Diving in The Material World

Chapter 4
Diving in the Material World

The Chemistry and Physics of Diving
70034_Encyclopedia_Of_Diving_06_Sec4.indd 2 12/14/20 8:47 PM

Bob Wohlers

Chapter 4
they’re directly overhead, no matter where they really are.
The colors you see vary with depth and distance. And,
there are other physical differences that are not obvious to
Diving in the your senses, but vitally affect your safety.

While the physical properties of the underwater
Material World world may sometimes appear puzzling, they follow the
same laws that govern physics in the rest of universe (at
least as far as we know). Because of this, understanding
The Chemistry and Physics the properties of water and their effects on us only requires
of Diving understanding some simple principles of chemistry and
physics.
Unfortunately, the terms “chemistry” and “physics”
Metric and imperial measurements appear side by side throughout the
can cause undue apprehension among those who feel
Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving. Conversions are careful when
uncomfortable with mathematics and science. If you’re
measurements must be precise (such as the boiling point of water).
However, figures may be approximate and conversions rounded in
picturing scientists babbling incomprehensible jargon
conversational text. and impossibly difficult equations, forget it. You don’t
need a PhD to understand the physical properties of the
underwater world.
INTRODUCTION Chemistry is simply the study of the composition,
Few experiences can compare with the thrill of exploring structure, and properties of substances. Therefore, the
underwater. Why? Part of it, at least, is that you’re chemistry of diving deals with the composition, structure,
adapted to life on land. You’re used to the phenomena and properties of substances that affect us underwater –
that surround you. As terrestrial organisms go, you’re primarily water and breathing gases. Physics is the study of
pretty big, which means you can’t fly without the help how matter and energy behave. The chemistry and physics
of a machine, and, generally speaking, falling hurts. A of diving deal with how the behavior of matter and energy
temperature of 24°C/75°F is warm enough to go all day underwater affects us. Anyone who has common sense
in shorts and a T-shirt. You can determine the direction a and who can punch the keys of a calculator can grasp
sound comes from, and a ripe red apple looks red whether the physical laws and chemical processes that govern the
it’s 3 metres/10 feet away or 30 metres/100 feet away. world in general, and the underwater world in particular.
Were you to guess that chemistry and physics
substantially overlap, you would be correct.
To lay a foundation for understanding the
physics of diving, this section begins with a
look at matter and energy. We explore from the
basic unit of matter – the atom – to states of
matter and how atoms combine.
From there we turn more closely to your
interests as a diver. As you’ll see, water is a
very special substance thanks to its unique
molecular structure. It differs from other
liquids in many important ways. Without
water, life would be impossible. You’ll see
how heat, light, and sound behave in water,
and how these behaviors affect you as a diver.
You’ll learn why you can hear much farther
underwater than in air, yet can see only a
As a diver, though, you enter a domain with a new set limited distance in even the clearest water.
of rules. Despite your size, you “fly” in three dimensions Next, we’ll look at buoyancy, how it works and why
and you don’t fear falling. Without you’re more buoyant in salt water than in fresh water.
a wet suit, 24°C/75°F chills you You’ll see that buoyancy offsets gravity, yet you’re not truly
quickly. Most noises sound like weightless in water.
4-2 Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving

This we follow by turning our attention to pressure. Consider water for example. It is not an element
You’ll learn why and how water exerts pressure on you because you can break it down into oxygen and hydrogen.
underwater, why it doesn’t crush you and why it has other Oxygen and hydrogen, however, are elements because no
effects. You’ll learn about pressure’s predictable effects chemical process can break them down into any simpler
on gases, such as the unchanging relationship between substance. At the most basic level, all substances, whether
pressure, volume and temperature. living or nonliving, are composed of elements in various
Finally, we’ll get into the physical properties of the proportions and combinations.
various gases that may affect you as diver. These properties To date, physicists and chemists have identified and
have direct bearing on how your body responds to agreed upon slightly more than 100 distinct elements.
different gases. Understanding them ties directly into Of these, 90 occur naturally, with the rest produced in
understanding the physiological processes that occur nuclear laboratories. The production of new elements
while diving. occurs when scientists change or decompose a natural
Hopefully, this chapter of the Encyclopedia of element via nuclear fission and particle acceleration. When
Recreational Diving makes chemistry and physics this happens, the changed element cannot be broken
informative, understandable and relevant to your diving – down into something simpler by chemical processes,
and enjoyable. By the end, you may find these principles but it no longer retains its original properties. Hence, by
and properties amazingly simple and see that they open a definition, a new element is born.
new depth of understanding of the world around you. Nuclear processes can change matter into energy,
which is the principle of atomic energy. You may have
Basic Physics and Chemistry heard Albert Einstein’s famous equation:
for Divers E = mc2
The essentials of physics and chemistry are matter and
In his equation, E stands for energy, m stands for

energy. This is true whether you’re a cosmologist studying
mass (matter) and c2 stands for the speed of light squared.
the moment that the universe and time began or a scuba
Since the speed of light squared is a really big number,
diver figuring out the changes to a gas volume when you
Einstein’s equation shows that a very tiny amount of
triple the pressure.
matter converts into a very large amount of energy. This
is the foundational principle behind nuclear energy –
MATTER whether in a reactor powering an attack submarine or in
Matter is the substance that makes up all material in the sun powering life on earth.
the universe. Aside from the results of nuclear reactions
(which change matter into energy), matter cannot be
created or destroyed. It can, however, be changed from The Mind of a Genius
one form to another. Types of matter can combine to How did Albert Einstein come up with E = mc2?
form other types with differing properties, and types of Although the specifics of the story vary, Einstein began
matter can break apart to form new types. It can change by asking questions that existing theories couldn’t
from one state to another. However, the amount of matter answer well. “What would you see if you were
never changes in these processes, which neither create nor traveling at the speed of light and looked backward?”
destroy matter. “If you look in a mirror while traveling the speed of
light, will you see anything?” He spent more than ten
Types of Matter. All matter can be broken down
years pondering these questions, and then, building on
into distinct forms, called elements. By definition, an
the work of mathematician James C. Maxwell, Einstein
element is a substance that cannot be decomposed into hypothesized the famous equation (which, say some,
any simpler substances by chemical process. An element is Maxwell had alluded to). Einstein then spent years
the most basic form of distinct matter. developing the science and mathematics that validated
APPLICATION TO DIVING: Understanding the differences his hypothesis.
between types of matter is the basis for understanding the
behavior of matter in diving. It is why, for example, helium
doesn’t react with other substances, making it a suitable gas for Elements are comprised of atoms. An atom (from the
deep, technical diving. Greek atomos meaning indivisible) is the smallest portion
of an element that still exhibits the specific properties
of that element. Atoms are so small that if laid atop one
Diving in the Material World 4-3

