable salad procedures
A total of 100 g pre-boiled potato pieces was mixed with 5 mL
of fresh oil until the oil was distributed homogeneously on the sur-
face of the potato pieces. The samples were stored at 20 °C for
analysis.
2.4. Stir-frying procedures
Potato pieces (100 g) were put into a wok with 10 mL of oil
sample when the temperature of the wok was maintained in this
range throughout cooking and the content in the wok was stirred
for 5 min. During the process, 10 mL water was added gradually
to prevent the potatoes from burning. After cooking, the potato
pieces were collected and stored at 20 °C for analysis.
2.5. Pan-frying procedures
Potato pieces (100 g) and potato starch (300 g) were thoroughly
mixed with water (100 mL) to form a paste. 10 mL oil sample were
added to the pan, when the temperature increased to 160 °C. 100 g
paste was then added and evenly spread with a spatula to form a
circular shape. The pancake was loosened from the pan and flipped
as soon as the bottom solidified. Keep flipping once every 30 s until
both sides became lightly brown. Then the potato pancakes were
collected and stored at 20 °C for analysis.
2.6. Deep-frying procedure
An electric fryer (EF-102 L, dimensions 365 mm 
325 mm  150 mm, Guangzhou Houshan Electric Appliance Co.,
Ltd., China) was filled with oil sample (4 L) in each batch of exper-
iments. The first frying cycle started when the oil was heated up to
175 ± 5 °C, then subsequent frying cycles were performed at an
interval of 10 min. Potato pieces (100 g) were fried each frying
cycle. The process needed 12 h in total, and 48 frying cycles were
performed during the time. 10 mL oil sample was collected every
2 h, and 100 g fried potato pieces were collected every 8 frying
cycles. The samples were collected and filtered through filter paper
to remove suspended food particles, and then stored at -20 °C until
analysis.
2.7. Preparation of FAMEs
The samples (potato chips, potato cake, French fries and potato
chips for stir frying, pan frying, deep frying and vegetable salad,
respectively) were triturated with blender, then 10 g triturate
was put into a test tube with 250 mL, 40 mL distilled water was
added. After sufficiently mixing, 50 mL hydrochloric acid (6 mol/
 Y. Cui et al. / Food Chemistry 233 (2017) 77–84
L) was added. The test tube was put into a 70 °C water bath. The
sample was stirred every 5 min until the digestive juice is clear
and transparent, which denoted the food has been digested com-
pletely. The test tube was taken out and 50 mL ethanol was added
and mixed thoroughly. After it was cooled, the mixture was moved
into a 250 mL measuring cylinder with plug, then the test tube was
washed with 125 mL ether for several times. After all the sample
was transferred into the measuring cylinder, the bottlenecks were
plugged and shocked for 1 min. The plug was pulled out carefully,
and the bottleneck of the measuring cylinder was plugged again.
After standing for 60 min, the organic layer was transferred to a
round bottom flask. The round bottom flask was put into the water
bath to evaporate the remaining diethyl ether, and the fat was
weighed when it was cooled.
After lipid extraction, sample (60 mg) was put into 10 mL of
graduated test tube with a stopper, mixed with 0.5 mL of internal
standard solution, 4 mL of isooctane, 0.2 mL of methanol potas-
sium hydroxide solution (2 mol/L). The mixture was put at 60 °C
in water bath for 10 min. After cooled to room temperature, the
solution was under a vortex for 1 min and subjected to a standing
and layering process. Then the supernatant was collected and
mixed with 1 g of sodium sulfate to remove excessive moisture.
After 0.5 min vortex, the supernatant was collected, filtered by a
0.45 lm organic membrane and 1 lL of sample were injected into
GC–MS.
2.8. GC–MS of FAMEs
FAMEs were analyzed by GC–MS using Agilent 6890N GC
instrument coupled with an Agilent MS-5975 inert XL MS detector
(Agilent Technologies Inc., Little Fall, NY, and USA). A high polar
fused-silica capillary column (Chrompack CP-Sil88 Varian, Middel-
burg, the Netherlands; 100 m  0.25 mm  0.20 lm) was
employed for GC–MS analysis. The temperature program was as
follows: initial temperature was set as 100 °C, hold for 2 min,
and increased to 160 °C with a speed of 10 °C/min, then the speed
was set as 5 °C/min, the column temperature was increased to
220 °C and held for 25 min. Both the detector and injector port
temperatures were maintained at 240 °C. Helium was used as the
carrier gas at a flow rate of 3 mL/min and a splitless mode was
chosen.
2.9. FA identification
FA identification was based on equivalent chain length values
provided by the manufacturer and retention time obtained by dif-
ferent standards. Individual FAMEs were identified by pure stan-
dards. Quantification of FA was conducted by internal standard
method and area normalization method.
2.10. Statistical analysis
All data were expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (SD)
of three separate experiments (vegetable salad, stir-frying and
pan-frying). Statistical analysis was performed using one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s HSD test in SPSS (version
19. 0, SPSS Inc.). The level of significance was set at p < 0.05.
3. Results
3.1. The chromatogram of 52 mixed standards and samples by GC–MS
Thirty-three peaks were detected with desirable abundance and
clear separation in the chromatogram of 52 standard FAMEs
between 26 and 50 min (Fig. 1A). All interested peaks that repre-
79
sented FAs between C14 to C20 were clearly presented. The
enlarged section of the chromatogram between 34 and 40 min con-
tained the peaks of the major UFAs in the oil samples, including
C18:1 trans, C18:1 cis, C18:2 trans, C18:2 cis, C18:3 trans, and
C18:3 cis (Bansal et al., 2009). The two geometric isomers of the
C18 FA differ in the arrangement of the double bond connected
to the 9th carbon atom. Therefore, C18:1 trans contains C18:1-9t,
C18:1 cis contains C18:1-9c. For FAs that contained two or more
double bonds, all isomers contained at least one trans arrangement
of the double bound are considered as TFA. Therefore, C18:2 cis
contained C18:2-9c,12c, whereas C18:2 trans contains C18:2-
9t,12c, C18:2-9c,12t and C18:2-9t,12t. Similarly, C18:3 cis contains
C18:3-9c,12c,15c, whereas C18:3 trans contains C18:3-9t,12t,15c,
C18:3-9t,12c,15t, C18:3-9c,12c,15t, C18:3-9c,12t,15c and C18:3-
9t,12c,15c. Three most important compounds (C18:1, C18:2 and
C18:3) presented universally in all oil samples after different cook-
ing procedures (Fig. 1B–E). The abundance of deep frying chro-
matogram was higher than that of other three cooking methods
selected from the 48th fried sample. However, the abundance of
stir-frying oil was similar with that of vegetable salad oil. As for
the peak number of stir-frying oil and pan-frying oil with 9 peaks
was more than that of vegetable salad oil with 6 peaks.
3.2. Effect of cooking methods on SFA and cis-UFA profiles of oils
The SFA and cis-UFA compositions of the ten different oils in
general differ notably from each other. And with different cooking
methods, the change of SFA and cis-UFA of the ten oils is also dif-
ferent (Table 1). Taking the SFA of peanut oil as an example, the
C14:0 content was increased significantly after stir-frying process,
it was no significant change after vegetable salad process and pan-
frying process, but the C16:0 content, C18:0 content and C20:0
content were all increased significantly after the three cooking
methods, and the total SFA content of peanut oil was also
increased. As for the cis-UFA of peanut oil, the C16:1 cis content
under stir frying was higher than that under other cooking meth-
ods, and the C18:2 cis content was increased significantly after veg-
etable salad process and pan-frying process, the C20:1 cis content
was decreased significantly after vegetable salad process and
stir-frying process, but the C18:1 cis content and C18:3 cis content
were increased significantly after the three cooking methods, the
total cis-UFA content was increased in different degree after the
three cooking methods. In the mass, the change of SFA and cis-
UFA after stir frying was more obvious than that of vegetable salad
process and pan frying.
3.3. Effect of cooking methods on TFA content
3.3.1. Effect of vegetable salad, stir frying and pan frying on TFA
content
As shown in Table 1, C18:1 trans was not detected in ten oils
during vegetable salad process, but after stir frying and pan frying,
C18:1 trans was detected with different amount and the contents
were all different significantly to that of control oil. For C18:2 trans
content, the result was very different with their C18:1 trans. It was
detected in eight oils during vegetable salad procedure and the
content of rice oil was higher than that of other oils. The whole
content of C18:3 trans was slightly lower than C18:2 trans content.
Pan frying could also result in the formation of TFA (Table 1), for
olive oil, the content of C18:2 trans in pan frying was from unde-
tectable up to 0.18%. Total TFA (the sum of C18:1 trans, C18:2 trans,
and C18:3 trans) content after three frying processes were also
depicted in Table 1. The results indicated that TFA were produced
during all the 4 processes. For TFA of rapeseed oil, it was the high-
est in the vegetable salad oil with 2.88% total FA. The greatest
change is sunflower seed oil, TFA was not detected in vegetable
80 Y. Cui et al. / Food Chemistry 233 (2017) 77–84

