C

I
V
I
L

E
N
G Final year project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the Degree of Bachelor of Civil Engineering
I
N
E ASSESSING THE CARBON FOOTPRINT OF
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS OF A BUILDING
E
R
I SUPERVISED BY:
N
G DR Mohsin Soomro

T External Supervisor:
H
E Engr. Sajjad Ali Abro
S
I SUBMITTED BY:
S
GROUP LEADER: SYED MUHAMMAD HUSSAIN GILLANI [F18CE125]
ASSISTANT GROUP LEADER: MUZAMIL HUSSAIN [F18CE99]
GROUP MEMBER: SYED ABBAS SHAH [F18CE66]

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, NAWABSHAH
 FINAL YEAR PROJECT / THESIS II
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering

ASSESSING THE CARBON FOOTPRINT OF

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS OF A BUILDING

SUPERVISED BY:
DR MOHSIN SOMROO
External Supervisor:
Engr. Sajjad Ali Abro
SUBMITTED BY:

GROUP LEADER: SYED MUHAMMAD HUSSAIN GILLANI [F18CE125]

ASSISTANT GROUP LEADER: MUZAMIL HUSSAIN [F18CE99]
GROUP MEMBER: SYED ABBAS SHAH [F18CE66]

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, NAWABSHAH
 CERTIFICATE

This to certify that MR.____________________________________________

S/o_______________________________________ Roll No.______________

Final year student of Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering) has completed

the compulsory requirement of Thesis during the session of 2022. Thesis titled
as “ASSESSING THE CARBON FOOTPRINT OF CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS OF A BUILDING” is submitted to the Quad-e-Awam
University Engineering, Science and Technology Nawabshah for the Award of
Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering).

Supervisor / Internal Examiner

External Examiner:
:

___________________________
Chairman
(Department of Civil Engineering)
QUEST Nawabshah

I
 DEDICATION

This humble effort is dedicated to our beloved and respected

PARENTS

Who have supported us, believed in us, and helped us throughout our lives

And

TEACHERS

Who believed in the richness of learning and have guided us throughout our
academic career and helped forged us into who we are today

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allah, the most gracious and the most merciful. First and
foremost we are thankful to Allah almighty for giving us the strength
knowledge and ability to undertake and complete this study.

Then we would like to thank our supervisor, Dr. Mohsin Soomro, for his
guidance, support and help during the thesis work for it would have not been
possible without him, his guidance was the key for completion of this thesis.

We would also like to express our deepest gratitude to the chairman, Dr.
Daddan Khan Bhangwar, for their support and help.

Finally we would like to thanks our family member for their continuous
support.

III
 TABLE OF CONTENT

DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE ................................................................................................. I
DEDICATION .................................................................................................. II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................. III
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................. IV
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................... VII
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................... VIII
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... IX

CHAPTER NO 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Global Warming ............................................................................ 1
1.1.2 Green House Gases........................................................................ 2
1.1.3 Carbon Footprint ........................................................................... 2
1.2 Background of the Research ................................................................... 3
1.3 Problem Statement .................................................................................. 6
1.4 Research Aims and Objectives ............................................................... 7
1.5 Scope of Study ........................................................................................ 7

CHAPTER NO 2
LITRATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 8
2.2 Global Warming and Carbon Dioxide Emissions .................................. 8
2.2.1 Global Warming and Climate Change .......................................... 9
2.2.2 Global Warming and Carbon Dioxide Emissions ......................... 9

IV
 2.3 International Cooperation to Mitigate CO2 Emissions ........................ 11
2.3.1 United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC)................................................................................................. 11
2.3.2 The Kyoto Protocol (1997): ........................................................ 12
2.3.3 Paris Climate Agreement (2015): ................................................ 12
2.4 Sustainable Development Goals ........................................................... 13
2.4.1 Sustainable Development Goals: Climate Action ....................... 20
2.5 BUILDING AND CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION .......................... 23
2.6 GREEN BUILDINGS ........................................................................... 13
2.6.1 THE CONCEPT OF GREEN BUILDINGS ............................... 13
2.6.2 The CHARACTERSTICS OF GREEN BUILDINGS ............... 15
2.6.3 THE GOALS OF GREEN BUILDINGS .................................... 18
2.7 GREEN BUILDING TOOLS ............................................................... 24
2.7.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 24
2.7.2 BREEAM .................................................................................... 24
2.7.3 SBTOOL...................................................................................... 25
2.7.4 CASBEE ...................................................................................... 26
2.7.5 GREEN STAR............................................................................. 26
2.7.6 LEED ........................................................................................... 27
2.7.7 MYCREST .................................................................................. 28
2.7.8 GREEN BUILDING TOOL USED BY PAKISTAN ................. 30
2.7.9 Comparison of Different Green Building Rating Tools .............. 31
2.8 CARBON CALCULATOR .................................................................. 31

CHAPTER NO 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 33
3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 33
3.1.1 CASE STUDY............................................................................. 33
3.2 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK............................................................... 34
3.2.1 IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM AND PRELIMINARY
STUDY 35
3.2.2 LITRATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 35
3.2.3 CASE STUDY............................................................................. 35

V
 3.2.4 DATA COLLECTION ................................................................ 36
3.2.5 DATA ANALYSIS ..................................................................... 37
3.2.6 GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 37
3.3 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................... 38

CHAPTER NO 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................... 39
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 39
4.2 Quantity of Construction Materials ...................................................... 39
4.3 CO2 Emissions of Construction Materials ........................................... 40

CHAPTER NO 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................... 42
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 42
5.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 42
5.3 Limitations ............................................................................................ 43
5.4 Recommendation for Decreasing Carbon Emission of Construction
Materials ........................................................................................................ 44
5.5 Recommendations for Future Works .................................................... 44

6 REFRENCES ........................................................................................... 46

VI
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIG NO TITLE PAGE NO

Figure 1.1 : Sustainable Development ................................................................ 4
Figure 1.2 Growth of Pakistan Construction Industry ........................................ 5
Figure 2.1 Consumption of total natural resources in industrialized countries. 13
Figure 2.2: Electricity consumption in Pakistan ............................................... 14
Figure 3.1: Flowchart of Research Methodology.............................................. 34
Figure 4.1 Mass of Construction Materials ....................................................... 40
Figure 4.2 Carbon emission of construction materials ...................................... 41

VII
 LIST OF TABLES

Table NO TITLE PAGE NO

Table 2.1 BREEAM scoring benchmarks (Adapted from BRE 2019) ............. 25
Table 2.2 Tools used by MYCREST for scoring .............................................. 29
Table 2.3 Comparison of Green Building Rating Tools around the Globe ...... 31
Table 4.1 Mass of materials used in building .................................................... 39
Table 4.2 CO2 emissions of construction materials used in building ............... 40
Table 5.1 Summary of objectives, methodology and significant findings ........ 43

VIII
 ABSTRACT

Increasing Global temperatures and Global warming are becoming an environmental issue
due to uncontrolled carbon emissions, leading to unpredictable daily climate changes such as
floods, hurricanes, heatwaves, and droughts. The construction industry is one of the biggest
CO2 emitters, emitting more CO2 than the transport industry. Together the construction
industry is responsible for 39% of all carbon emotions in the world of which 11% comes
from materials used in construction. This research aims the calculation the CO2 emitted
during the construction of the Department of Telecommunication, Quaid-e-Awam
University of Engineering Science and Technology Nawab shah. This research only aims at
the carbon dioxide emissions of the materials used in the construction such as concrete,
mortar, bricks, and reinforcement. As those are the major factors responsible for the
emission of carbon dioxide in the construction of a building

IX
 CHAPTER NO 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

It has become an evident fact that human development has had an unprecedented growth
over the last few decades, but this spurt has not been without any disadvantages we have
caused severe damaged to the global biogeochemical systems. Global warming has caused
the global temperature to be increased by 1.5 C[1] since the built environment is responsible
for about 50% of the annual GHG emissions so it has led to birth of terms such as
sustainable development offers an alternative to current practices by promoting qualitative
change that emphasizes a triple economic, ecological and social benefit. Our Common
Future, the 1987 Brundtland Commission report, has defined sustainable development as
"development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meettheir own needs"[2].