HYDROGEN: NITROGEN:
Organic molecules Proteins and OXYGEN:
CARBON: nucleic acids Organic molecules
1
Organic molecles 2
H He
IRON:
1.0079 4.0026
Sodium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li
6.941(2)
Be
9.0122 CALCIUM:
Electron transport B
10.811(7)
C
12.011
N
14.007
OO
15.999
F
18.998
Ne
20.180
Electrons 11 12 Bones, shells, coral 13 14 15 16 17 18

Nucleus Na Mg
22.990 24.305
Al
26.982
Si
28.086
P
30.974
S
21.066(6)
CI
35.453
Ar
39.948(1)
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K K Ca Sc
39.098 40.078(4) 44.956
Ti V
47.867(1) 50.942(1)
Cr
51.996
Mn
54.938
Fe Co
55.845(2) 58.933
Ni
58.693
Cu
63.546(3)
Zn
65.39(2)
Ga
69.723(1)
Ge
72.61(2)
As
74.922
Se
78.96(3)
Br
79.904(1)
Kr
83.80(1)
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 PHOSPHORUS:
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Nucleic acids, etc.
85.468 87.62(1) 88.906 91.224(2) 92.906 95.94(1) [97.907] 101.07(2) 102.906 106.42(1) 107.868 112.411(8) 114.818(3) 118.710(7) 121.760(1) 127.60(3) 126.904 131.29(2)
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf T a W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.905 137.327(7) * 178.49(2) 180.948 183.84(1) 186.207(1) 190.23(3) 192.217(3) 195.084(9) 196.967 200.59(2) 204.383 207.2(1) 208.980 [208.982] [209.987] [222.018]
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
[223.020] [226.0254] ** [262.113] [262.114] [266.122] [264.1247] [269.134] [268.139] [272.146] [272.154] [277] [284] [289] [288] [292] ? 294
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* Lanthanides La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.905 140.116(1) 140.908 144.242(3) [144.913] 150.36(2) 151.964(1) 157.25(3) 158.925 162.500(1) 164.930 167.259(3) 168.934 173.04(3) 174.967(1)
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

** Actinides Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cfr Es Fm Md No Lr
[227.027] 232.038 231.036 238.029 [237.048] [244.064] [243.061] [247.070] [247.070] [251.080] [252.083] [257.095] [258.098] [259.101] [262.110]
Elements accounting for 99% of the mass of all living things

4-02 (C-2) atom diagrams
Elements accounting for 1% of the mass of all living things
The Periodic Table of Elements lists all the properties of all the known elements – substances that cannot be decomposed into any
simpler substances by chemical process. The table shows each element’s chemical symbol, atomic number (the number of protons in
an individual atom) and atomic mass (mass of all particles in an individual atom).
another, it would take several million atoms to equal the by attraction called the atomic force. The protons provide
thickness of this page. the nucleus with a positive charge, around which the
Atoms are, in turn, composed of still smaller negatively charged and considerably smaller electrons
components (subatomic particles) that include negatively move in an orbital cloud. Because of the high-speed
charged electrons, positively charged protons, and particles orbiting electrons, some physicists describe atoms as
that have no electrical charge at all, called neutrons. The “fuzzy little balls.”
positive protons and negative electrons attract, which The diameter of the orbital cloud is 100,000 times
maintains the unity of the atom. Additionally, since the larger than the nucleus’ diameter. To illustrate, if a
total number of protons and electrons is equal (except in hydrogen atom were about six kilometres/four miles
ionized atoms – more about these shortly), an atom as a in diameter, the nucleus would be about the size of an
whole has a neutral (no) charge. orange. Additionally, the electrons revolve around the
nucleus in predictable orbital layers, or shells. Depending
on the element, each shell can accommodate a specific
- - number of electrons. We’ll return to this shortly when we
look at how atoms combine to form more complex forms
Electron
Orbits
of matter.
+ Proton Although the nucleus is tiny compared to the
overall size of an atom, it accounts for 99.9 percent
Neutron The basic of the mass. This is because protons and neutrons are
+ theoretical structure about 2000 times heavier than electrons. The total
of an atom.
Nucleus mass of the particles is the atom’s atomic mass. Besides
mass, the number of protons generally distinguishes the
individual elements. Therefore, an element also has an
atomic number, which is simply the number of protons
Neutrons and protons are approximately the same in the atom. Some atoms of the same element may have
size and are held together differing numbers of neutrons, although they have the
in the nucleus, or same number of protons. These variations on the same
center, of the atom, element are referred to as isotopes.

Hydrogen Helium Atoms of a single element sometimes combine into
molecules. An example of this is the element nitrogen,
which forms the nitrogen gas molecule found in air from
two nitrogen atoms. Compounds that consist entirely of
atoms from a single element are called molecular elements.
Compounds usually exhibit properties entirely
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen
different from those of the component elements. Again,
water is an excellent illustration of this concept. Both of
the component parts of water – oxygen and hydrogen –
c. are highly reactive gases (that is, they readily interact with
other substances) in their natural state. Yet, when they
combine as the compound water, they form an entirely
new, completely stable liquid that differs radically from
Atomic diagrams for hydrogen, helium, carbon, nitrogen and
oxygen. either of its elemental parts.
The differences between the properties of compounds
Through various means, atoms combine with each and their component elements doesn’t apply only to
other to form molecules. Molecules comprised of different compounds made from different elements. Molecular
elements are referred to as compounds. A molecule is the elements, such as nitrogen gas, may behave differently
smallest particle of a compound that retains the properties from the same element in the form of separate atoms.
of that compound. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an example. Atoms link together to form compound molecules by
Each carbon dioxide molecule consists of a carbon atom forming chemical bonds. The formation of a chemical bond
and two oxygen atoms. is referred to as a chemical reaction. Only those atoms
with compatible atomic structures can form chemical