Fig. 1. Chromatograms of FAME standards (A) and soybean oil after four cooking processes: (B) vegetable salad, (C) stir frying, (D) pan frying, and (E) deep frying. The attached
figure in (A) was detailed with enlarged scale of chromatograms from 34 to 40 min as marked in red, it represents the peaks of major compounds including C18:1 trans, C18:1
cis, C18:2 trans, C18:2 cis, C18:3 trans, and C18:3 cis. C18:1 trans contains C18:1-9t, C18:1 cis contains C18:1-9c; C18:2 cis contains C18:2-9c,12c; C18:2 trans contains C18:2-
9t,12c, C18:2-9c,12t and C18:2-9t,12t; C18:3 trans contains C18:3-9t,12t,15c, C18:3-9t,12c,15t, C18:3-9c,12c,15t, C18:3-9c,12t,15c and C18:3-9t,12c,15c; C18:3 cis contains
C18:3-9c,12c,15c.

salad oil, however, after stir frying and pan frying, it increased to
1.53% and 1.29%, respectively.
3.3.2. Effect of deep frying time and frying cycles on TFA content
For deep-frying process, the effects of frying time and frying
cycles on TFA content were studied (Tables 2 and 3). Because deep
frying need a mass of oils, considering the costs and the actual sit-
uation of Chinese customs, the sesame oil, olive oil, linseed oil and
peony seed oil would not be used, the other six oils were studied.
As shown in Table 2, the change of TFA content in the French fries
was irregular. But the TFA content of the six kinds of oils all change
significantly after 48 cycles of deep-frying. It reflected the TFA of
the oils used to deep frying during 12 h in Table 3, the TFA content
changed significantly, but only the TFA content of sunflower seed
oil and rapeseed oil had decreasing trend with the frying time,
the others were also not regular pattern or remain unchanged.
And it could be found that the peanut oil had the lowest content
of TFA under deep frying process.
 Y. Cui et al. / Food Chemistry 233 (2017) 77–84 81

Table 1
Fatty acids composition of 10 oils with Vegetable salad, Stir frying, and Pan frying method.a,b