Along with sustainability the terms, integrated and green design have risen to popularity.
The term integrated design refers to a method of designing and constructing a building in a
way that is more sustainable. The integrated design approach requires and motivates all
construction team members to collaborate from the early stages of project design in order to
reach high efficiency and sustainability.

In this thesis we will calculate the Carbon Footprint of the construction materials used in a
case-study building with the help of a carbon calculator. Here by calculating the Carbon
Footprint of this building we hope to understand the impact of such buildings on
environment so that we provide solutions to reduce or mitigate it.

1.1.1 Global Warming

Global warming is defined as the long-term heating of Earth's surface observed since the
pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel

1
burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth's atmosphere. Many
reasons are associated with global warming but one of the greatest factors causing global
warming are humans. Human activities have been the major driver for global warming
since 1800s (industrial era). The global annual temperature has increased in total by a little
more than 1 degree Celsius. Between 1880, the year that accurate record keeping began and
1980, it rose on average by 0.07 degrees Celsius every 10 years. Since 1981, however, the
rate of increase has more than doubled: For the last 40 years, we’ve seen the global annual
temperature rise by 0.18 degrees Celsius, per decade. Global warming occurs due to human
activities such as burning of fossil fuel, agriculture, construction, transportation etc which
release greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. IPCC fifth assessment report showed that
many natural systems both on continents and seas are being affected by regional climate
change.

1.1.2 Green House Gases

The overall temperature of earth is maintained by a balance of energy entering and leaving
the earth’s atmosphere. The Earth is warmed by absorption of the solar radiations from the
sun. There are gases present in Earth’s atmosphere which absorb these radiations and scatter
them in random directions, so when the radiation is reflected in downward direction it
intensifies warming the Earth’s atmosphere this effect is more commonly known as the
Green House effect[3].

Most commonly known GHGs are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide
(N2O), ozone (O3), water vapors and fluorinated gases.

1.1.3 Carbon Footprint

Carbon footprint can be defined as the total GHG emission by a individual, event,
organization, place, product or service expressed as equivalent to carbon dioxide. It is an
effective measure of direct or indirect GHG emission in a wide range of studies ranging
from regional to global level. In most cases it becomes extremely hard or even impossible to
exactly calculate the total carbon footprint due to inadequate knowledge and lack of
standardized practices.

2
1.2 Background of the Research

Historically, the construction industry was not very considerate about its impact on the
environment which should change to a new model that takes in to account the environment
concerns. Aforetime, environmental considerations were only taken into account by a very
small proportion in the construction industry. But, with growing awareness of the issue of
environmental protection caused due to the depletion of non-renewable resources, climate
change and the massive destruction of global biogeochemical systems, this issue has been
receiving increased attentionfrom construction professionals around the world. Great efforts
are being made to establish a sustainable future in the construction industry.

In general, sustainability is the way natural resources are used in a state of balance such
that they do not reach the stage of decay, depletion and non-renewal and are passed on to
future generations by being developed[4]. In the other hand, sustainable development is
defined as “development that meets the requirements of today/present without damaging or
compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs”, and sustainability,
meaning "green construction", is the responsibility of the construction industry to achieve
sustainability. The sustainability approach in building and construction first addressed
issues of limited resources, in the case of energy inparticular, and ways to reduce impacts
on the natural in the environment, with a particular focus on engineering issues such as
materials, building components, building technologies.
A study[5] found that the construction sector accounts for 23 % of air pollution, 50 % of
the climate change, 40 % of potable water pollution and50 % of landfill waste. On the other
hand, in a study conducted by the U.S. Green Building Council(USGBC) (2018),
construction industry contributes 40 % of global energy consumption, and it is estimated
that by 2030, commercial building emissions will be up 1.8 %. The concept of sustainable
construction nowadays covers three major areas: protection of the environment, social
wellbeing and economic growth as presented in Figure 1.1.

3
 Figure 1.1 : Sustainable Development

Source : Yilmaz and Bakis (2015)

Pakistan is the 5th most populous country in the world, with 220 million citizens, more than
60 million strong labor force and a growing middle class. Out of total population, 36.38%
resides in urban areas whereas 63.62 lives in rural parts. There is a growing demand for houses
due to a 2.4% annual population growth rate as per census 2017. The country’s construction
industry accounts for 2.53% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) according to the Pakistan
Economic Survey. The sector employs 7.61% of the employed Pakistani labor force. GFCF
in private sector grew by 20.6% between FY2019 and FY2020. Private sector GFCF
amounted over 95% of the total. China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) has given a boost
to the construction sector through the influx of infrastructural projects including highways,
power plants, and dams. Pakistan’s construction sector provides up to 380 billion PKR in
GDP.

In Pakistani society, public awareness, and concern about how buildings impact the
environment, workers' productivity and public health is growing. Thus, government, industry
organizations and private enterprises are becoming more conscious of the fact that there is a
need to mitigate this environmental issue without limiting the need for development. While
these parties are aware of sustainability questions or have a good knowledge of the
sustainability concept but make little effort to address it. To know but not to be practicing
is also a major issue in the application of a sustainable concept the Pakistan government is
struggling to implement sustainable construction process due to various reasons[6]. The
awareness level of developers in Pakistan on the issue is still at a low level. The greatest

4
obstacle to achieving green building development is a high initial investment, i.e., higher
professional fees, environmental evaluation fees, design and materials as well as higher costs
for the development of green buildings. As we know Pakistan is a developing country so the
absence of financial stimuli from the national government has also contributed to the issue.
The country’s construction industry accounts for 2.53% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
according to the Pakistan Economic Survey. The sector employs 7.61% of the employed
Pakistani labor force. Pakistan’s construction sector provides up to 380 billion PKR in GDP.
According to the Association of Builders and Developers, pending cases pertaining to
construction and housing add up to Rs. 1.1 trillion in monetary value. Fitch Solution projects
an industry value of Rs.2,705.5 billion by 2028 representing the potential of the housing and
construction industry.

Figure 1.2 Growth of Pakistan Construction Industry

Source: Housing and Construction| Board of Investors

The energy demand of Pakistan is also increasing, it is increasing at 8 to 10% per year.
Leaving sustainable development as the only viable option[7]. That is why the Pakistani
government, with regard to sustainability and greenbuilding issues, has set up several green
agencies such as the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (PEPA), Agha Khan
Agency for Habitat (AKAH) and has developed Pakistan Green Building Council (PGBC)

5
which utilizes SEED rating guide lines for Green Buildings.

1.3 Problem Statement

The increasing level of carbon in our atmosphere is becoming an environmental disaster

because it leads to climate change and the global warming. The construction industry is one
of the biggest carbon dioxide emitter’s activities in the world. Together, building and
construction are responsible for 40% of all carbon emissions in the world along with the
waste material production [8].
Pakistan is the 5th most populous country in the world, with 220 million citizens, more than
60 million strong labor force and a growing middle class. Out of total population, 36.38%
resides in urban areas whereas 63.62 lives in rural parts. In Pakistan, around 67.5 % of the
ecosystem and 34% of the natural energy resources are being affected by various construction
activities[9]. Pakistan although only produces 0.9% of global greenhouse gases but rates about
top nations vulnerable to climate change, the severe weather changes can be noticed with
crazy hails to never ending heatwaves. The carbon emissions of Pakistan were 147.8 million
tons in 2008 and might reach 400 million tons in nearby future and it is increasing on alarming
rate of 6%, according to a study the greenhouse gas emissions in Pakistan has grown by 87%
from 1992 to 2012.

Consequently, this scenario has developed a response, namely the introduction of green
building into society. The emission of CO2 is a major issue. The excess carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere lead to rise in the global temperature of the planet, causing global warming, and
leading to disastrous climate. Global warming is the primary concern in terms of
environmental impact on the climate and geography of our planet. A lot of research has been
done on the matter of reducing the effect of CO2 on the environment. Countries such as
Pakistan which are still in their developing phase build many concrete buildings every year,
producing millions of tons of concrete. As buildings and other structures are made to last
decades if not centuries, we have to understand the impact of these buildings on the
environment. The lack of understanding can be due to lack of information on the amount of
CO2 released by a building from the production stage of the building materials to the end-of-
use phase of its life. This case study quantifies CO2 emissions due to the construction
materials of the following building and then uses those data to explore recommendations for

6
environmentally friendly construction methods.