Hydrogen Atom bonds. Compatibility depends on the atoms’ electron
configurations. An atom with an electron configuration
that allows it to form a chemical bond is said to be
reactive.
How reactive an atom is depends on the number of
electrons in its outermost shell. If the outer shell is full – it
has as many electrons as the shell can hold – the atom will
not readily combine with others. Such an atom is stable
instead of reactive. Examples of highly stable atoms are the
inert gases helium and neon. As you’ll read more about
later, technical and commercial divers sometimes use
helium as a breathing gas because of its stability.
Atoms with fewer electrons than the outer shell can
Oxygen Atom accommodate combine more readily, but only with certain
other elements. In essence, these atoms combine with each
other to complete their outer electron shells. This happens
through either ionic or covalent bonding.
Ionic bonding results when one atom takes an
electron from another atom to complete its outer shell.
This causes the donating atom to become positively
charged (because it lost a negatively charged electron) and
the receiving atom to become negatively charged (because
it has one more electron than proton). The opposite
charges attract the two atoms together.
An example of ionic bonding is common table salt –
sodium chloride (written “NaCl”). The sodium atom has
Two hydrogen atoms andWater
one oxygen only one of its 11 electrons in its outer shell. The chlorine
Molecule
atom combine to
form the compound water. atom, on the other hand, has its outer shell almost full

with seven electrons, but it can hold up to eight. Chlorine (ice) or gas (water vapor). The state depends upon how
takes sodium’s lone outer electron and completes its own close and how rigid the molecules are that comprise the
outer shell. This gives the chlorine atom one more electron substance.
than it has protons, giving the chlorine a net negative APPLICATION TO DIVING: State of matter creates
charge. The sodium atom, having given up its electron, predictable behaviors under pressure. For example, gases
now has one more proton than electrons, resulting in a net compress with a predictable ratio to the pressure, whereas liquids
positive charge results. Since each atom now has a charge, and solids do not compress (within the limits of diving).
they are called ions. The two oppositely-charged ions
Under most conditions on earth, the most important
attract each other, forming the ionic bond that creates the
factor affecting this is temperature. This is because heat
compound sodium chloride.
is the motion (vibration) of molecules. Temperature is a
measure of the how fast the molecules move. The faster
Sodium
Na+ the movement, the warmer the substance. As molecular
NaCl
activity decreases, the substance cools.
Substances with molecules arranged in fixed, aligned
patterns are in a solid state. As the temperature rises, the
molecules begin to slip from their fixed positions and
move readily about one another but tend to stay relatively
together. This creates a liquid state. Finally, if temperature
increases further, molecules tend to fly apart, forming a
gas. As one may expect from the examples of ice, water
and steam, the solid state (ice) represents the coldest
condition and the gas state (steam) the warmest.
Chlorine Cl- Sodium Cchloride
(Salt) Pressure is also a factor affecting state, but it is not a
major factor with most substances we deal with day to day.
The elements sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) bond ionically to The higher the pressure, the more a substance resists going
form sodium chloride (NaCl) – table salt.
from a liquid to a gas state and the higher the temperature
must be before a substance becomes a gas. One common
Some atoms neither give up nor take electrons to
example of this is propane fuel, which is a liquid at room
complete their outer shells. Instead, two or more atoms
temperature within its pressurized cylinder, yet flows
share electrons to complete their shells. This is referred to
readily from the cylinder as a gas due to lower pressure
as covalent bonding, and the most common example is
outside. Another common example is boiling water at
the water molecule.
altitude. The higher the altitude, the lower the boiling
In the case of water, oxygen and hydrogen – two
point of water. Above 7600 metres/25,000 feet, water
highly reactive elements – combine into a stable
boils at about 76°C/168°F compared to 100°C/212°F at
compound. To become stable, oxygen requires two
sea level.
electrons to complete its outer shell. Each hydrogen atom
has only one electron, and each needs only one electron
to complete its shell. (The innermost electron shell can Solid Liquid Gas
accommodate only two electrons.) By sharing with two
hydrogen atoms, oxygen gets the two electrons it needs,
while each hydrogen atom gets the single electron it
needs. As a result of this proportional combining (two
hydrogen atoms to every one oxygen atom), water is
expressed by what is probably the most commonly
recognized chemical symbol – H2O. This molecular Substances with molecules in a fixed, aligned state are solid.
arrangement also gives water its unique properties, which If the molecules move about one another but stay together,
you’ll learn more about later. the substance is a liquid. If the molecules tend to fly apart, the
substance is a gas.
States of Matter. Elements and compounds exist
in one of three states: 1) solids, 2)
Gravity, Mass and Weight. Gravity is a property of
liquids or 3) gases. Water, for
all matter. Gravity causes all matter to attract all other
example, is either a liquid, solid

matter. The strength of gravity depends on the amount
of matter and the distance. Normally, the only gravity
we really have to consider is the earth’s. Even though the
Metric System Conversions
gravity of your body pulls the earth toward you just as the Being based on units of ten, the metric system makes
earth’s gravity pulls you toward it. However, the gravity it convenient to convert from one scale to another. This
is why the sciences generally use the metric system.
exerted by your body is so tiny compared to the earth’s
Divers, however, tend to use the system their culture
that it’s almost not measurable.
uses, so it’s useful to be able to convert from the metric
APPLICATION TO DIVING: The pressure we experience system to the imperial system. Here are some common
from the atmosphere and while diving results from the force equivalents that you may find handy.
of gravity acting on air and water. Atmospheric pressure is the
weight of the air above you. Water pressure is the weight of the Length
water above you; as you go deeper there’s more water above you 1 centimetre = 0.3937 inches
being pulled by gravity, hence more pressure. 1 metre = 3.28 feet
Gravity also affects diving conditions. The pull of the 1 kilometre = 0.62 miles
moon’s gravity lifts the earth’s oceans, causing the tides. 1 inch = 2.54 centimetres
When we consider the moon, however, the two- 1 foot = 0.3038 metres
way nature of gravity becomes more obvious. The earth’s 1 mile = 1.61 kilometres
gravity holds the moon in its orbit, yet the moon’s gravity
Weight
is strong enough to lift a bulge in the oceans, which causes
1 gram = 0.035 ounces
the tides.
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
Mass is a measure of matter, and if you’re a physicist,
1 metric ton = 2204.6 pounds
you would say that it is determined based on the matter’s
1 ounce = 28.3 grams
inertia. Generally, we express mass as weight, which is