FA content (% total FA) Peanut oil Soybean oil

Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying
C14:0 0.05 ± 0.00a 0.05 ± 0.38a 0.75 ± 0.03b 0.45 ± 0.00ab 0.09 ± 0.00a 0.13 ± 0.11a 0.47 ± 0.00b 0.62 ± 0.02c
C16:0 13.67 ± 0.01a 15.27 ± 0.01c 14.90 ± 0.31bc 14.85 ± 0.08b 13.58 ± 0.01a 15.15 ± 0.21c 14.52 ± 0.00b 15.12 ± 0.03c
C16:1 cis 0.20 ± 0.00a 0.27 ± 0.12a 2.78 ± 0.20c 2.33 ± 0.01b 0.24 ± 0.00a 0.31 ± 0.63a 2.35 ± 0.03b 2.74 ± 0.08b
C18:0 4.20 ± 0.00a 4.04 ± 0.01b 3.27 ± 0.07c 3.32 ± 0.00c 4.94 ± 0.00a 3.97 ± 0.38b 3.40 ± 0.00c 2.90 ± 0.11c
C18:1 trans 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.50 ± 0.03c 0.34 ± 0.01b 0.02 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.41 ± 0.00c 0.34 ± 0.05b
C18:1 cis 43.35 ± 0.00a 42.93 ± 0.08b 41.61 ± 0.07c 41.49 ± 0.05c 26.09 ± 0.00a 27.11 ± 0.24b 25.80 ± 0.06a 24.49 ± 0.09c
C18:2 trans 0.08 ± 0.00a 0.14 ± 0.04a 0.27 ± 0.00b 0.36 ± 0.05c 0.32 ± 0.00a 0.29 ± 0.44a 0.44 ± 0.03a 0.41 ± 0.03a
C18:2 cis 32.87 ± 0.00a 35.16 ± 0.14c 33.27 ± 0.59ab 33.95 ± 0.08b 46.70 ± 0.01b 46.00 ± 0.53bc 45.45 ± 0.03c 47.64 ± 0.12a
C18:3 trans 0.10 ± 0.00a 0.23 ± 0.00b 0.21 ± 0.05b 0.38 ± 0.05c 0.57 ± 0.00a 1.04 ± 0.32b 0.49 ± 0.02a 0.30 ± 0.02a
C18:3 cis 2.68 ± 0.01a 1.44 ± 0.01b 1.10 ± 0.27bc 0.85 ± 0.02c 6.31 ± 0.00a 5.55 ± 0.00b 5.69 ± 0.03c 4.53 ± 0.05d
C20:0 1.76 ± 0.00a 0.85 ± 0.33b 0.79 ± 0.27b 1.12 ± 0.08b 0.56 ± 0.00a 0.18 ± 0.23b 0.55 ± 0.05a 0.55 ± 0.02a
C20:1 cis 1.06 ± 0.00a 0.03 ± 0.54b 0.33 ± 0.09b 0.59 ± 0.00ab 0.59 ± 0.00a 0.25 ± 0.34a 0.49 ± 0.03a 0.39 ± 0.01a
Total SFA 19.67 20.21 19.71 19.74 19.17 19.43 18.94 19.19
Total cis-UFA 80.15 79.83 79.09 79.21 79.92 79.22 79.78 79.79
Total TFA 0.17 0.37 0.98 1.08 0.91 1.33 1.34 1.05
Total MUFA 44.61 43.23 45.22 44.75 26.94 27.67 29.05 27.96
Total PUFA 35.72 36.97 34.85 34.54 53.89 52.88 52.88 52.88
FA content (% total FA) Rapeseed oil Corn oil
Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying
C14:0 0.05 ± 0.00a 0.07 ± 0.06a 0.81 ± 0.07b 0.49 ± 0.00c 0.04 ± 0.00a 0.05 ± 0.01a 0.27 ± 0.05b 0.44 ± 0.03c
C16:0 5.17 ± 0.01a 5.85 ± 0.01b 6.44 ± 0.03c 6.25 ± 0.13d 15.48 ± 0.01c 16.78 ± 0.72b 17.32 ± 0.11ab 18.13 ± 0.06a
C16:1 cis 0.33 ± 0.00a 0.44 ± 0.01b 3.10 ± 0.07c 1.95 ± 0.01d 0.27 ± 0.00a 0.33 ± 0.44a 2.10 ± 0.01b 1.87 ± 0.05b
C18:0 2.32 ± 0.00a 2.35 ± 0.02b 2.82 ± 0.00c 2.09 ± 0.01d 2.10 ± 0.00a 1.99 ± 0.1a 1.65 ± 0.00b 1.53 ± 0.02b
C18:1 trans 0.02 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.50 ± 0.59a 0.27 ± 0.04a 0.03 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.24 ± 0.01b 0.24 ± 0.03b
C18:1 cis 61.14 ± 0.00a 59.72 ± 0.01b 57.20 ± 0.10c 59.47 ± 0.38b 32.02 ± 0.00a 30.64 ± 0.01b 28.80 ± 0.01c 28.37 ± 0.05d
C18:2 trans 0.26 ± 0.00c 0.37 ± 0.02bc 0.68 ± 0.01a 0.38 ± 0.09b 0.60 ± 0.01a 0.13 ± 0.34b 1.51 ± 0.01c 1.45 ± 0.02c