1.4 Research Aims and Objectives

The aim of this study is to quantify the carbon footprint of the construction materials used in
the case-study building. In order to achieve the aim of the study, the objectives needed to be
completed are as follow:
i. To evaluate the quantity of building materials used in the case-study building in
Nawabshah.
ii. To calculate the carbon footprint of the building by the use of a carbon
calculator.
iii. To evaluate critical components of CO2 emission for a building construction
materials.
iv. To recommend ways to reduce CO2 from construction materials and building
operation.

1.5 Scope of Study

To analyze the impact of a building on the environment we have to consider categories such
as GHGs, energy and water, e.g. The construction sector of Pakistan needs to be optimized
for the reduction of GHG to meet the future needs hence motivating the need for this study.
We will assess the carbon footprint of the construction materials used in the case-study
building. Other stages of the life cycle of the building such as operation, demolition and
disposal are beyond the scope of this study.

7
 CHAPTER NO 2
LITRATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The environmental issues that the world in concerned about are global warming, the
greenhouse gases, the emissions of carbon and the degradation of the ozone-layer. Several
reasons have been associated with the occurrence of such events. Environmental degradation
occurs due human activities such as burning of fossil fuels, increasing deforestation and the
urban development to name a few and in developing countries these activities are becoming
more and more common.
The environmental issues affect the whole world hence tackling them has become a major
object of the world in order to achieve a more durable future. So, a lot of steps have been
taken to address various environmental issues. Many researches and studies have been
conducted about sustainable development and environmental protective organizations have
been expanded in countries all over the globe.
In this chapter we will discuss the existing literature that has been published on the topic of
sustainable construction. The first section of this chapter briefly discusses sustainable
development objectives followed by globalwarming, carbon dioxide emissions and then
Pakistan and international trends in carbon dioxide emissions. Finally, an overview of
Pakistan and International standards and guidelines.

2.2 Global Warming and Carbon Dioxide Emissions

'Global warming' is a phrase that refers to the effect on the climate of human activities, in
particular the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) and large-scale deforestation, which
cause emissions to the atmosphere of large amounts of 'greenhouse gases', of which the
most important is carbon dioxide [10]. It is the phenomenon of rising average oceanic and
atmospheric temperatures due to the emission of excessive greenhouse gases. These
emissions are more than the capacity of oceans to absorb back and increases the
greenhouse effect, which traps heat at the earth's surface. Since 2000, a consensus has

8
emerged that the effects of global warming are already being significantly felt, that they are
expected to increase in the medium and long term and that they would be irreversble unless
concerted action is taken, locally as well as globally.

2.2.1 Global Warming and Climate Change

An international panel of scientists published the world’s first public statement in 1995 that
there was a discernible human impact on the world climate. In the coming decade,there will
be an increase in some of the predicted consequences of global warming, such as rising oceans,
extreme dry periods, high temperatures, heat waves and violent storms.The hottest 20 years in
history have been recorded since 1998 and 2019 is on its way to be the warmest year ever
recorded. Temperature records indicate that the global annual mean surface air temperature
(referred to as the global temperature) has risen by 0.5°C since 1840. According to recent
general circulation model calculations, by the year 2020 the global mean temperature will
have risen to 1.3 to 2.5°C above the preindustrial (1840) mean. By the year 2070, the range
of temperature increase will be 2.4 to 5.1°C, and sea level will have risen 33 to 75 cm.
Measurements from Antarctic ice cores show temperature swings of 4 to 5°C between ice
ages and interglacial periods[11]. As a result, what does the coming future look like if we
cut CO2 emissions, the temperatures could only rise by 2.5 degrees Fahrenheit by2099, which
is reasonable. Otherwise, temperatures may increase by more than eight degrees, leading to
widespread food shortages, large-scale depletion, and redesign of the world's coastlines.
Global warming will ultimately lead to climate change, which is unavoidable at this point.
How far this will change has yet to be determined[12].

2.2.2 Global Warming and Carbon Dioxide Emissions

The major part of contemporary life relies on energy. The production of most of this energy
emits GHGs, one of which is CO2. Carbon dioxide is a significant type of GHG,a natural
chemical that is fundamental to keeping the temperature of the planet at a safelevel and to
maintaining the good conditions for the growth of our planet. Since the Industrial Revolution,
however, the combustion of fossil fuels, like coal and oil, has generated an excessive quantity
of CO2. The latest global atmospheric level recorded in June 2019 by the Mauna Loa

9
Observatory in Hawaii (NOAA) is 413.93 ppm (CO2.Earth, 2019). These are the most
important levels that have ever been seen in human history.
With all this surplus CO2, a hazardous quantity of warmth is captured and over time theplanet
will become a very heated one. Consequently, to keep the Earth's equilibrium, there is a
necessity to cut CO2 emissions, on the other hand, it is not easy to imagine life without fossil
fuels as it has been the most important source of energy for many years in the world. The use
of fossil fuels is not only for energy production, it is also used to make many things. New
renewable technologies, these technologies, including solar, wind and geothermal energy,
may free the planet from a reliance on fossil fuels, but a major effort will be necessary to
develop a clean and sustainable renewable energyfor all needs [12].In 2018, world energy-
related CO2 releases increased by 1.7 % to a historic high of 33.1 Gt CO2. This represents a
growth rate that is the highest since 2013 and 70% greater than an average since 2010. The
increased emissions are caused by heavier energy use resulting from the strength of the global
economy and weather conditions incertain parts of the world, which have resulted in a higher
demand for energy for both heating and cooling. Carbon dioxide level Stagnated between
2014 and 2016, even though the global economy was still growing. This is due mainly to
major increases inenergy efficiency and the use of low-carbon emission technologies, which
has reduced the demand for coal[13].

However, the situation changed in 2017 and 2018. Higher economic performance has not
been compensated by a higher energy productivity, and low carbonoptions have in fact not
been brought up to scale fast enough to meet the growing demands. Therefore, CO2 emissions
have risen by nearly 0.5 % for every 1 % rise in global economic production, as compared
to an average rise of 0.3 % since 2010. Nevertheless, the impact of renewable energies
and nuclear energy has had an impact, with a 25 percent growth in the emissions growth rate
compared to the growth in energyuse in 2018[13].
Since the energy shift will be a step-by-step approach, beginning to cutemissions now is
essential. For instance, consuming less of everything, including meat and water at all those
knick-knacks that are so easy to throw away. Not wasting food and avoidance of excess
packaging can help to cut CO2 emissions, and even simple steps such as not wasting food.
There will be positive changes if all of us, individuals, companies and governments, work
hard and contribute to cutting CO2 emissions in an attempt to lessen their impact on the world
climate [14].

10
2.3 International Cooperation to Mitigate CO2 Emissions

The threat of global warming and climate change was too large to just be ignored. The
leaders, scientists, and individuals around the world gathered in order to face this issue. The
event that first drew the world's attention towards global warming and climate change is the
first "World Climate Conference" organized by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) in 1979. The conference expressed concern that "the continued expansion of human
activities on earth could lead to significant regional and even global climate change" and
called for "global cooperation to explore the possible future evolution of the global climate
and to take this new understanding into account in planning the future development of human
society"[15]. Following this conference, various international efforts were made to monitor
and mitigate climate change. In 1988, the IPCC was established and followed by the adoption
of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have set out a general framework for
intergovernmental efforts to respond to the issue of climate change. Under the convention
governments gathered and sharing from nation on the GHGs emissions, national policies,
funding, and technology assistance to developing countries and international cooperation as
well as preparation for the mitigation of climate changeimpacts. The following are some of
the conventions dealing with climate change [16].

2.3.1 United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change or UNFCCC is an

international environment treaty signed in 1992 by 165 countries around the world it has
been effective since 1994. The objective of the treaty is to "stabilize greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphereat a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system". Countries joined this agreement, to examine what
should be undertaken to control global temperature increase, the consequent climate
change, and to deal with its effects.

11
2.3.2 The Kyoto Protocol (1997):

In 1990s the effects of global warming due to greenhouse gases emission was becoming
evident and the fact that conventional emission reduction techniques were insufficient was
becoming clear to nations around the world so on 11 December 1997 a treaty was signed in
Kyoto, Japan among the nations known as the Kyoto protocol. Under the protocol, it was
decided that the developed countries must achieve carbon emission reduction objectives as
they are the reason for high emissions in the first place it entered its force in 16 February
2005 and the first engagement was commenced in 2008 and concluded in 2012 the second
commitment was from between 2013 until 2020. Currently there are 195 Parties to the
Convention and 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Protocol have proceeded with
ongoing negotiations and have modified the Protocol in order to achieve greater ambition by
2030[17].