1 pound = 0.45 kilograms
a measure of the force of gravity acting upon mass. To
1 ton = 907.2 kilograms
understand the difference, suppose you have an object that
weighs 60 kilograms on earth and you take it to the moon.
Volume
On the moon it will weight 10 kilograms. The mass hasn’t 1 litre = 0.22 gallons
changed, but the weight has because the moon’s gravity is 1 litre = 0.9 quarts
weaker. 1 quart = 1.1 litres
Until we can go diving on other planets, though, 1 gallon = 4.4 litres
we’re only dealing with earth’s gravity. For this reason, 1 gallon = 0.15 cubic feet
we can use the terms mass and weight interchangeably 1 cubic foot = 28.3 litres
with respect to diving applications, even though they’re 1 cubic foot = 6.4 gallons
technically not the same thing.
Temperature
ENERGY To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit:
Energy is the capacity to do work. That’s a good definition, (C° × 1.8) + 32
but what, then, is work? Work is the application of a force
through a distance. To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius
In the metric system, force is measured in newtons. (F° − 32) × .555
A newton is the force that will accelerate 1kg 1 metre per
second per second. Work/energy is measured in joules. A Heat
joule is the work done when 1 newton moves a distance 1 Joule, calorie = the amount of heat needed to
of 1 metre. In the imperial system, we measure energy in raise 1 gram of water 1°C
terms of foot-pounds. A foot-pound is the amount of work
done by a one-pound force, when the point on which 1 BTU (British Thermal Unit) = the amount of heat
it acts moves through a distance of one foot. One joule required to raise 1 pint (1 pound) of water 1°F
equals approximately .7375 foot-pounds.
Types of Energy. Energy, like matter, can neither 1 BTU = 252 calories.
be created nor destroyed, though it can convert into
matter in a nuclear reaction. In diving, we’re concerned

with energy’s transformation into one of its five forms: 1) POLAR STRUCTURE
heat, 2) light, 3) electrical, 4) chemical and 5) mechanical As you saw earlier, two hydrogen atoms combine with
energy. one oxygen atom to make a molecule of water. According
1. Heat is the motion of molecules and atoms that make to the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
up a substance. The more motion, the greater the heat (VSEPR), the shape of a molecule depends partly on the
energy, and vice versa. All energy eventually turns into shape needed to minimize repulsion between electrons
heat. The process of converting energy from one form (same charges repel). The shape that results in the water
to another, such as from electrical energy into light molecule is that of two hydrogen atoms on one side and an
energy in a flashlight, always causes some of the energy oxygen atom on the other, as shown. Although the overall
to dissipate as heat. water molecule has a neutral charge, its shape creates
2. Light is energy in the form of electromagnetic a slight negative charge at the oxygen end and a slight
radiation. The best example is the light energy from positive charge at the hydrogen end. Having positive and
the sun. An example of energy transformation is negatives makes water a polar molecule.
photosynthesis in plants, which transforms light
energy into stored chemical energy. Hydrogen Atom
3. Electrical energy results from the interaction of
negatively charged electrons and positively charged
protons. A battery is a good example; it stores
potential electrical energy until used in an appliance,
such as a flashlight.
4. Chemical energy is stored within a substance’s
molecular composition. A common example of this Oxygen Atom
is gasoline. When it reaches a critical temperature,
gasoline reacts with oxygen in a chemical reaction that Water Molecule
releases heat energy.
5. Mechanical energy results from motion or the Two hydrogen atoms bond with one
oxygen atom to create one water
possibility of motion – it is the result of an object’s molecule. Although a water molecule has
position or condition. If an object is retained in a an overall neutral charge, the position of
position so that, if released, it could do some sort of the two hydrogen atoms on one side give
work, the object is said to have potential energy. Once it positive and negative ends. This makes
in motion, the object is said to have kinetic energy. water a polar molecule, which causes
many of its unique properties.
An example of both types can be found in a spring.
When in its static, tense position, the spring has
potential energy. Once in motion (either expanding or +
contracting) the energy is kinetic, that is, released and +
in motion.
–
The Miracle Molecule – Water +
As you may expect, a lot of the chemistry and physics of +
diving relate to water. What you may not realize, though,
is that water is a very special substance. Although a + –
+ – +
simple compound, it has unusual properties that make it
differ from most other liquids. If water didn’t have these –
properties, earth would be frozen solid and life as we know
it would not exist. +
APPLICATION TO DIVING: Water’s distinct properties affect Water Molecule Clinging

you substantially in diving, especially
with respect to heat absorption and Because it is a polar molecule, water molecules bond with each
your need for exposure protection. other due to the attraction between the positive hydrogen atoms
and the negative oxygen atoms.

Because it is a polar molecule, water molecules bond
with each other due to the attraction between the positive
hydrogen atoms and the negative oxygen atoms. The
bond between the molecules is called a hydrogen bond
or a polar bond. While nowhere nearly as strong as the
covalent or ionic bonds that hold atoms together, the
polar bonds give water its distinctive properties.
SURFACE TENSION
The first significant property of water compared to other
liquids is that it has surface tension. Polar bonds between
water molecules make the water surface slightly cohesive,
so it resists penetration and separation. Surface tension
Water striders rely on surface tension to walk on water. In the
is what holds water droplets together, and it is strong
ocean, neuston communities are plankton so small, they live at
enough to “float” a needle – even though a needle is the water’s surface thanks to surface tension.
more than five times as dense as water. The needle doesn’t
actually float (we’ll discuss the principles of buoyancy Reference
later), but is so small and light that its weight doesn’t
overcome the force of surface tension. Life on an Ocean Planet, Current Publishing, 2005
SOLUBILITY
Water is also a special substance because more substances

dissolve in it than in any other common liquid. This,
again, is due to the properties of its polar molecule.
When you place a substance such as salt in water, the
molecules begin to interact according to their polarity.
Positively charged portions of the salt molecule attract to
the oxygen side (negative) of the water molecule, and the
negatively charged portions attract to the hydrogen side
(positive) of the water molecule. Thus, when they dissolve,
ionic substances literally rip apart and remain suspended
within the water.
Surface tension is strong enough to “float” a needle, even
though a needle is five times as dense as water. The needle +
Salt +
doesn’t actually float, but is so small and light that its weight
O– + + + O–
O– – +
+ +
– O– Cl - +
Cl - + Cl - O–
Na+ Na+ + – +
doesn’t overcome the force of surface tension.