C18:2 cis 19.27 ± 0.00c 19.75 ± 0.06a 19.43 ± 0.09b 19.56 ± 0.02b 47.49 ± 0.01a 47.84 ± 0.09b 46.20 ± 0.02c 46.29 ± 0.07c
C18:3 trans 1.19 ± 0.01b 2.51 ± 0.01a 1.18 ± 0.10b 0.65 ± 0.10c 0.37 ± 0.00a 0.51 ± 0.28a 0.26 ± 0.04a 0.19 ± 0.02a
C18:3 cis 8.80 ± 0.01a 8.72 ± 0.01a 5.55 ± 0.01b 7.24 ± 0.15c 0.75 ± 0.00a 1.01 ± 0.22a 0.95 ± 0.03a 0.76 ± 0.10a
C20:0 0.72 ± 0.00a 0.06 ± 0.01c 0.69 ± 0.02a 0.45 ± 0.09b 0.54 ± 0.00a 0.09 ± 0.45a 0.45 ± 0.06a 0.54 ± 0.01a
C20:1 cis 0.73 ± 0.00bc 0.17 ± 0.54c 1.60 ± 0.03a 1.21 ± 0.06ab 0.30 ± 0.00a 0.10 ± 0.38a 0.30 ± 0.01a 0.21 ± 0.00a
SFA 8.26 8.33 10.76 9.28 18.17 18.91 19.69 20.64
Cis-UFA 90.27 88.8 86.88 89.43 80.83 79.92 78.35 77.5
Total TFA 1.47 2.88 2.36 1.30 1.00 0.64 2.01 1.88
MUFA 62.22 60.33 62.4 62.9 32.63 31.07 31.44 30.69
PUFA 29.52 31.35 26.84 27.83 49.20 49.49 48.92 48.69
FA content (% total FA) Rice bran oil Sunflower seed oil
Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying
C14:0 0.37 ± 0.00a 0.48 ± 0.01b 0.93 ± 0.00c 0.93 ± 0.02c 0.10 ± 0.00a 0.13 ± 1.65a 0.33 ± 0.03a 0.78 ± 0.08a
C16:0 19.54 ± 0.01a 21.12 ± 0.01b 17.06 ± 0.07c 21.09 ± 0.05b 9.32 ± 0.01a 10.58 ± 0.26b 9.96 ± 0.02c 10.09 ± 0.07c
C16:1 cis 0.31 ± 0.00a 0.43 ± 0.01b 5.51 ± 0.03c 3.64 ± 0.03d 0.19 ± 0.00a 0.27 ± 0.25a 1.26 ± 0.04b 2.15 ± 0.02c
C18:0 1.85 ± 0.00a 1.78 ± 0.06a 2.05 ± 0.02b 1.32 ± 0.02c 4.41 ± 0.00a 3.99 ± 0.78ab 3.68 ± 0.05ab 3.38 ± 0.03b
C18:1 trans 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.63 ± 0.01b 0.37 ± 0.01c 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.37 ± 0.02b 0.28 ± 0.01c
C18:1 cis 41.76 ± 0.01a 40.20 ± 0.03b 37.41 ± 0.01c 37.92 ± 0.16d 29.12 ± 0.00a 27.67 ± 0.81b 26.30 ± 0.03c 25.16 ± 0.12d
C18:2 trans 1.60 ± 0.02a 0.89 ± 0.03b 1.91 ± 0.01c 2.24 ± 0.04d 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.97 ± 0.00b 0.87 ± 0.01c
C18:2 cis 31.86 ± 0.02a 33.76 ± 0.04b 30.98 ± 0.02c 30.12 ± 0.11d 56.52 ± 0.01a 56.42 ± 0.51a 56.04 ± 0.26a 55.88 ± 0.15a
C18:3 trans 0.53 ± 0.00a 0.25 ± 0.00b 0.67 ± 0.03c 0.41 ± 0.07d 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.19 ± 0.00b 0.14 ± 0.03c
C18:3 cis 0.90 ± 0.00a 1.14 ± 0.03a 1.59 ± 0.31c 1.07 ± 0.05a 0.12 ± 0.00a 0.50 ± 0.31a 0.39 ± 0.04a 0.44 ± 0.03a
C20:0 0.63 ± 0.00a 0.43 ± 0.21a 0.75 ± 0.20a 0.48 ± 0.06a 0.46 ± 0.00ab 0.11 ± 0.16c 0.35 ± 0.02b 0.68 ± 0.07a
C20:1 cis 0.53 ± 0.00a 0.52 ± 0.16a 0.50 ± 0.07a 0.45 ± 0.04a 0.15 ± 0.00a 0.33 ± 0.02b 0.16 ± 0.04a 0.18 ± 0.03a
SFA 22.40 23.81 20.79 23.82 14.29 14.81 14.32 14.93
Cis-UFA 75.36 76.05 75.99 73.2 85.71 85.19 84.15 83.81
Total TFA 2.13 1.14 3.21 3.02 0 0 1.53 1.29
MUFA 42.60 41.15 44.05 42.38 29.46 28.27 28.09 27.77
PUFA 34.89 36.04 35.15 33.84 56.25 56.92 57.59 57.33