2.3.3 Paris Climate Agreement (2015):

In 2015 196 nations came together to sign a treaty on climate change near Paris, France this
treaty came to be known as The Paris Agreement, the Paris accord or The Paris Climate
Accord. It discussed climate change, mitigation, adaptation and finances. As a result, the
purposes of the Paris Agreement are as follows:

i. Maintain the global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above
pre-industrial levels preferable at 1.5 degree Celsius.
ii. Strengthening countries' ability to address the impacts of climate change.

The key focus of the Paris Agreement is to maintain global temperatures "well below"2°C
(3.6F) over the pre-industrial period and to "strive to limit" them to an even lower level of
1.5°C. Under the Paris Agreement, the amount of GHGs emitted by human activity is
restricted to the levels that the air, the land and oceans can assimilate naturally. It also
mentions the necessity to review every five years each country's shareof emission cuts and
insist that the developed countries should assist poor countries by supplying them with
"climate finance" to help them adjust to climate change and move to renewable energy.
Paris Agreement gives us a "bottom-up" framework, while most international environmental
treaties are "top-down". It is legally binding on some aspects such as theobligation to report,

12
while other aspects of the agreement, such as the setting of emission goals for a given
country, are left as non-binding.

2.4 GREEN BUILDINGS

Green building (also known as green building or sustainable building) refers to both a
structure and the application of environmentally friendly and resource-saving processes
throughout the entire life cycle of a building: from planning to design, construction,
operation, maintenance, renovation and demolition, which requires close cooperation
between the contractor, architects, engineers and the client at all stages of the project.

2.4.1 THE CONCEPT OF GREEN BUILDINGS

Based on an analysis of energy[24], In the industrialized countries, an estimated 30 to 4

percent of all natural resources used in the construction industry are consumed by the
industrialized countries. Furthermore, 50 percent of the energy generated is consumed for
cooling as well as heating in the building. It was also found that 40 percent of the world's
material consumption is generated by the built environment. Pakistan itself, almost 47 % of
the electricity it generates is used in the residential and commercial sector (Hassan et al.,
2014).

OTHER 60%
INDUSTRIES

40%
BUILDING
INDUSTRY

Figure 2.1 Consumption of total natural resources in industrialized countries

Source: Pulselli et al. (2007)

13
 Figure 2.2: Electricity consumption in Pakistan
Source: Pakistan Energy Year Book, 2013

Urban population growth (annual %) in Pakistan was reported at 2.71 % in 2019, according
to the World Bank collection of development indicators, the urban population of Pakistan in
2020 is 82,094,635 which is about 36.4 % of total population[25]. As most of the energy is
used in urban areas, the rise in urban population growth will lead to larger energy use in
future.

FIG: 2.7, URBANIZATION IN PAKISTAN FROM 2010 TO 2020

SOURCE WORLD BANK STATISTICS 2022

38.00%
37.50%
37.00%
36.50%
36.00%
35.50%
35.00%
34.50%
34.00%
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2017 2019 2020

35% Series 2 Series 3

Figure 2.3: Urbanization In Pakistan from 2010 to 2020

Source: world Bank statistics 2022

14
Implementation of sustainability measures includes the construction of green buildings.
Green building is a comprehensive concept that implies that the built environment has
profound effects, both positively and negatively,on the natural environment, as well as on
the individuals who live in buildings daily. Green building is an attempt to enhance positive
and minimize negative impacts over the entire life cycle of a building.
Green building, which is also known as sustainable construction, utilizes resources such as
water, materials, energy and soil more efficiently than conventional construction[26]. As a
result of the building's design, a more productive and healthier work environment as well as
a learning and living environment through natural light and better indoor air quality will be
achieved.

2.4.2 The CHARACTERSTICS OF GREEN BUILDINGS

Study conducted in Malaysia by[27], insists that green buildings shouldbe energy and resource
efficient, and that materials can be reused and toxic emissions can be minimized throughout
the building's life cycle. It also states that green construction must be capable of preserving
and enhancing the standard of human life and conserving the ecosystem at the local and
global levels, as well as supplementing the local climate, traditions, culture and its
surrounding environment.

Figure 2.4: components of green building.

Source: Theconstructor (2018).

15
Furthermore, the design of green buildings is an essential stage where the principles of green
building should be taken into consideration. The use of resources is expected to be restricted
to the pace at which they naturally recover andshould only be discarded at the rate at which
local ecosystems can assimilate them. In this way, it will be prevented from producing a huge
amount of construction waste and,consequently, from multiplying the number of landfills
for disposal. Materiel and energy resources must be understood as part of a balanced
human/natural cycle. Wasteis only generated to the degree that it is returned to this cycle and
utilized to generate more resources.

Figure 2.5: Flow chart of waste disposal tracking and management.

Source: Lai et al. (2016).
Efficient materials can be used in the construction of the building and in furniture to
minimize local and global impact. The use of waste energy and materials should be reduced
to a minimum during the entire life cycle of the building, from designto reuse or demolition.
A building's envelope should be designed with energy performance in mind. Strategies for
materials and design use should aim to achieve an excellent total indoor environmental
quality, where indoor air quality is a majorconsideration. Designed to optimize occupant
health and performance. Operating and maintenance systems should support waste
minimization and recycling. The site and systems should maximize employee and customer
mobility opportunities and reduce the use of single-occupancy vehicles. This involves
employing other means of work like teleworking and teleconferencing. Water should be
managed as a limited resource.

16
Figure 2.6: 2D view of sunlight and energy savings in buildings with and in buildings
without passive construction.
Source: Schmid and Lo (2016)

The planning of each site should take into consideration the naturally availableresources on a
site, such as solar and wind energy, natural shade, and drainage.According to a study[28],
proper orientation of buildings or site layout saves energy. The following parameters are
taken into account when choosing the location and orientation of the construction; the plan is
elongated along East/West axis, exposures tonorth and south are good for day lighting, taken
into account when choosing the location and orientation of the construction; the plan is
elongated along East/West axis, exposure to north and south are good for day lighting,
windows must not be provided facing east and west and the most populated area must be
oriented towards the north or south. Figure 2.10 displays a diagram of sunshine and energy
conservation in buildings with and in buildings without active design (Schmid and Lo, 2016).

17
2.4.3 THE GOALS OF GREEN BUILDINGS

These features of a green building referred to earlier are in line with the goals of
sustainable buildings, as defined by California's Executive Order D-16-00, which
consist of choosing the location, design, deconstruction, construction, renovation,operation
and maintain buildings that represent energy efficiency, materials and water while ensuring a
healthy, comfortable and productive indoor environment.
According to a study [29] the goals of sustainable construction are as follows:

i. To increase the consumption of raw resources, water, and energy.

ii. Minimize the negative impacts of raw material production and construction,
decommissioning and long-term construction activities on the environment.
iii. Enhance the indoor air quality of the building
iv. Provide better health and higher productivity for building occupants.

Thus, it can safely be said that the aims of green building incorporate both quantifiable
features, such as energy saving and resource consumption efficiency, and advantages such
as increased productivity and human health.