+ +
Na+ + – – Cl -
+ + –
Cl - Na+ Cl - Na+ Cl - Na+ O– + Na+
+
–
+ + +
+
+
– + + O–
O– Cl - + + O–
Cl - Cl -
Water
Na+ Na+
–
– O– + Cl -
+
Surface tension plays a major role in the environment

– Na+ + + + +
+ + + +
O– + O– Cl - Na+ Cl - O–
+
O– Na+
+ + +
because many tiny organisms rely on it. One example is Na+

–
–
Cl - Na+
+
Cl - Na+ Cl -
+
– –
+
O– O– +
the water strider, which is an insect that, thanks to surface

+
Na+ Cl -
Na+ Cl - Na+ Cl - Na+ +
Na+ – – –
+
tension, travels over the water’s surface when looking

O– Na+
– +
Cl - Na+
Na+ Cl - –
– + O Na+ – –
for food or evading predators. Even more significant are

the neuston, which are small organisms (and a type of
plankton) that live on or at the ocean surface. Many of When ionic substances dissolve in water, the molecules pull apart,
these don’t float, but are so small (many are microscopic) dispersing the component atoms within the water molecules.
they can rely on surface tension to remain in their
environmental niche. One concern with many pollutants Water’s ability to dissolve a wide variety of molecules
is that they break down surface tension, making it makes it central to life. In virtually every form of life,
impossible for an entire niche in the ecosystem to exist water carries living cells the nutrients and gases they
where these pollutants are present. need and carries away waste. In simple organisms, this

process takes place naturally in the water in which the Air Water
organisms live. In complex organisms (like us), the process
takes place internally – the water that does this job is
the primary component of blood. Inside every cell in
both simple and complex organisms, water is crucial for
processes ranging from energy use to reproduction.
Despite water’s ability to dissolve many substances,
many substances don’t dissolve in water. This is fortunate
because if water dissolved everything, then life would
not exist because there would be no way to form cellular
structures – they would dissolve.
Nonpolar molecules don’t readily dissolve in water.
Oils and fat are nonpolar, which is why oil and water don’t
mix well. Soap compounds work because they’re molecules With equal masses of water and air, you need more than 3200
that bond with both polar and nonpolar molecules. When times more heat to raise the temperature of the water.
you wash your hands, the soap molecules bond with oils
in the dirt and with the water, forming a link that allows
the water to dissolve the dirt. The high heat capacity comes from the polar bond in
water. When heating water, a significant amount of heat
WATER AND HEAT ___________________________ energy must first break the bonds before heat can increase
Heat Capacity. Water’s polar molecule gives it important the kinetic energy (temperature) of the water molecules.
4-14.2 heat vs volume
properties related to heat, the first of which is that water Because of polar bonds, water evaporates more slowly than
has one of the highest heat capacities of all naturally any other common liquid. This phenomenon is referred
occurring substances (ammonia is one of few exceptions). to as having a high heat of vaporization. The high heat
Heat capacity is a measure of the amount of heat that of vaporization occurs because for water to evaporate,
must be added or removed from a substance to make sufficient heat energy must be introduced to break the
it change temperature a given amount. Compared to polar bonds between its molecules. Similarly, water has
water, for example, air has a very low heat capacity. This a high latent heat of fusion. This means that when water
is why 24°C/75°F is warm and comfortable in air, but freezes, it releases large quantities of heat. When ice melts,
quickly becomes chilly and uncomfortable in water. Air the water absorbs large quantities of heat. Again, all of
cannot carry heat away from your body as fast as the same these properties result from water’s polar nature.
temperature water can. Because of water’s high heat capacity, it plays a crucial
role in moderating the world’s climates. The major oceanic
currents carry heat from the warmer equatorial regions
toward the cooler regions closer to the poles. This process
makes the tropical areas milder and the upper latitudes
warmer. An excellent example of this is Bermuda, which
enjoys a moderately tropical climate thanks to the Gulf
Stream, despite being at about the same latitude as North
Carolina in the US. Another example is the Galapagos
Islands in the Pacific Ocean off Ecuador, South America.
Cold, deep water currents upwell around the islands,
24ºC/75ºF is absorbing heat from the atmosphere. This gives the island
warm in air, but a very cool climate despite being close to the equator.
chills you rapidly Water’s heat capacity also explains why the
in water. This is temperature variation within a body of water is always
because water
has a higher heat
less than within a similar volume of air, and why
capacity than air. temperature changes take longer in water. You may notice
this when diving over the course of a week or so – the air
temperature may heat up or cool down one or more times,
but the water temperature varies relatively little.

Water and Ice. Water and heat interact in another
way that departs from the “typical” substance. As most
other liquids cool, they become denser and turn into
solids. The liquid transitions into the solid state as
the molecules slow and get closer together. The liquid
becomes denser as the temperature drops. As it turns into
a solid, it becomes denser still, so that the forming solid
sinks and accumulates on the bottom of the liquid. The
liquid becomes solid from the bottom up.
Water doesn’t do this, and it’s a good thing for all of
Dissolved salts increase water density and cause density
us. As it cools, water becomes more dense like any other
stratification – water layers of different densities. A transition
liquid, but only until it reaches 4°C/39°F. At this point, from fresh water to salt water is called a halocline – in this
water begins to solidify into ice, but the polar molecules photo, the blurry area results from the diver disturbing the
force the molecules into a crystal pattern that takes up halocline, mixing water of two different densities.
more space than it does as a liquid. This means that,
commonly use these terms interchangeably, they’re not the
unlike most substances – which are denser in their solid
same thing.
form than in their liquid form – solid water (ice) is less
Heat is the total kinetic energy of the molecules
dense than liquid water, which is why ice floats.
within a given mass. Temperature is a measure of the
Besides making ice diving possible, this property is a
average degree of molecular motion within the mass.
major influence on the world’s climate. Floating ice tends
Suppose you have a large mass and a small mass of
to insulate and retain heat in the water beneath it, slowing
water, both with the same temperature. Although the
the freezing process compared to other liquids. If ice sank
temperature is the same and it’s the same substance, the
rather than floated, massive portions of the oceans would
large mass will have considerably more heat because there

