MEE 401 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN II (3 UNITS)

Course Outline

1.0 Casting design, design for heat treatment and metal forming.
2.0 Design for spring, cams.
3.0 Design methodology; systematic method.
4.0 Design for machine structures.
5.0 Principle of practice of material selection.
6.0 Design for economic manufacture, assembly, energy reduction and recyclability.
7.0 Design of pneumatic and hydraulic circuits.
8.0 Mechatronics in design; sensors, actuators, switches, motors (dc & ac), etc.
9.0 Design a project.

Recommended Textbooks:

th
1. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw Hill Publication, 5
Edition. 1989.

2. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery by K. Waldron and G. Kinzel John Wiley, 2003.

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 MODULE 2.0
DESIGN FOR SPRING, CAMS.

Spring act as a flexible joint in between two parts or bodies. If springs are of very small diameter
and the wire diameter is also small then the springs are normally manufactured by a cold drawn
process through a mangle. However, for very large springs having also large coil diameter and
wire diameter it is manufactured by hot processes. Two types of springs which are mainly used
are, helical springs and leaf springs. Spring can find application in the following areas:
1. Cushioning, absorbing, or controlling of energy due to shock and vibration as in car springs or
railway buffers
2. Control of motion:
 Springs maintaining contact between two elements (cam and its follower).
 Creation of the necessary pressure in a friction device (a brake or a clutch)
3. Measuring forces in spring balances, gauges.
4. Storing of energy in clocks or starters

2.1 Helical Spring

The figures below show the schematic representation of a helical spring acted upon by a tensile
load F (Fig.2.1) and compressive load F (Fig.2.2). The circles denote the cross section of the spring
wire. The cut section, i.e. from the entire coil somewhere we make a cut, is indicated as a circle
with shade.

If we look at the free body diagram (Figure 2.3) of the shaded region only (the cut section) then
we shall see that at the cut section, vertical equilibrium of forces will give us force, F as indicated
in the figure. This F is the shear force. The torque T, at the cut section and its direction is also
marked in the figure. There is no horizontal force coming into the picture because externally
there is no horizontal force present. So, from the fundamental understanding of the free body

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diagram one can see that any section of the spring is experiencing a torque and a force. Shear
force will always be associated with a bending moment.

Wire Diameter (d)

Shear Force (F)

Torsion (T)

Coil Diameter (D)

Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2

Force F is acting perpendicular

to the plain of the paper

The cut section

Figure 2.3: Section of the spring

However, in an ideal situation, when force is acting at the centre of the circular spring and the
coils of spring are almost parallel to each other, no bending moment would result at any section

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of the spring (no moment arm), except torsion and shear force. The Fig.7.1.3 will explain the fact
stated above.
2.2 Stresses in the helical spring wire
From the free body diagram, we have found out the direction of the internal torsion T and
internal shear force F at the section due to the external load F acting at the centre of the coil.
The cut sections of the spring, subjected to tensile and compressive loads respectively, are shown
separately in the Fig.7.4 and 7.5. The broken arrows show the shear stresses (τ ) arising due to
T

the torsion T and solid arrows show the shear stresses (τ ) due to the force F. It is observed that
F

for both tensile load as well as compressive load on the spring, maximum shear stress (τ + τ )
T F

always occurs at the inner side of the spring. Hence, failure of the spring, in the form of crake, is
always initiated from the inner radius of the spring.

Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5

The radius of the spring is given by D/2. Note that D is the mean diameter of the spring.
The torque T acting on the spring is

D
T F (2.1)
2
d 4
If d is the diameter of the coil wire and polar moment of inertia, I P  , the shear stress in
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the spring wire due to torsion is
D d
F 
Tr 2 2  8FD
T   (2.2)
Ip d 4 d 3
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Average shear stress in the spring wire due to force F is
Tr F 4F
F    2 (2.3)
I p d 2
d
4
Therefore, maximum shear stress in the spring wire is
8 FD 4F
T  F   (2.4)
d 3 d 2
 

8 FD  1 
or  max  1 (2.5)
d 3  2D 
 
 d 
8FD  1 
or  max  3 
1  (2.6)
d  2C 
D
where, C  is call the spring index
d
8 FD
finally,  max  (K s ) (2.7)
d 3
1
where, K s  1  (2.8)
2C
The above equation gives maximum shear stress occurring in a spring. Ks is the shear
stress correction factor.