2.5 Sustainable Development Goals

In 2015 during United Nation General Assembly known as Agenda 2030, 17 interlinked
global goals were presented on which world leaders from 193 countries jointly agreed on
these goals are known as sustainable development goals (SDGs). As the SDGs were broad
and interdependent in 2017 specific targets were specified to these goals in order to convert
them into a more actionable and measurable form. 2030 was decided to be the year by which
most of the targets will be achieved while for some no end date was given. The renewed
global action plan up to 2030 is to end poverty and famine, tackle inequalities, overcome
climate change and promote sustainable development for everyone. Sustainable development
goals followed the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were agreed in 2000 on
as part of a global coordinated attempt to overcome development challenges, thus reducing
the population living in extreme poverty by half as much as it was in 1990.
Nowadays, over 800 million people are still extremely poor and most vulnerable to the rising

18
effects of climate and environmental degradation. Hard-won years of struggling for
development could be easily wiped out by minor conflicts, as well as economic crises and
natural disasters. Moreover, there has been steadily less significant progress in sub-Saharan
Africa and South Asia than in the rest of the world. The MDGs have assessed achievement
on a national average basis, in many cases without taking into consideration what has
happened with the most excluded groups like people with disabilities, Indigenous
communities, the rural communities and women.
As the international community acknowledges the emerging challenges and that global
protection of the earth must go together with human prosperity as a result of a three-year
participatory process, it was finally adopted by world leaders as seventeen sustainable
development goals which are summarized as following:

i. Goal 1: No poverty
ii. Goal 2: Zero Hunger
iii. Goal 3: Good health and well-being
iv. Goal 4: A quality education
v. Goal 5: Gender Equality
vi. Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation
vii. Goal 7: Clean and affordable energy
viii. Goal 8: Adequate work and economic growth
ix. Goal 9: Industry, innovation, and infrastructure
x. Goal 10: Minimize inequalities
xi. Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities
xii. Goal 12: Responsible production and consumption
xiii. Goal 13: Acting for climate change
xiv. Goal 14: Underwater life
xv. Goal 15: The Life on Land
xvi. Goal 16: Promoting peace, justice, and stronger institutions
xvii. Goal 17: Partnering for the achievement of the goals.

For the Goals of sustainable development, four guiding principles are transformational in the
way we will work on development in the future. First, the sustainable development objectives
are universal, applicable to all countries, both rich and poor, North, and South, both

19
developed and developing. They acknowledge that global threats such as the challenges of
combating climate change and evolvingdevelopment strategies require global responses.
National policies that address these issues in one country will have an impact in other parts
of the world, and therefore need to coordinate.
The second reason is that they incorporate all aspects of sustainability, as well as economic
development, economic progress, social progress, and protection of the environment. For
instance, they tell us to cultivate our food while not destroying the soil, to expand our
economies without increasing inequalities or to generate enough electricity for all without
emitting more CO2 into the environment. The objectives of sustainable development are
telling us that we should not leave any people behind. Governments agreed that no goal
should be reached until it is for all, to the most vulnerable and difficult to achieve groups of
people in society. As a result, education needs to reach indigenous communities, employment
must be provided for women andmen, good quality health services must be made available
to all rural communities andwater and sanitation installations must be available to people
living with disabilities. Fighting exclusion is the key to tackling inequalities.
Lastly, the goals of sustainable development demand the contribution of all. The adoption
process of the sustainable development goals has taken years and has involved national
discussions, dialogues with civil society groups, as well as consultations with the private
sector and academia, and negotiations among all United Nations Governments. A strong
sense of empowerment of these goals is felt. The outcome is a challenging one, but one that
reflects what the world demands. The implementation of sustainable development objectives
today necessitates continual participation at the both the national and local levels, with all
stakeholders and stakeholders having a part to play in their achievement. Combined with the
Paris Accordon Climate Change and Pope Laudato's encyclical si', sustainable development
offers anew approach to sustainable development[16].

2.5.1 Sustainable Development Goals: Climate Action

Mankind is the driving force behind global environmental changes and has brought us into a
new geological era, the Anthropocene. In 2016, a new record of one point one degrees (1.1°)
over pre-industrial records were set (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2013).
The global emission of carbon dioxide has increased by 50 % since 1990. On the other hand,
climate change will have some of its most negative effects in developing countries. Climate
Action is the 13th Sustainable Development Goal, it has been split into four sub goals that

20
work together to achieve toaim of the main goal.
In 2013 alone, there were 330 reported disasters triggered by geological and meteorological
hazards affecting 108 countries and 96.5 million people. The largest threat to development
is climate change, and its widespread and unparalleled impacts are disproportionately
affecting the world’s poorest. This is because the extent of a disaster depends on the
magnitude of the hazards and vulnerability of the population impacts. As developing
countries has fewer technological means of defense and preparation. The effects of disaster
are almost always more prevalent in these areas. Itsclimate changing at such a rapid rate
causing such dramatic socio-economic andenvironmental impacts [18].

2.5.1.1 Target 13.1: Climate Relate Hazards and Natural Disasters

The first of the Sustainable Development Goals sub targets against climate change is
becoming increasingly vital, target 13.1 taking edge in action to combat climate changeand
its impact. Therefore, reducing disaster risk and increasing the resilience ofcommunities to
natural hazards can severely reduce the magnitude of disasters and its impacts.

21
The key areas focused on the goals are developing early warning systems and
encouragement of governments in developing societies to address urban risks and to
incorporate disaster risk reduction in their respective national plans [18].
Most of the help and assistance is provided by international governments NGOs through
community-based disaster risk reduction projects. Schemes are run in areas of high
vulnerability, such as development of Hazard Maps warning systems and action plan. The
success of the program made by the goals is measured using the followingindicators:
i. Countries with strategies for national and local disaster risk management and
the number of countries that have adopted disaster risk reduction approaches.
ii. Number of deaths, people missing, and people impacted by disasters by one
thousand people.

2.5.1.2 Target 13.2: National Policies and Planning

On the following objective, the inclusion of actions to address climate change is called for.
Strategies and international policies planning are being implemented by assuring that
countries are not forced by climate change, thereby enabling them to enhance the health and
welfare of their populations. Consequently, to mitigate the impact of climatechange, there
will be less pressure on national health budgets and major cost reductions[19]. A key factor will
be the effective implementation of sustainable development objectives, as well as the
inclusion and coordination of international policystrategies and planning.
Some countries mentioned the establishment of coordinated strategies that enhance the
ability to accommodate the negative impacts of climate change. Between 2011 and 2015, it
was the warmest period, with the lowest levels of sea ice. Under the landmark Paris
Agreement concluded in April 2019 by 185 Member States, the objective is to address
climate change mitigation as well as to speed up and accelerate the measures and the
necessary investments for a sustainable and low-carbon future[16].

2.5.1.3 Target 13.3: Education

The second sub-goal was to enhance education on Adapting to Climate Change Mitigation,
Minimizing Impacts and Early Warning. This is difficult, as adaptation has a variety of
interpretations in various regions. In wealthy nations, the effects of climatechange are not

22
significant and can be tackled in a few different ways. Because of their agricultural
dependence and weak financial capacity to respond to climate change, developing countries
are particularly fragile. It also encourages them to change in their mindset and their
behavior[20].
An example of how education is being used is the UN project, protecting our planet lungs
ranges from the national service of natural protected areas. Work with tennative communities
into Peru to protect over 400,000 hectares of the Amazon rainforest.It is there protecting the
rainforest as well the most effective ways to combat climate change due to the natural
feedback mechanisms[21].

2.5.1.4 Target 13.4: Developed Countries Mobilize Money to Address the Needs
of Developing Nations

It is estimated that 1.4 trillion dollars are needed annually to reach all goals, therefore, it is
crucial to act on developing nations. It is estimated that anthropogenic greenhousegases from
these nations will rise from 30 % to 60 % of the world total by 2050[22]. Target 13.4, this
target hopes to reach an annual fund of 100 billion dollars by 2020 and we used to promote
mechanisms for effective climate changemitigation and planning strategies in developing
nations and small island states. One such strategy is the use of drones in the Maldives to
create 3d maps of the islands allowing accurate understanding as to what mitigation planning
can be applied and where [23].

2.6 BUILDING AND CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION

The International Energy Agency (2019) estimates that buildings and construction industries
are accounted for 36 % of the world's final energy consumption and almost 40 % of total
CO2 emissions, both direct and indirect. The global demand for energy from buildings and
the construction of buildings is still increasing, through improved energy accessibility in
developing countries, expanded acquisition and utilization of energy-using devices and the
fast growth of the global floor area of buildings, which is now almost 3 % per year.
The main factor of environmental pollution is construction and the impact of the construction
industry produces unwanted consequences.