FA content (% total FA) Olive oil Sesame oil

Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying
C14:0 0.02 ± 0.00a 0.021 ± 0.30a 0.34 ± 0.32a 0.59 ± 0.09a 0.02 ± 0.00a 0.02 ± 0.00a 0.23 ± 0.00b 0.59 ± 0.03c
C16:0 13.69 ± 0.01a 14.98 ± 0.05c 14.29 ± 0.40b 15.08 ± 0.22c 10.77 ± 0.01a 11.98 ± 0.20b 12.48 ± 0.00c 12.13 ± 0.01b
C16:1 cis 1.17 ± 0.00a 1.36 ± 0.10a 2.82 ± 0.37b 2.34 ± 0.10b 0.24 ± 0.00a 0.28 ± 0.02a 1.69 ± 0.03b 2.33 ± 0.10c
C18:0 4.20 ± 0.00a 4.14 ± 0.09a 3.94 ± 0.00a 2.97 ± 0.43b 7.00 ± 0.00a 6.64 ± 0.04b 5.60 ± 0.02c 5.17 ± 0.01d
C18:1 trans 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 2.50 ± 0.50b 0.19 ± 0.84c 0.08 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00b 1.04 ± 0.02c 0.83 ± 0.02d
C18:1 cis 73.48 ± 0.01a 72.44 ± 0.45b 67.58 ± 0.50c 72.09 ± 0.04b 40.84 ± 0.00a 39.85 ± 0.05b 37.70 ± 0.04c 37.14 ± 0.04d
C18:2 trans 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.44 ± 0.49b 0.18 ± 0.40c 0.24 ± 0.00a 0.30 ± 0.02a 1.35 ± 0.03b 1.08 ± 0.05c
C18:2 cis 5.92 ± 0.00a 5.93 ± 0.15a 5.91 ± 0.39a 4.90 ± 0.03b 39.50 ± 0.00a 39.97 ± 0.23b 38.37 ± 0.10c 39.48 ± 0.02a
C18:3 trans 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.22 ± 0.77a 0.20 ± 0.03a 0.07 ± 0.00a 0.22 ± 0.24a 0.12 ± 0.01a 0.12 ± 0.00a
C18:3 cis 0.80 ± 0.00ab 0.33 ± 0.04b 1.31 ± 0.57a 0.66 ± 0.08ab 0.37 ± 0.00a 0.61 ± 0.33a 0.37 ± 0.09a 0.33 ± 0.01a
C20:0 0.52 ± 0.00ab 0.49 ± 0.12b 0.32 ± 0.02b 0.72 ± 0.12a 0.77 ± 0.00a 0.03 ± 0.09c 0.63 ± 0.10ab 0.38 ± 0.26bc

(continued on next page)

82 Y. Cui et al. / Food Chemistry 233 (2017) 77–84

Table 1 (continued)