2.3 Cams
A cam is a rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating motion to another
element known as follower. The cam and the follower have a line contact and constitute a higher
pair. The cams are usually rotated at uniform speed by a shaft, but the follower’s motion is
predetermined and will be according to the shape of the cam. The cam and follower are one of
the simplest as well as one of the most important mechanisms found in modern machinery today.
The cams are widely used for operating the inlet and exhaust valves of internal combustion
engines, automatic attachment of machineries, paper cutting machines, spinning and weaving
textile machineries, bottling machineries, feed mechanism of automatic lathes etc.

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2.4 Classification of Followers
The followers may be classified as discussed below:
1. According to the surface in contact. The followers, according to the surface in contact, are as
follows:
(a) Knife edge follower. When the contacting end of the follower has a sharp knife edge, it is
called a knife edge follower, as shown in Fig. 2.6 (a). The sliding motion takes place between the
contacting surfaces (i.e. the knife edge and the cam surface). It is seldom used in practice because
the small area of contacting surface results in excessive wear. In knife edge followers, a
considerable side thrust exists between the follower and the guide.
(b) Roller follower. When the contacting end of the follower is a roller, it is called a roller follower,
as shown in Fig. 2.6 (b). Since the rolling motion takes place between the contacting surfaces (i.e.
the roller and the cam), therefore the rate of wear is greatly reduced. In roller followers. Also,
the side thrust exists between the follower and the guide. The roller followers are extensively
used where more space is available such as in stationary gas and oil engines and aircraft engines.
(c) Flat faced or mushroom follower. When the contacting end of the follower is a perfectly flat
face, it is called a flat‐faced follower, as shown in Fig. 2.6 (c). It may be noted that the side thrust
between the follower and the guide is much reduced in case of flat faced followers. The only side
thrust is due to friction between the contact surfaces of the follower and the cam. The relative
motion between these surfaces is largely of sliding nature but wear may be reduced by off‐setting
the axis of the follower, as shown in Fig. 2.6 (f) so that when the cam rotates, the follower also
rotates about its own axis. The flat faced followers are generally used where space is limited such
as in cams which operate the valves of automobile engines.
Note: When the flat faced follower is circular, it is then called a mushroom follower.
(d) Spherical faced follower. When the contacting end of the follower is of spherical shape, it is
called a spherical faced follower, as shown in Fig. 2.6 (d). It may be noted that when a flat‐faced
follower is used in automobile engines, high surface stresses are produced. In order to minimize
these stresses, the flat end of the follower is machined to a spherical shape.

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 Figure 2.6: Classification of followers

2. According to the motion of the follower. The followers, according to its motion, are of the
following two types:
(a) Reciprocating or translating follower: When the follower reciprocates in guides as the cam
rotates uniformly, it is known as reciprocating or translating follower. The followers as shown in
Fig. 2.6 (a) to (d) are all reciprocating or translating followers.
(b) Oscillating or rotating follower: When the uniform rotary motion of the cam is converted into
predetermined oscillatory motion of the follower, it is called oscillating or rotating follower. The
follower, as shown in Fig 2.6 (e), is an oscillating or rotating follower.
3. According to the path of motion of the follower. The followers, according to its path of motion,
are of the following two types:

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(a) Radial follower. When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing through the centre
of the cam, it is known as radial follower. The followers, as shown in Fig. 2.6 (a) to (e), are all
radial followers.
(b) Off‐set follower. When the motion of the follower is along an axis away from the axis of the
cam centre, it is called off‐set follower. The follower, as shown in Fig. 2.6 (f), is an off‐set follower.
Note: In all cases, the follower must be constrained to follow the cam. This may be done by
springs, gravity or hydraulic means. In some types of cams, the follower may ride in a groove.

2.5 Classification of Cams

Though the cams may be classified in many ways, yet the following two types are important from
the subject point of view:
1. Radial or disc cam. In radial cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction
perpendicular to the cam axis. The cams as shown in Fig. 2.6 are all radial cams.
2. Cylindrical cam. In cylindrical cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction parallel
to the cam axis. The follower rides in a groove at its cylindrical surface. A cylindrical grooved cam
with a reciprocating and an oscillating follower is shown in Fig. 2.7 (a) and (b) respectively.