23
2.7 GREEN BUILDING TOOLS

2.7.1 Introduction

The rapid uptake in sustainability in the built environment over recent decades has been
accompanied by an increase in the number of international sustainability rating tools.
However, there has been growing confusion about varying green building organizations and
the increasing number of rating systems in different countries, partly due to the diverse range
of sustainable buildings that are owned by international investors. It has been argued the
level of confusion may create a barrier to a complete understanding by all stakeholders and
restrict demand for and investment in sustainable buildings (Reed and Sims, 2015). To date,
no single international sustainability rating tool has been adopted, but rather a number of
different tools have emerged with each relying on a different approach to measuring the level
of sustainability in a building. This is akin to comparing green with scarlet rather than
comparing apples with apples. For example, “how does an investor or tenant compare a
building with a ‘gold’ rating to a 4-star building?” An analogy can be drawn with mobile
phones where most phone providers developed their own unique power adaptor; however,
this international problem has now been overcome with the standardization of a generic
mobile phone adaptor. Nevertheless, the same solution seems unlikely with international
sustainability tools, and therefore, attention must be placed on their similarities and
differences. It is essential to understand individual rating tools and how each tool works and
what information they produce. It is acknowledged each individual country and its urban
environment are influenced by a unique set of drivers affecting global change including
social, ecological, political, and economic change and perception toward the importance of
sustainability. However, each country also operates in the broader international marketplace
where diversified property portfolios often include real estate investments from different
countries and markets.

2.7.2 BREEAM

BREEM stands for Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method is

the first environmental assessment method and the most widely used one globally. It was

24
originally developed in the UK by Building Research Establishment Global Limited (BRE
Global Ltd.) (BRE Global, 2014) and is supported by several independent organizations
called National Scheme Operators (NSO).

(BRE Global, 2013) BREEAM provides various assessment methods including ‘country-
specific schemes’ adapted by the NSOs for their local conditions as well as ‘international
schemes’ to be applied for projects across the worlthatch are not covered in the local
schemes (BRE Global, 2014).

Among the underlying principles of BREEAM, it is stated that it was developed to “provide
a common framework of assessment that is tailored to meet the ‘local’ ’ context[30]

Table 2.1 BREEAM scoring benchmarks (Adapted from BRE 2019)

Scale 1-Passs 2-Good 3-V.Good 4-Excellent 5-

Outstanding
Scoring(%) ≥ 30 ≥ 45 ≥ 55 ≥ 70 ≥ 85

2.7.3 SBTOOL

SBTool, formerly known as GBTool was developed in 1995 by the International Initiative
for a Sustainable Built Environment (iiSBE), which is an international non-profit
organization formed by ten national chapters worldwide (Austria, Canada, Czech Republic,
Israeli, Italy, Malta, Portugal, South Korea, Spain and Taiwan).

The system of GBTool, which was designed for the assessment and rating of green
buildings, was upgraded as SBTool to serve as a method to assess the performance of not
only green but also sustainable buildings. Its latest version, SBTool 2012, is built upon a
general flexible framework in order to be adjusted to suit almost any location and project. It
is believed that this approach would enable the system to be adapted to local conditions, so
that the results would be meaningful.

25
2.7.4 CASBEE

CASBEE stands for “Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environment Efficiency”
it was developed in Japan in 2004 by Japan Sustainable Building Consortium (JSBC) for the
evaluation and rating of the environmental performance of buildings.

The system is being continuously developed and updated by the Japanese Green Building
Council (JaGBC), together with academic, governmental, and industrial institutions, and its
latest version for new constructions is CASBEE for New Construction 2010.

In April 2014, the official certification body of CASBEE, the Institute for Building
Environment and Energy Conservation (IBEC), certified the first international CASBEE
rated building in China (CASBEE, 2013).

2.7.5 GREEN STAR

The Australian Green Star was developed as a national environmental rating tool by the
Green Building Council of Australia (GBCA) in 2003.The rating system offers various
schemes, as well as the ‘Custom’ tool for projects where the existing schemes are not
applicable. The Custom Green Star rating tool enables project teams to work in collaboration
with Green Star authorities to tailor the system according to individual project conditions
(GBCA, 2014).

Green Star rating schemes for buildings are composed of nine categories, which are;

(i) Management
(ii) Indoor Environment Quality
(iii) Energy, Transport
(iv) Water
(v) Materials
(vi) Land Use

26
 (vii) Ecology
(viii) Emissions, and
(ix) Innovation

The score calculation of the building for each category is based on its performance in
fulfilling the credits assigned under it. The performance at each category is expressed as a
ratio of achieved points to the maximum possible points.

In order to establish a justified approach, considering a credit's applicability within a certain

scheme, some credits may be omitted. Therefore, a project which does not have the chance to
fulfill a credit as to its type or other circumstances would not lose points over the mentioned
credit. After the category score is calculated, it is multiplied by the environmental weighting
factor of that category. The category score is weighted to balance the implicit weighting
caused by the number of credits found in each category in order to establish a priority among
them (GBCA, 2014).

2.7.6 LEED

LEED, or Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, is a green building certification

used in the United States. Managed by the U.S. Green Building Council, this building rating
system is completed by on-site or third-party verification. Many building types can apply for
this certification program, including new construction, existing buildings, homes, and
communities. LEED has four certification levels including, certified, silver, gold, and
platinum.

LEED has nine areas of focus,which are as following:

(i) Location and transportation,

(ii) sustainable sites,
(iii) water efficiency
(iv) energy and atmosphere
(v) material and resources,
(vi) indoor environmental quality,
(vii) innovation,

27
 (viii) regional priority,
(ix) and integrative processes.

The LEED certification program aims to have buildings.use their resources more efficiently
and create a safe environment for all its occupants throughout the building’s life cycle. As of
2019, 80,000 projects were registered, with 32,500 projects having completed the
certification process. Top users of LEED certification include Intel Corp., Colgate-
Palmolive, Mars Inc., and Method Southside Soapbox Factory.

2.7.7 MYCREST

MyCREST, or the Malaysian Carbon Reduction and Environmental Sustainability Tool,

aims to guide, assist, quantify, hence reduce, the built environment’s impact in terms of
reduced carbon emissions and environmental impact, while taking into account a more
holistic life cycle view of the built environment. It also aims to integrate socio-economic
considerations relating to the built environment and urban development.

Aims of MYCREST are as following:

i. To integrate carbon assessment criteria and reduction strategies into the matrix of
sustainability resulting in a combined sustainable assessment rating system for the
built environment
ii. To provide a quantifiable carbon assessment within a holistic sustainable rating
system by integrating and extending the present criteria into life-cycle-linked
performances and parameters
iii. To extend the present green building assessment into life cycle impacts and its
quantification
iv. To combine both carbon emission and sustainable performance factors into a
combined criterion linked to the design, construction, commissioning, and operations
of buildings
v. To be in line with the aims of Low Carbon City Framework (LCCF) by Ministry of
Energy, Green Technology, and Water (KeTTHA)

Objectives of MYCREST are as following:

28
 i. To quantify the environmental impacts of the built environment in both carbon
reduction and sustainable impact terms
ii. To ensure the best environmental practice according to global and local standards and
targets
iii. To maintain and improve a database of impacts and best practice case studies to
reduce carbon emissions in design and life cycle impacts
iv. To raise awareness of the life cycle impacts of the built environment and its
components
v. To balance robustness with ‘durability’ and practicality and ease of use
vi. To produce a tool flexible enough to be used by all stakeholders, consultants, and
contractors and for all building types and scenarios
vii. To balance long and short-term targets
viii. To balance environmental and 'human' socioeconomic issues

MYCREST essentially combines three basic tools in order to construct a 'scoring plan' which
is then used to assess a building for certification. MYCREST basic tools is represent of how
MYCREST assessment, recognition and award is given separately to the three basic stages
of the building lifecycle.