be frozen solid. In fact, most of the earth’s water might be
are many, many more molecules in motion within it.
frozen.
Similarly, two different substances can have
Density Stratification. Water behaves like a typical
different amounts of heat even though they have the
liquid until it nears its freezing point, so in the liquid
same temperature. Comparing air and water, suppose
state it becomes denser as it cools. Water forms into layers
you placed a kettle of air at room temperature on a
of differing densities, with denser water lying below less
95°C/200°F stove. The air in the kettle would heat to
dense water. This is why deeper water is usually colder
95°C/200°F very rapidly. If you did the same thing with a
than shallower water. The formation of water layers
kettle of water, it would take significantly longer to reach
according to density is called density stratification. When
95°C/200°F. This is because it takes more heat to make the
you descend from one layer into another, you often
same volume of water reach the same temperature. In fact,
experience an abrupt temperature drop. As you may know,
if there are two equal volumes of water and air, to raise the
the transition between layers of different temperatures is
temperature in each by an equal amount, one needs four
called a thermocline. In still, inland lakes and quarries, you
times as much heat for the water as for the air. To do the
can descend through two or three distinct temperature/
same thing with equal masses of water and air, you need
density layers in as little as 18 metres/60 feet.
more than 3200 times more heat to raise the temperature
Dissolved substances (such as the salts in seawater)
of the water.
also increase water density and cause density stratification.
This is why temperature and heat have different
If there are enough dissolved substances, a warmer water
measuring systems. Temperature is measured in degrees
layer can be denser than a cooler water layer and therefore
Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Rankine. It is also measured in
lie deeper. A good example of this is in the water filled
kelvins. Heat, on the other hand, is measured in joules,
caves in the Mexican Yucatan peninsula. When you cave
calories or BTUs (British Thermal Units). A joule is the
dive there, you often descend through an abrupt transition
amount of heat required to raise one gram of air one
from cool, fresh water into warm, salt water. A transition
degree Celsius. A calorie is the amount of heat required
between a freshwater and a saltwater layer is called a
to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius. BTU is
halocline.
the amount of heat required to raise a pint of water (one
Heat Transmission. Understanding the relationship
pound) one degree Fahrenheit. A large mass can have
between heat and water requires understanding the
more total heat (calories or BTUs) than a smaller mass
differences between heat and temperature. Although we
that has a higher temperature.

Beyond the characteristics of its polar molecule, water the cycle continues. For this reason, there is always cold
absorbs more heat than air because it is denser. Density is water flowing over you, even when you’re motionless and
a measure of mass per unit of volume. To put it in casual there’s no current.
terms, if you weigh the same volume of two substances,
the heavier one is denser. For example, a litre of fresh
water weighs one kilogram, and the same volume of
air weighs 1.3 grams. Therefore, to equal the density of
water, air would have to be approximately 770 times
denser (.0013kg × 770 = 1.0 kg). To use the imperial
system, a cubic foot of water weighs approximately 62.4
pounds, but a cubic foot of air weighs only about .081
pounds. Therefore, to equal the density of water, air
would have to be approximately 770 times more dense
(.081 × 770 = 62.37).
Heat transmits from one substance to another by Convection is heat transmission in fluids. In diving, water heated
three means, two of which concern you underwater. These by your skin becomes less dense. This causes it to rise and be
are 1) conduction, 2) convection and 3) radiation. replaced by cooler water. For this reason, even without a current
and holding completely motionless, water flows over your skin
Conduction refers to heat transmission via direct
and carries away heat.
contact. An example is a spoon in a hot cup of coffee.
Even though the handle of a spoon is cool when you place
it in the cup, it quickly becomes too hot to touch. This Zero and Absolute Zero
is because the rapidly moving coffee molecules transfer
At sea level, on the Celsius scale water freezes at
some of their energy to the submerged portion of the 0°C and boils at 100°C. These numbers on the older
spoon. In turn, the heated – or excited – molecules in Fahrenheit scale (32°F and 212°F, respectively) may
the submerged portion of the spoon begin transferring seem arbitrary, but actually they’re not. Although the
some of their energy up the handle until the entire spoon history of the basis of the Fahrenheit scale isn’t clear,
obtains a relatively uniform temperature. A substance that one theory is that physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit set 0 as
easily transmits heat this way is a called a good conductor. the freezing point of an equal mixture of a salt and ice,
Although air conducts heat and can feel very cold and 96° as the temperature of the human body. With
to us, compared to most substances it’s actually a good these points set, the boiling point of water was 212°.
insulator – a substance that resists conduction. This is why Scientists use two other temperature measuring
dry suits insulate you better than wet suits – an insulating systems, Kelvin and Rankine. Both of these scales have
the same 0 point – absolute zero, or the temperature
layer of air trapped in the dry suit undergarment
at which there is no molecular motion. Nothing can
surrounds you. be colder than 0 K or 0°R. (Note that by convention,
Water, on the other hand, is an excellent conductor you do not use a degree mark for temperatures in
(more than 20 times better than air). It not only holds kelvin.) Absolute zero becomes very important in
more heat than air does, but it conducts heat away faster. physics because the relative properties of substances
This is why you need insulation in all but the warmest at different temperatures must often be measured
water. against absolute zero. You’ll see this when we discuss
Convection involves heat transmission via fluids. A the relationships of gas volumes, pressures, and
fluid is matter that flows, meaning liquids and gases, but temperatures.
not solids. When a fluid becomes heated, it becomes The Kelvin scale is similar to Celsius, except for
less dense and tends to rise. As it rises, cooler fluid flows shifting the 0 point to absolute zero. 0 K is −273°C, so
to convert from Celsius to Kelvin, add 273. To convert
in to replace it. This sets in motion a continuous flow
from Kelvin to Celsius, subtract 273.
that draws heat away from whatever the fluid surrounds, Similarly, the Rankine scale is the same as
causing heat transmission that’s faster than conduction Fahrenheit with the 0 point shifted to absolute zero. 0°R
alone. Imagine you’re scuba diving in cool water without is −460ºF, so to convert from Fahrenheit to Rankine,
a wet suit. Your skin heats the water in contact with it, add 460. To convert from Rankine to Fahrenheit,
causing it to become less dense and subtract 460.
rise. This brings more cool water
into contact with your body, and