Figure 2.7: Cylindrical cam

Note: In actual practice, radial cams are widely used. Therefore, our discussion will be only
confined to radial cams.

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2.6 Terms Used in Radial Cams
Fig. 2.8 shows a radial cam with reciprocating roller follower. The following terms are important
in order to draw the cam profile.
Base circle: It is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile.
Trace point: It is a reference point on the follower and is used to generate the pitch curve. In case
of knife edge follower, the knife edge represents the trace point and the pitch curve corresponds
to the cam profile. In a roller follower, the centre of the roller represents the trace point.
Pressure angle: It is the angle between the direction of the follower motion and a normal to the
pitch curve. This angle is very important in designing a cam profile. If the pressure angle is too
large, a reciprocating follower will jam in its bearings.
Pitch point: It is a point on the pitch curve having the maximum pressure angle.
Pitch circle: It is a circle drawn from the centre of the cam through the pitch points.
Pitch curve: It is the curve generated by the trace point as the follower moves relative to the
cam. For a knife edge follower, the pitch curve and the cam profile are same whereas for a roller
follower, they are separated by the radius of the roller.
Prime circle: It is the smallest circle that can be drawn from the centre of the cam and tangent
to the pitch curve. For a knife edge and a flat face follower, the prime circle and the base circle
are identical. For a roller follower, the prime circle is larger than the base circle by the radius of
the roller.
Lift or stroke: It is the maximum travel of the follower from its lowest position to the topmost
position.

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 Figure 2.8: Terms used in radial cams

2.7 Motion of the Follower

The follower, during its travel, may have one of the following motions.
(1) Uniform velocity, (2) Simple harmonic motion, (3) Uniform acceleration and retardation, and
(4) Cycloidal motion.
We shall now discuss the displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams for the cam when the
follower moves with the above‐mentioned motions.

2.8 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with
Uniform Velocity
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when a knife‐edged follower moves with
uniform velocity are shown in Fig. 2.9(a), (b) and (c) respectively. The abscissa (base) represents
the time (i.e. the number of seconds required for the cam to complete one revolution) or it may
represent the angular displacement of the cam in degrees. The ordinate represents the
displacement, or velocity or acceleration of the follower.

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Since the follower moves with uniform velocity during its rise and return stroke, therefore the
slope of the displacement curves must be constant. In other words, AB1 and C1D must be straight
lines. A little consideration will show that the follower remains at rest during part of the cam
rotation. The periods during which the follower remains at rest are known as dwell periods, as
shown by lines B1C1 and DE in Fig. 2.9 (a). From Fig. 2.9 (c), we see that the acceleration or
retardation of the follower at the beginning and at the end of each stroke is infinite. This is due
to the fact that the follower is required to start from rest and has to gain a velocity within no
time. This is only possible if the acceleration or retardation at the beginning and at the end of
each stroke is infinite. These conditions are however, impracticable.

Fig. 2.9: Displacement, velocity and Fig. 2.10: Modified displacement, velocity and
acceleration diagrams when the acceleration diagrams when the follower
follower moves with uniform velocity. moves with uniform velocity

This may be done by rounding off the sharp corners of the displacement diagram at the
beginning and at the end of each stroke, as shown in Fig. 2.10 (a). By doing so, the velocity of the
follower increases gradually to its maximum value at the beginning of each stroke and decreases
gradually to zero at the end of each stroke as shown in Fig. 2.10 (b). The modified displacement,

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velocity and acceleration diagrams are shown in Fig. 2.10. The round corners of the displacement
diagram are usually parabolic curves because the parabolic motion results in a very low
acceleration of the follower for a given stroke and cam speed.