FA content (% total FA) Olive oil Sesame oil

Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying
C20:1 cis 0.21 ± 0.00ab 0.12 ± 0.01b 0.36 ± 0.13a 0.14 ± 0.05b 0.09 ± 0.00a 0.10 ± 0.17a 0.37 ± 0.01b 0.20 ± 0.02ab
SFA 18.42 19.631 18.89 19.36 18.56 18.67 18.94 18.27
Cis-UFA 81.58 80.18 77.98 80.13 81.04 80.81 78.5 79.48
Total TFA 0 0 3.16 0.57 0.39 0.52 2.51 2.03
MUFA 74.86 73.92 73.26 74.76 0.41 0.38 3.1 3.36
PUFA 6.72 6.26 7.88 5.94 40.18 41.1 40.21 41.01
FA content (% total FA) Linseed oil Peony seed oil
Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying Control oil Vegetable salad Stir frying Pan frying
C14:0 0.05 ± 0.00a 0.07 ± 0.08a 0.79 ± 0.08b 0.61 ± 0.04c 0.07 ± 0.00a 0.09 ± 0.10a 0.35 ± 0.01b 0.79 ± 0.09c
C16:0 6.94 ± 0.01a 7.81 ± 0.04b 7.46 ± 0.02c 7.16 ± 0.04d 7.13 ± 0.04a 7.88 ± 0.10b 8.27 ± 0.07c 8.28 ± 0.03c
C16:1 cis 0.18 ± 0.00a 0.22 ± 0.04a 1.80 ± 0.06b 2.63 ± 0.19c 0.27 ± 0.00a 0.32 ± 0.05a 1.46 ± 0.03b 2.06 ± 0.02c
C18:0 4.25 ± 0.00a 3.98 ± 0.05b 3.86 ± 0.08b 3.52 ± 0.16c 2.24 ± 0.01a 2.19 ± 0.10a 1.86 ± 0.03b 1.89 ± 0.13b
C18:1 trans 0.01 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.58 ± 0.07b 0.45 ± 0.08b 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.23 ± 0.00b 0.30 ± 0.05b
C18:1 cis 23.05 ± 0.00a 22.26 ± 0.09b 21.64 ± 0.03c 20.82 ± 0.06d 25.12 ± 0.15a 24.30 ± 0.44b 23.36 ± 0.01c 22.65 ± 0.18d
C18:2 trans 0.07 ± 0.00a 0.10 ± 0.02a 0.49 ± 0.06b 0.20 ± 0.02c 0.07 ± 0.00a 0.10 ± 0.41a 0.20 ± 0.01a 0.27 ± 0.00a
C18:2 cis 15.68 ± 0.00ab 15.49 ± 0.04ab 14.67 ± 0.83b 16.45 ± 0.04a 27.94 ± 0.16a 27.33 ± 0.13b 27.37 ± 0.00b 27.81 ± 0.13a
C18:3 trans 0.04 ± 0.00a 0.60 ± 0.04b 0.77 ± 0.12c 0.41 ± 0.00d 0.24 ± 0.00a 0.35 ± 0.07a 0.35 ± 0.02a 0.26 ± 0.06a
C18:3 cis 49.19 ± 0.00a 49.00 ± 0.02a 30.17 ± 0.33b 47.13 ± 0.38c 36.62 ± 0.21a 36.91 ± 0.05a 36.02 ± 0.07b 35.31 ± 0.09c
C20:0 0.15 ± 0.00a 0.25 ± 0.00a 1.07 ± 0.75a 0.24 ± 0.05a 0.16 ± 0.00a 0.25 ± 0.13a 0.28 ± 0.04a 0.21 ± 0.07a
C20:1 cis 0.39 ± 0.00a 0.23 ± 0.08b 0.74 ± 0.01c 0.41 ± 0.00a 0.15 ± 0.00a 0.31 ± 0.21a 0.30 ± 0.00a 0.21 ± 0.06a
SFA 11.39 12.11 13.18 11.53 9.60 10.41 10.76 11.17
Cis-UFA 88.49 87.2 69.02 87.44 90.10 89.17 88.51 88.04
Total TFA 0.12 0.7 1.84 1.06 0.31 0.45 0.78 0.83
MUFA 23.64 22.71 24.76 24.31 25.54 24.93 25.35 25.22
PUFA 64.97 65.19 46.10 64.19 64.87 64.69 63.94 63.65

ND, Not Detected.

a
Each value presents the mean ± SD of three independent replicates.
b
Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly (Tukey’s HSD test, p < 0.05)

Table 2
Effects of frying cycle in deep-frying cooking on contents of total trans fatty acids (mg/g) in frying oil samples.a,b

Frying cycle Rapeseed oil Soybean oil Rice oil Peanut oil Sunflower seed oil Corn oil
1 6.14 ± 0.01a 7.33 ± 0.01a 7.18 ± 0.08f 4.50 ± 0.01b 4.00 ± 0.01f 6.60 ± 0.03b
8 4.30 ± 0.02e 4.75 ± 0.02d 10.60 ± 0.05c 2.85 ± 0.02e 4.17 ± 0.01e 4.13 ± 0.03d
16 4.82 ± 0.01c 5.44 ± 0.01c 11.51 ± 0.08b 3.73 ± 0.01c 4.46 ± 0.01b 3.24 ± 0.03e
24 4.75 ± 0.01d 4.40 ± 0.01e 7.71 ± 0.08e 2.65 ± 0.01 g 4.32 ± 0.01d 5.22 ± 0.02c
32 4.00 ± 0.01f 4.00 ± 0.01 g 5.83 ± 0.05 g 2.80 ± 0.01f 4.19 ± 0.00e 2.00 ± 0.04f
40 4.75 ± 0.01d 4.27 ± 0.01f 11.95 ± 0.06a 2.94 ± 0.02d 5.11 ± 0.01a 5.23 ± 0.03c
48 5.49 ± 0.01b 6.56 ± 0.01b 8.69 ± 0.02d 5.83 ± 0.01a 4.39 ± 0.01c 6.78 ± 0.01a
a
Each value presents the mean ± SD of three independent replicates.
b
Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly (Tukey’s HSD test, p < 0.05).