Table 2.2 Tools used by MYCREST for scoring

Design Stage Construction Stage Operation &Maintenance

Stage
Design tool Construction tool O&M tool

Design stage scored Construction stage O&M stage scored

scored

Reference guide for Reference guide for Reference guide for

design stage Construction stage O&M stage
Design stage carbon Construction stage O&M stage carbon
caculator carbon caculator caculator

29
2.7.8 GREEN BUILDING TOOL USED BY PAKISTAN

Pakistan has developed its own GB rating tool, known as SEED, (Sustainability in Energy
and Environmental Development) [15]. Hence, building rating tools specific to a country are
important to address the local environmental needs and sustainability issues. Different
studies highlight that there is a lack of incorporation of local conditions in building
assessment tools. Lin and Ling [16] and according to a study the most of the existing rating
tools were established in developed countries with cold climates, stable economies, and
different social values. It is not practical to implement their latest sustainable technologies in
a developing country like Pakistan with different climatic conditions. Moreover, there is a
lack of a holistic approach and comprehensive coverage of sustainability issues. Research
studies of building rating tools illustrate that the existing rating tools mainly cover the
environmental aspect with little consideration for social and economic impacts. Furthermore,
there is an excessive number of tools and methods available to rate and evaluate the
sustainability of buildings globally with no international guidelines. In addition to this, the
assessment methods utilized by green building rating tools and life cycle assessment tools
are not incorporated into each other. Therefore, the green and sustainability rating systems
are a greenwashing activity and are often used for impression management in which the
systems have become a sustainability mask, misleading its targets and initial intended
purposes.
In Pakistan, no comprehensive assessment tool has been initiated by the government or local
authorities to evaluate sustainable development. The developed rating tool SEED is based on
western standards and is not able to address the local environmental needs and sustainability
concerns. Pakistan has different climatic factors, weather parameters, and variables that need
to be analyzed and addressed in the green building rating tool, which has not been done
previously. So, the certification standard needs to be revised to be specific to Pakistan.
Furthermore, there are only a few buildings that are green-certified in Pakistan and this is not
implemented at large. There is a need to develop policy and legitimate guidelines for the
promotion and implementation of sustainable development assessments. Therefore, this
current study aims to address these challenges and develop a comprehensive green building
framework for Pakistan.

30
 2.7.9 Comparison of Different Green Building Rating Tools

Green Country Organisations First Latest Number of Number Total Rating level Number of
Building version categories of points certified
Rating version criteria projects

BREEAM UK BRE 1990 2018 10 53 110 Outstanding ≥ 85 567,091

Excellent ≥ 70
Very good ≥ 55
Good ≥ 45
Pass ≥ 30
LEED US USGBC 1998 2016 9 68 125 Platinum ≥ 80 92,000
Gold ≥ 60
Silver ≥ 50
Certified ≥ 40
GBI Malaysia ACEM & PAM 2009 2017 6 51 100 Platinum ≥ 86 120
Gold ≥ 76
Silver ≥ 66
Certified ≥ 50
Green Singapore BCA 2005 2015 5 96 124 Platinum ≥ 90 2,754
Gold plus ≥ 85
Mark Gold ≥ 75
Certified ≥ 50
BEAM Plus Hong HKGBC 1996 2016 6 77 118 Platinum ≥ 75 181
Kong
Gold ≥ 65
Silver ≥ 55
Bronze ≥ 40
MyCREST Malaysia CIDB, KKR 2014 2014 9 149 384 5 Star = 80-100 -

&JKR 4 Star = 70-79

3 Star = 60-69
2 Star = 50-59
1 Star = 40-49
SEEDS Pa kistan PGBC 2016 2016 8 40 100 Titanium =80-100 134
Platinum =70-79
Gold =60-69
Silver = 50-59

Table 2.3 Comparison of Green Building Rating Tools around the Globe

2.8 CARBON CALCULATOR

Carbon footprints are estimated using a carbon calculator. It calculates greenhouse gas
emissions for a specific point in time. Carbon calculators are used to computing greenhouse
gas inventories of facilities or operations to determine the amount of greenhouse gases
produced in a given year, it is essential that we are able to accurately count embodied

31
carbon[31]. Carbon calculators are the tools for calculations of the carbon footprint of the
buildings during the designing, building, operation, demolition, and disposal phase of
buildings. Here we are using DBFO (Design, Build, Financial, and Operation) calculator in
order to find

carbon footprint of materials used in the building. DBFO should be used to identify the
embodied CO2 content of materials used during construction, routine, and maintenance
activities, undertaken by each DBFO.

32
 CHAPTER NO 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we will discuss in detail the methodology that we have adopted for data
collection to achieve the objectives of this study as mentioned in Chapter One while also
explaining the rationale for choosing the methods of data collection as well as the techniques
of data analysis.
The methodology taken for this study is the case-study approach, this method helps us to
take a small component of a large system in order to explain the characteristics of the overall
system. It is a very effective and efficient method which helps the user to conserve the
resources and time while providing very good results.

3.1.1 CASE STUDY

The case-study approach is a very well-known method of conducting research. Here we take
the building as the specific bounded system. The emphasis here is on understanding the
process of in a single framework, and to induce from the results of the research
recommendations for future projects. By using Stake’s Qualitative Case Study Approach[32],
it identifies three types of case studies: intrinsic,collective and instrumental case studies. In
an intrinsic case study, the main focus is the case itself, while a collective case study is
applied when more than one case is investigated and an instrumental case study focuses on
a particular case or cases mainly to provide insight into an issue and facilitate understanding
of a larger phenomenon[33].The unique specificities of the case under investigation will
promote an understanding or shaping of the practice in the following areas similar situations.
In our case study, the focus is on assessing the carbon footprint case-study building in its
construction phase, the suggestion made from the results of our inquiry will be applied in
future projects.

33
3.2 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

The research framework is the simplification of the overall strategy that one chose to in order
to achieve the aim of the study, it illustrates the overall process in simple steps to explain
how the outcome was achieved, it ensures that the research problem has been addressed
effectively. The research framework used for this project is shown in the flowchart illustrated
in figure 3.1.

Identification of Problem

Literature Review

Case Study

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Conclusion and Recommendations

Figure 3.1: Flowchart of Research Methodology

34
3.2.1 IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM AND PRELIMINARY STUDY

First task is to recognized whether or not there is an issue at hand that needs to be solve. Here
we have previously discussed the causes of global warming and how the construction
industry is linked to it. So we initial explore the issues related to this and a problem statement
is given. Preliminary studies are conducted which might be used to identify key features to
be addressed during the process. The aim of the preliminary study is to give an overview and
ensure that the evaluation coversrelevant areas of focus.

At this stage the discussion focuses on the overview of the problem statement and the
research questions of whether it is important to the industry. It is essential to conduct this
discussion with the supervisor, as he or she can provide a comprehensive overviewof the
limitations and challenges of pursuing this topic and to guide in completing this research
without any obstacles.

3.2.2 LITRATURE REVIEW

After the problem was identified and necessary initial discussions are done an in depth
literature review was conducted. A literature review is an overview of the major writings of
researches done by specialized practitioners. The literature review aids us to strengthen,
verify,and review the critical points of our research study. It is to provide evidence that the
selected relevant literature can create some awareness of the current state of knowledge on
the research objectives [34]. With the objectives and scope of research properly defined the
literature review easies flow of the entire research and helps to achieve the aim of the research
study, the objective and scope of the research. In this literature review, we have discussed
about sustainable materials and green building tools used in construction industry and the
global effort to reduce the climate. The literature review was constructed with the help of
information obtained from the reference books, articles, and various online sources.

3.2.3 CASE STUDY

Creswell defines a case study as "an in-depth exploration of a delineated system(e. g., an

35
activity, event, process or individuals) from a broad data collection". The detailed character
of the case studies restricts the number of different systems that may be considered but does
provide data on the following details that may not be included in a more extensive research
project. Exceptional case studies concentrate on a very special or exceptional case, whereas
instrumental case studies utilize a typical system to demonstrate a more global trend or
concern. In an ideal situation, each researcher should be able to investigate the link between
their selected case study and the wider or more important societal situation. Here we are
taking the Telecommunication Department Building in QUEST Nawabshah as the case-
study building. The construction details of the case study are further described in Chapter 4.
The study will focus on assessing the carbon footprint of construction materials used in the
building.

3.2.4 DATA COLLECTION

This step consist of gathering and measuring all the required information related to our work,
this data enables one to answer our researchquestions so we could attain test our hypotheses,
and evaluate outcomes. The data collection methodology may wary from discipline to
discipline but the need for this step is one of the most integral part of research in any field.
The data collected in this research is of two types

i. Primary Data
ii. Secondary Data

3.2.4.1 PRIMARY DATA

Primary data contains clear and accurate information on a variety of things collected through
survey of a selected case study location or face-to-face interviews, such as development
consultants and construction professionals. The information and results obtained from this
are very accurate and reliable but it can be both expensive and time consuming as site surveys
can be a very tedious job.

36
3.2.4.2 SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data consist to the data that is not collected personally but rather by someone else
other than the user. Secondary data is commonly collected through censuses, surveys,
organizational records, and data collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative
research and is mostly available to public. Secondary data analysis helps the user save time
and cost by reducing the number of site visits and interviews that the user might have had to
perform personally, it also provide generally a larger database than one the user could have
collected himself, increasing of overall quality of the data.