2.9 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with
Simple Harmonic Motion
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with simple
harmonic motion are shown in Fig. 2.11 (a), (b) and (c) respectively. The displacement diagram is
drawn as follows:
1. Draw a semi‐circle on the follower stroke as diameter.
2. Divide the semi‐circle into any number of even equal parts (say eight).
3. Divide the angular displacements of the cam during out stroke and return stroke into the same
number of equal parts.
4. The displacement diagram is obtained by projecting the points as shown in Fig. 2.11 (a).
The velocity and acceleration diagrams are shown in Fig. 2.11 (b) and (c) respectively. Since the
follower moves with a simple harmonic motion, therefore velocity diagram consists of a sine
curve and the acceleration diagram is a cosine curve. We see from Fig. 2.11 (b) that the velocity
of the follower is zero at the beginning and at the end of its stroke and increases gradually to a
maximum at mid‐stroke. On the other hand, the acceleration of the follower is maximum at the
beginning and at the ends of the stroke and diminishes to zero at mid‐stroke.

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 Fig. 2.11: Displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower
moves with simple harmonic motion.

Let S = Stroke of the follower,

θO and θR = Angular displacement of the cam during out stroke and return stroke of the follower
respectively, in radians, and
 = Angular velocity of the cam in rad/s.
 Time required for the out stroke of the follower in seconds,
tO   O / (2.9)

Consider a point P moving at a uniform speed ωP radians per sec round the circumference of a
circle with the stroke S as diameter, as shown in Fig. 2.12. The point P’ (which is the projection of
a point P on the diameter) executes a simple harmonic motion as the point P rotates. The motion
of the follower is similar to that of point P’.

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 Fig. 2.12: Motion of a point

 Peripheral speed of the point P’,

S 1 S 
vP     (2.9)
2 tO 2 O
and maximum velocity of the follower on the outstroke,

S  S
vO  v P    (2.10)
2  O 2 O
We know that the centripetal acceleration of the point P,

v P 2
2
 S  2  2 2 S
aP       (2.11)
OP  2 O  S 2 O 2

 Maximum acceleration of the follower on the outstroke,

 2 2 S
aO  a P  (2.12)
2 O 
2

Similarly, maximum velocity of the follower on the return stroke,

S
vR  (2.13)
2 R
and maximum acceleration of the follower on the return stroke,

 2 2 S
aR  (2.14)
2 O 
2

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 2.10 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with
Uniform Acceleration and Retardation
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with uniform
acceleration and retardation are shown in Fig. 2.13 (a), (b) and (c) respectively. We see that the
displacement diagram consists of a parabolic curve and may be drawn as discussed below:
1. Divide the angular displacement of the cam during outstroke (θO) into any even number of
equal parts (say eight) and draw vertical lines through these points as shown in Fig. 2.13 (a).
2. Divide the stroke of the follower (S) into the same number of equal even parts.
3. Join Aa to intersect the vertical line through point 1 at B. Similarly, obtain the other points C,
D etc. as shown in Fig. 2.13 (a). Now join these points to obtain the parabolic curve for the out
stroke of the follower.
4. In the similar way as discussed above, the displacement diagram for the follower during return
stroke may be drawn.
Since the acceleration and retardation are uniform, therefore the velocity varies directly with the
time. The velocity diagram is shown in Fig. 2.13 (b).
Let S = Stroke of the follower,
θO and θR = Angular displacement of the cam during out stroke and return stroke of the follower respectively,
and
ω= Angular velocity of the cam.
We know that time required for the follower during outstroke,
tO   O /
and time required for the follower during return stroke,
t R   R / (2.15)
Mean velocity of the follower during outstroke
 S / tO (2.16)

and mean velocity of the follower during return stroke

 S / tR (2.17)

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 Fig. 2.13: Displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with
uniform acceleration and retardation.

Since the maximum velocity of follower is equal to twice the mean velocity, therefore maximum
velocity of the follower during outstroke,
2S 2S
vO   (2.18)
tO O
Similarly, maximum velocity of the follower during return stroke,
2S
vR  (2.19)
R

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We see from the acceleration diagram, as shown in Fig. 20.8 (c), that during first half of the
outstroke there is uniform acceleration and during the second half of the outstroke there is
uniform retardation. Thus, the maximum velocity of the follower is reached after the time tO / 2
(during out stroke) and tR /2 (during return stroke).
 Maximum acceleration of the follower during outstroke,

vO 2  2S 4 2 S
aO    (2.20)
t O / 2 t O . O  O 2 .
Similarly, maximum acceleration of the follower during return stroke,

4 2 S
aR  (2.21)
 R 2 .

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