Radiation refers to heat transmission via and therefore travels in waves; the length of light waves
electromagnetic waves. This is the kind of heat you feel is determined by their energy. Wavelength determines
from the sun or a fireplace. Heat in the form of radiation how we classify the type of electromagnetic energy (e.g.,
affects you the least underwater, but it is still there. Some x-ray, radio, visible light, etc.). Some wavelengths of
high intensity underwater video lights are so powerful electromagnetic energy are not visible, such as ultraviolet
that you can feel radiated heat if you hold your bare hand light, infrared light, x-ray, microwaves and cosmic rays.
within a few centimetres/inches of them. Our eyes see only a narrow segment of the entire
electromagnetic spectrum – the wavelength range from
WATER AND LIGHT ___________________________ about 400 nanometres (nm) to about 760nm. Differences
The human eye sees by collecting light reflected from an within this range we perceive as colors. When white light
object, converting this energy into nerve impulses and (white light consists of all the perceivable wavelengths)
transmitting them to the brain for interpretation. Since strikes an object, the object absorbs some wavelengths
the behavior of light changes as it passes through water, and reflects others. We see the color of something based
water affects how far you can see, clarity, colors and on the light wavelengths it reflects. If an object reflects all
apparent distances. wavelengths, we say the object is white. If it reflects no
wavelengths (absorbs all visible wavelengths), we say the
APPLICATION TO DIVING: The way water affects light
affects your perceptions. Objects may look closer or farther away
object is black.
and may have a different color at depth. If you’re interested in Wavelengths relate to the amount of energy in light.
underwater photography, understanding the interaction of water Colors on the red end of the visible spectrum have less
and light will help you get colorful, sharp images. energy than colors on the blue end. Looking at the full
spectrum (visible and invisible), infrared light is very low
Turbidity and Diffusion. Although only an energy and ultraviolet is very high energy.
average of 20 percent of sunlight reaches an approximate Even when it’s very clear, water absorbs light passing

depth of 10 metres/30 feet in clear water, there’s through it, transforming it into heat. However, water
enough penetration to sustain photosynthesis to depths doesn’t do this uniformly because wavelengths with less
approaching 100 metres/300 feet in open sea. On the energy absorb more easily. Therefore, it absorbs colors
other hand, high concentrations of suspended particles toward the red end of the visible spectrum more rapidly
can keep light from reaching even 3 metres/10 feet deep. than at the blue end. This is why red tends to disappear
The relative concentration of suspended particles very quickly as you descend. Usually you don’t see much
is referred to as turbidity. Suspended particles may be red below 4 metres/15 feet because little light of that
organic, as with plankton, or inorganic, as with stirred wavelength reaches any deeper. This doesn’t mean that
up sediment (silt). Turbidity may result from healthy and the color red suddenly blinks out at 4 metres/15 feet, but
natural phenomena such as rainwater runoff, or from that practically speaking, red is gone. Color absorption is a
artificial, unhealthy phenomena such as pollution. Either continual process, so there’s less of all colors at 2 metres/6
way, the higher the turbidity, the less light penetrates feet than at 1 metre/3 feet. This gradual filtering process
the water and the less the visibility. When you ask the affects the weaker wavelengths faster.
divemaster, “What’s the viz?” you’re indirectly asking In order following red, water more readily absorbs
about the turbidity. orange, yellow and green. The loss of color is why
Water scatters and deflects light, a phenomenon underwater photographers use flash even in very bright
called diffusion. Even very clear water does this, reducing conditions. The light from the flash doesn’t travel through
the amount of light that penetrates. Light deflects much water, so it restores the absorbed wavelengths for
(scatters) off particles as it travels through the water, a colorful picture. This is necessary for good quality
tending to make it spread more evenly. This reduces underwater photos, even with modern digital cameras that
or even eliminates shadows underwater. It also makes can partially correct for color absorption (more about this
something far away from you appear somewhat “fuzzy” or later).
indistinct. This is because light traveling from the object As divers, we tend to think of color absorption in
to your eye deflects slightly out of a straight line. The terms of depth, but it is actually a function of the total
higher the turbidity, the more diffusion. distance light travels through water. For example, if you’re
Color Absorption. To understand color absorption,
it helps to start with the nature of light and how your Reference
eye perceives it. Light is a form of electromagnetic energy PADI Underwater Photographer Manual

Electromagnetic Spectrum Bob Wohlers
Gamma Rays
Microwaves
Cosmic and
Ultraviolet
Infrared
and TV
Radio
X-rays
Visible Light
Depth (m) Depth (ft)
0 0
Green
Yellow
Red
Violet
Blue
Orange
The same photo taken

without and with
4.5 15
underwater flash.
The flash replaces
15 50 wavelengths lost to
water absorption for a
more vivid photograph.
30 100
apparent contrast. For example, a red sticker contrasts
76 250 distinctly against dark green at the surface, but at 30
metres/100 feet, both may appear to be the same color.
Visible light penetration in clear water. The red sticker becomes harder to see because it no longer
contrasts against its background.
in very clear water only two metres/six feet deep, a red
Fluorescent colors get around this because first, their
object right next to you will appear red. If you swim 3
wavelengths aren’t common underwater, and second,
metres/10 feet away from it, however, it will look brown.
fluorescents don’t simply reflect color, but emit color
This is because the light travels a total of 5 metres/16 feet
when stimulated by light of any shorter wavelength (the
through water – two metres/six feet from the surface to
phenomenon of fluorescence). This is why fluorescents
the object, and then 3 metres/10 feet from the object to
retain their colors and stand out at depth. Dive
your eye, absorbing most of the red wavelengths. This is
manufacturers often use fluorescent colors for this reason,
one reason underwater photographers and videographers
but so does nature. The Corynactus anemone, for example,
use very wide lenses – it lets them get close to their subject
appears red at depth because its tissues contain natural
and minimize how much water light has to travel through.
fluorescents.
With respect to visible light, clear water provides
maximum transparency to wavelengths of approximately Bob Wohlers
480nm – what your eye sees as blue. However, in turbid
water, maximum transparency shifts to yellow-green
wavelengths. This phenomenon explains why clear water
looks blue, but more turbid water looks yellow-green.
Color absorption affects how well you can see
something underwater by altering contrast as well as color.
This is because it’s easier to see something that stands
out against its background. Experiments have shown
that turbidity, depth, salinity, particle size, and pollution
all affect light absorption by water and, therefore, affect
contrast as well. This is because
anything that affects the The Corynactus anemone has natural fluorescent pigments that
apparent color affects the give it its distinct red color, even at depth.