3.2.5 DATA ANALYSIS

The collection of data is a crucial aspect of the study process. Nevertheless, these data need
to be analyzed to get an understanding of their importance. Quantitative data analysis covers
a wide range of subjects. This subject continues to expand as researchers discover new
methods of analyzing data; the challenge of better understanding huge amounts of data and
information may not end. This stage focuses on the fundamental terminology and concepts
that are being used to analyze quantitative data. Researchersuse a field of mathematics called
statistics to investigate large amounts of data. Statistical work is a very broad field, and
experience has shown that people with no background in mathematics are not only able to
participate in statistical work but can also contribute brightly to the field. Analytical statistics
use mathematical logic to explain and interpret phenomena and make conclusions from
collected data[35]. In this stage, the data or information collected from stage two will be
compiled and do a summary based on the research findings. The data and information from
the case study will be all recorded and analyzed quantitatively by using excel calculation and
other suitable statistical methods.

3.2.6 GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This is the last stage of the study, the general conclusions section gives a summary of the
main points of the discussions, the most important design considerations, and the most
meaningful results of the research.Since its purpose is to provide a comprehensive overview
of the Study's background, it should be written in such a way as to refer directly to the
objectives of this study as stated in the introduction and to indicate the extent to which the

37
objectives have been achieved. In addition, the general conclusion will synthesize the
principal conclusions, outcomes, and key findings of the study. Finally, the General
Conclusions section willidentify limitations and make recommendations for any future work,
as well as to highlight the relevance or usefulness of the research.

3.3 CONCLUSION

In this chapter we discussed the research methodology chosen for this study. It explained the
process of collecting data for the construction materials the primary data was collected from
the BOQ which provided us with all the necessary information about the material used (i.e
their amount) and the DBFO carbon calculator was used to calculate its emission level in
order to achieve the objectives of this study, secondary data was collected from literature
review, including articles, journals, books, websites, latest news, reports. Once the data
collection process is completed, we will analyze the data and will present results it in writing
form, tables and charts in chapter 4.

38
 CHAPTER NO 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter we will discuss the results we got by achieving our objects given in chapter
1.First we calculated the total quantity of construction materials form the BOQ of the
building then we put the data the in a carbon calculator to find out the carbon footprint of the
building and finally gave recommendation for decreasing the CO2 emissions based on the
results from the evaluation and the carbon footprint assessment.

4.2 Quantity of Construction Materials

A large variety of construction materials were used for the construction of Telecommunication
Department building in QUEST Nawabshah, the most common materials are collected and
their respective CO2 emissions are calculated. A list of all the materials used and their
respective mass is given below. Outcomes are presented both in terms of materials used and
emissions from the different materials. The total amount of materials used in construction of
Telecommunication Department building construction is estimated at 32370.9 ton as illustrated
in Table 4.1.

Material Mass Unit

Concrete 26669.64 Ton

Steel 1359.01 Ton

Mortar 2490.5 Ton

Bricks 1852.26 Ton

TOTAL 32370.9 Ton

Table 4.1 Mass of materials used in building

39
Here we can see that the most consumed material based on the quantity is concrete. The second
most consumed item is mortar followed by bricks and then steel the figure 4.2 shows the
distribution of materials used based upon quantity

mass of materials used

6%
8%
4% Concrete
Steel
Mortar
Bricks
82%

Figure 4.1 Mass of Construction Materials

4.3 CO2 Emissions of Construction Materials

The table 4.2 gives us the carbon emissions of the construction materials used
in the construction of Telecommunication department

Material Emission Unit

Concrete 2853.65 tCO2

Steel 1984.15 tCO2

Mortar 550.40 tCO2

Bricks 444.54 tCO2

Total 6328.1 tCO2

Table 4.2 CO2 emissions of construction materials used in building

The total carbon footprint of the Telecommunication department building is 6328.11 tCO2
two of the materials used are responsible for most of the CO2 emissions, which are concrete

40
and steel with respectively 2853.65 tCO2 and 1984.15 tCO2 followed by mortar 550.4 tCO2
tonnes and last by bricks for 444.54 tCO2.

The fig 4.2 shows the comparison between the CO2 emissions of construction materials

Concrete Sreel Mortor Bricks

Bricks
8%
Mortor
9%

Concrete
49%

Sreel
34%

0.2
Figure 4.2 Carbon emission of construction materials

41
 CHAPTER NO 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter will conclude the study by summarizing the finding which was collected from

the executed research. The conclusion for overall analysis result is summarized based on the

research objectives. The problems and limitation arisen while doing this research are also

stated in this chapter. Furthermore, the recommendation for conducting future research will

also be discussed.

5.2 Conclusion

Through carbon footprint assessment of the construction materials we are able to identify the
highest carbon emitting materials during the construction process. Here it was observed that
although steel was used in a lower quantity than the other materials(by mass) yet it produced
relatively large amount of carbon, the highest amount of material that was used was concrete
which was equal to 82% of the overall mass of the materials

42
 Objectives Methodology Significant findings

To evaluate the quantity of The quantity of An extraordinary high amount

building materials used in construction materials of concrete and large
used are collected from the volumes of mortar are used,
the case-study building in
BQ and the drawings compared to other materials,
Nawabshah. A total number of 32370.9
ton of materials used from
which 82% was concrete,
8%mortar,6% bricks and 4%
steel

To calculate the carbon DBFO carbon calculator The overall carbon emission
footprint of the building by was used to calculate the of the construction materials
CO2 emissions of the of the building is 6328.1tCO2
the use of a carbon
construction materials
calculator.

Evaluate critical Comparison of carbon It was observed that steel

component of C02 emission from the although was used in lower
emission for Building. construction materials quantity than other materials
produced high amount of
CO2 emissions

Table 5.1 Summary of objectives, methodology and significant findings

5.3 Limitations

During the course of this study it was recognized that certain challenges occurred which
hindered or slowed the progress. They are the constraints on generalizability, applications
to practice, and utility of findings that are the result of the ways in which we initially
chose to design the study such limitations which occurred during this thesis are stated
below

i. There is a lack of standardization of method for calculating CO2 emissions.

43
 ii. The carbon calculator used for calculating carbon emissions was based on materials
of UK the emission factors of the construction materials might differ in Pakistan.
iii. In this study we have analyzed only one building, making it hard to generalize the
data from the building of various type of projects.
iv. In this study we have analyzed on the materials to be used in the grey structure of the
building (steel, concrete, mortar, bricks) while overlooking materials such as glass,
asphalt, tiles, paint and so forth.
v. Construction techniques and construction activities such as transportation of
materials were not included.

5.4 Recommendation for Decreasing Carbon Emission of Construction

Materials

The techniques for reducing the carbon emission of the buildings are already devised in
through various studies, according to Akbarnezhad and Xiao[36] we can use the following
strategies:

i. Use low carbon emission materials; it can reduce the overall emission by almost
30%[37]
ii. Material minimization and reduction strategies; it is achieved by optimizing the design
of the structure and avoiding oversizing.
iii. Material reuse and recycling strategies; this strategy can also solve the problem of
disposal of unwanted materials.
iv. Local procurement and transportation minimization
v. Construction optimization strategies.

5.5 Recommendations for Future Works

This thesis was only the first step of the overall life cycle of a building so there is a large
room for future work. The studies related to the topic that might be conducted in the future
can include the following research area

i. The overall life cycle can be done which will include construction phase, operation
phase, demolition phase and disposal phase.

44
 ii. Analysis of more than one project type can be done to better demonstrate the effect of
building types on CO2 emissions.

iii. A larger and more accurate variety of construction materials can be analyzed to better
express CO2 emissions.

iv. A Carbon Calculator can be designed which take factors of construction materials in
Pakistan.

v. The construction activities such as transportation, construction of the project etc and
construction techniques should be taken into account.

vi. Another research area is to continue developing the guidelines and set stricter
approaches to achieve lower emissions from construction in Pakistan.

vii. A further evaluation about the possibility for substitute the highest CO2 emitting
material with low emission materials.

viii. A sensitivity analysis could be another option for developing the evaluation of the
carbon footprint result even further, since the uncertainty is an estimation made in
this thesis and rather high values has been chosen.

45
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