Table 3
Effects of frying time in deep-frying cooking on contents of total trans fatty acids (mg/g) in frying oil samples.a,b

Frying time (h) Rapeseed oil Soybean oil Rice oil Peanut oil Sunflower seed oil Corn oil
a a a a a
1 1.69 ± 0.00 2.53 ± 0.00 15.02 ± 0.01 0.87 ± 0.00 2.24 ± 0.00 8.55 ± 0.01a
2 1.34 ± 0.01b 2.28 ± 0.01b 7.10 ± 0.03b 1.00 ± 0.01b 2.33 ± 0.01b 10.49 ± 0.03b
4 1.53 ± 0.00c 2.69 ± 0.01c 6.81 ± 0.02c 0.59 ± 0.01e 2.33 ± 0.01b 6.06 ± 0.02c
6 1.75 ± 0.01d 3.12 ± 0.01d 6.85 ± 0.01c 0.58 ± 0.01e 2.38 ± 0.01c 4.61 ± 0.01d
8 1.87 ± 0.00e 2.91 ± 0.00e 4.73 ± 0.02e 0.70 ± 0.01d 2.56 ± 0.01d 5.26 ± 0.02e
10 2.29 ± 0.00f 2.94 ± 0.01f 4.80 ± 0.00d 0.54 ± 0.01f 3.54 ± 0.01e 7.14 ± 0.00f
12 2.57 ± 0.00 g 2.62 ± 0.01 g 4.78 ± 0.02de 0.74 ± 0.01 g 3.39 ± 0.01f 7.68 ± 0.02 g
a
Each value presents the mean ± SD of three independent replicates.
b
Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly (Tukey’s HSD test, p < 0.05).

3.4. Change of PUFA content by oxidative deterioration
Linseed oil and peony seed oil have the highest PUFA content
(Table 1), after the stir frying, the PUFA content of linseed oil
was reduced from 64.97% to 46.10% observably, while the MUFA
content of linseed oil was increased. For the peony seed oil, both
stir frying and pan frying could lessen the PUFA content by oxida-
tion. The oxidative deterioration was similar to that of peanut oil,
soybean oil, corn oil, rice bran oil, sunflower seed oil and sesame
oil. But the change of PUFA was insignificant for the olive oil with
highest MUFA content.
4. Discussion
In this study, GC–MS was used to separate different kinds of FA
clearly (Fig. 1A), it indicating that the parameters set in Section 2.7
were suitable for analysis of lipid profile. A quick process was
 Y. Cui et al. / Food Chemistry 233 (2017) 77–84
established for routine analysis of C18 TFA in non-hydrogenated
edible vegetable oils by using GC–MS, thirteen C18 trans FAMEs
standards were separated and verified in 23 min (Khodadoust,
Mohammadzadeh, Mohammadi, Irajie, & Ramezani, 2014; Zhang
et al., 2015). Compared with the results of Fig. 1B–E, it was similar
that the thirteen C18 trans FAMEs could be separated clearly, but in
this study, the total run time was 45 min in order to study about all
of the fatty acid components in the ten oils. GC–MS is a reliable and
accurate process for quantitation of FAMEs and some researchers
used it for human serum analysis, and characterization of molecu-
lar lipid species in milk, milk products and other materials
(Kandhro et al., 2008; Peng et al., 2015; Ren et al., 2014; Sokol,
Ulven, Færgeman, & Ejsing, 2015).
In general, the oil ingredient and FA profile were significantly
different among various oil species even within one species,
because many factors, like heat resistance, redox ability, and the
oils, extracted from the diversity seeds, could affect the oil ingredi-
ent and FA profile. Meanwhile, the yielded oil content was also
dependent on extraction procedures and conditions (e.g., lixivia-
tion process and expression process, Soxhlet extraction and super-
critical fluid extraction). Consequently, the factors, including
vegetation, climate, management regimes, soil cultivations, degree
of ripeness and testing site, also should be investigated.
It is well known that several mechanisms that occur during
cooking, such as water loss and lipid oxidation, diffusion and
exchange of FA between intramuscular fat and cooking oil, can lead
to relative changes in some FA (Kandhro et al., 2008). Thus, the test
samples used in this study were potatoes without fat composition
to avoid the interaction between them. And the main problem of
deep frying was repeatedly fried with long time resulting in the
content of TFA increased, thus, the emphasis was the effect of fry-
ing time and frying cycles. But the oils of the other three methods
were used only once without the problem of repeated usage, there-
fore, the results were separated in the result part and discuss part.
As shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1, the major ingredients were stea-
ric acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid. Furthermore, the FA was
affected by the frying process and the oils species. It was found that
cooking loss were significantly affected by thermal treatment
including microwaving grilling and frying, which was 32.5% (w/
w), 22.5% (w/w) and 23.8% (w/w), respectively (Domínguez et al.,
2014). Compared with the results in this study, the theory was
the same as that of high temperature during cooking causes the
chemical composition and structural change (Al-Saghir et al.,
2004). The frying process could also affect the oxidation of thiols,
tryptophan, alkaline amino acids and protein cross-linking (Silva,
Ferreira, Madruga, & Estévez, 2016).
The results of TFA with four cooking methods (Tables 1–3) were
in agreement with those obtained by Tsuzuki et al. (2010) and
Chen et al. (2014) for frying oil. In contrast, Chang et al. (1978)
and Karim, Khan, Ahmed, and Karim (2014) described an increase
in TFA content after cooking. For pork, frying processes involve a
replacement of FA from the food fat with those from the culinary
fat/oil used during cooking, altering the lipid composition of fried
foods (Haak, Sioen, Raes, Van Camp, & De Smet, 2007). However,
many factors affect the fat exchange between the food and bath
oil, such as frying temperature and duration of the frying process,
surface area of the food or food proximate composition (Miranda
et al., 2010).
On the other hand, the amounts of TFA with deep frying were
slight higher than that of vegetable salad oil, stir-frying oil and
pan-frying oil, and TFA in vegetable salad samples was lower than
that of stir-frying oil and pan-frying oil (Table 1). The results are in
agreement with the literatures reported by Türkkan, Cakli, and
Kilinc (2008) in sea bass and Modzelewska-Kapituła, Da˛browska,
Jankowska, Kwiatkowska, and Cierach (2012) in beef. Despite the
above results, there were no differences in the individually FA
83
among vegetable salad, stir-frying and pan-frying samples, but
there were significant differences in the individually FA among
the ten oils.
Apart from the diversity of vegetable oils, FA content is depen-
dent on heating time and heating temperature. The effect of frying
cycles was diverse, the reasons for this were complicated. Firstly,
the frying samples was refrigerant, the oil temperature would be
affected when it put into the frying oil, and the set value of temper-
ature was 175 ± 5 °C, it could be said that this was low-
temperature frying. In addition, there are some reactions between
the components of French fries and the frying oil, moreover the
carbohydrate itself would make chemical changes under
175 ± 5 °C (e.g., oxidizing reaction, reduction, esterification reac-
tion, etherification reaction, maillard reaction and caramelization
reaction). Following the other aspects, the status of the samples
including the length, thickness, water content, and crystalline
degree, also could affect the parameters. In addition, the size of
contact area between the materials and fried oils, and the existence
of ice crystal in the surface of raw chips should be investigated. The
effect of high temperature in this study was not obvious, as shown
in Tables 2 and 3. Eventually, another reason was that the duration
of every frying cycle was less than 5 min, which is too short for all
of cis FAs to transform into their trans forms.
The results of the effect of frying time on fatty acids illustrated
that the rice bran oil and corn oil showed the higher content of TFA
than the other four kinds of oils during deep frying, but the peanut
oil appeared as the lowest content of TFA. There was an obvious
downtrend with the frying time about rice bran oil, and at the
beginning of 1 h, the content was at the highest point, but after
fried for 12 h, the content drop to the lowest point, it was opposite
to the expectation effect. The theory that structures determine
properties could account for the results, the structures of rice bran
oil were different from the others and this determined that the rice
bran oil have very strong heat resistance. For the corn oil, it rose to
the highest content when fried for 2 h, then decreased until the
time was 6 h. Therefore, the optimum frying time of corn oil was
6 h. The variation tendencies of soybean oil and sunflower seed
oil were similar with slowly rising trend, but the difference was
that the time was 6 h and 10 h, respectively, when it achieved
the highest content. The rapeseed oil and the peanut oil had the
opposite results, when the time was 2 h, the TFA content of rape-
seed oil was up to the highest point, but the TFA content of peanut
oil drop to the lowest point, then the next trend was also opposite,
one remained rising but the other kept decline.
In view of all the results, the oils species was an important fac-
tor for TFA content. According to comparative analysis of the TFA
content with four cooking processes (Tables 1–3), the stir-frying
process showed a higher content of TFA than that of other three
cooking processes. The cause of this phenomenon was that the
temperature parameters were different, and the set value of stir-
frying was 240 °C, which was higher than all the others. Even more,
the stir-frying temperature was higher than 240 °C in China, and it
was hard to maintain a constant temperature with methane for
stir-frying. In addition, it need stir fry vegetables continually dur-
ing the process, which make the abundant heating surface area.
As for the oxidative deterioration of the PUFA, the change of
total PUFA content was obvious (Table 1). After stir frying and
pan frying, almost all of the PUFA content of oils were reduced,
especially for the linseed oil and peony seed oil, which own high
content of C18:3 cis. Moreno, Olivares, Lopez, Adelantado, and
Reig (1999) reported that the oxidative deterioration of PUFA in
culinary oils and fats during episodes of heating associated with
normal usage (80–300 °C, 20–40 min) and they found when an edi-
ble oil was subjected to a heating process or frying, the initial nat-
ure of the triglyceride changes significantly and the decrease of
unsaturation is evidence of the transformation occurring in the
84 Y. Cui et al. / Food Chemistry 233 (2017) 77–84
essential PUFA, contained in the oil initially. The results of the
change of PUFA content in Table 1 also could indicate that the
oxidative deterioration of PUFA was affected by cooking methods
and frying temperature.
5. Conclusions
FA composition was affected by the cooking processes and the
oils, however, TFA content changed slightly, though the four frying
processes can cause the production of TFA. When it was used as
vegetable salad, the appropriate oils were olive oil, sunflower seed
oil, peanut oil, and peony seed oil, but not rice bran oil, soybean oil,
and rapeseed oil. While peanut oil, olive oil and peony seed oil
except sesame oil and rice bran oil were appropriate for stir-
frying process. The optimal choice for pan-frying process was olive
oil and peony seed oil but not rice bran oil or sesame oil. The pea-
nut oil was the best oil to be used as deep-frying oil, whereas the
rice bran oil, corn bran oil, and sunflower oil were not suitable.
Consequently, cuisine oil should be diversified, and we do not just
use one kind of oils all the time to insure a balanced nutrition.
Therefore, it is assumed that the oil mixture may provide a nutri-
tional and healthy benefit.
Conflict of interest
The authors report no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the National Key
Research and Development Program of China (2016YFD0400902).
The authors gratefully thank Dr. Xiangyi Li in University of Zurich
for the language check.
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