Although we’re straying a bit into physiology from
physics, how you see color underwater also relates to how
your visual system works. In low light levels, your pupils
(the openings in your eyes) expand to let in more light.
Once they’re all the way open, your eyes continue to adapt
by switching the photoreceptor – light-sensitive – cells
it uses on your retina. Your eyes use primarily the cone
photoreceptors in ample light and the more sensitive rods The pencil appears
in low light (cones and rods are named for their shape). broken because
of refraction - the
The rods allow you to see in very low light, but they
tendency of light to
have less ability to distinguish detail and color compared change direction
to the cone photoreceptors. Because of this, in dim light when it passes from
the underwater world may look even less colorful. These a medium of one
adaptations begin to occur in as little as 10 minutes in low density to a medium
of a differing density -
light, although they may require more than 30 minutes
like from air to water
when going from bright conditions to near total darkness. or vice versa.
To assist in this adaptation process, particularly when
night diving, some divers (especially in the military) APPLICATION TO DIVING: Ever reach for something
wear red goggles or prepare under red light for 10 to 20 underwater and have your grab fall short? That’s refraction
minutes before entering the water. making objects appear closer than they really are.
However, there’s another process at work in either In diving, we’re most concerned with the refraction
dim or bright conditions. Your visual system (eyes and that results when light passes from water through glass
brain processes) adjust so that the color of the light around into the air in your mask or camera housing. As a result

you seems white (within limits). Standard household light of refraction, objects underwater are magnified so they
bulbs emit yellow-red light, for example, but unless you appear closer by a ratio of about 4:3 for their actual and
pay conscious attention to it, you see a white wall lit by a apparent distances. For instance, a fish that’s actually four
bulb as white, not the yellow-red it actually is in that light. metres/yards away will appear to be three metres/yards
Underwater, this process tends to adjust for color away. You can say, then, that an object appears to be 25
absorption to some degree. This is why underwater photos percent closer than it actually is, or 33 percent larger than
taken without flash look much bluer than you remember it actually is.
– your visual system adjusted for color absorption, New divers sometimes miss when reaching for
whereas the camera didn’t. This is especially notable something due to this refraction; with experience, most
with cameras that use film; modern digital cameras have divers learn to correct unconsciously.
automatic white balance, which partially compensates
for color absorption much as your visual
system does.
Refraction. Another property of light
that concerns you underwater is refraction,
which is a change in direction when light
passes from a medium of one density to a
medium of a differing density – like from
air to water or vice versa. Refraction occurs
because the speed of light changes with Apparent Actual
the density, causing a shift in the light’s
path. The only time the light doesn’t shift
when it goes from one density to another
is when it passes into the new medium
at an angle directly perpendicular to its
Refraction results when light shifts in its path when going from
surface. Although refraction differs for each water into air. Underwater, this makes things appear closer than
substance light enters, we know its characteristics they really are, or larger than they really are, depending upon
for most substances – particularly air and water. how your mind interprets the image.

The magnification effects of refraction may not
affect apparent distance, but apparent size. Whether you
perceive the object as closer or bigger depends on how
your mind interprets the image – either as the actual size
but closer, or at the actual distance but bigger. Influences
such as distance cues, visibility and your familiarity with
the environment and what you’re looking at will all affect
how your brain interprets what it sees.
Generally, an underwater camera sees just like you
do with your mask. This is why you have to focus on
the apparent distance, not the actual distance of your
subject (auto focus systems will do this automatically).
Rays Dispersed Rays Focused
The magnification caused by refraction reduces the angle
the camera sees, causing a slight telephoto effect. Most Light ripples result from waves concentrating or dispersing light
underwater photography calls for shooting with as wide an on the bottom.Wave crests focus light rays together, whereas the
troughs disperse the rays.
angle as possible, however, so you may see camera housing
with dome ports. This relates directly to refraction, or,
more precisely, eliminating it. They’re caused by a lens effect of surface waves. As a wave
Recall that a light ray does not refract when it enters passes overhead, the cresting portion refracts light and
a medium with a differing density at a perpendicular concentrates it as bright areas that move across the seafloor
angle. With a dome port, all the light going into the lens with the wave.
strikes the port at a perpendicular angle. This eliminates Visual Reversal. Although refraction makes things
refraction and maintains the wide angle of view you want look closer than they are underwater, turbidity can make
underwater. Although you eliminate refraction, however, them look farther away than they actually are. This is
a dome port makes the point of focus artificially close – called visual reversal. Visual reversal results from your
typically around a metre/three feet away – but this isn’t a visual processing and how your brain interprets what
major issue because you focus (or the camera autofocuses) it sees depending upon water clarity, contrast and the
on the apparent distance. amount of light.
Because air absorbs light far more slowly than water
does, light has to travel very long distances before color
absorption and diffusion have a notable effect on what
we see. Only very distant objects appear diffused with less
distinct contrast. Therefore, our brains have learned that if
an object appears hazy with reduced contrast, it is a great
distance away.
Since water can produce the same diffusion, color
absorption and loss of contrast under certain conditions,
your visual system may interpret an object seen in those
conditions as it would in air – as being far away. However,
water produces these effects in a very short distance, so
you may perceive the object as being much farther away
than it actually is. This is visual reversal.
Thanks to the properties of refraction, diffusion,
Dome ports on camera housing eliminate refraction because all color absorption and our visual systems, then, an object
light rays enter the port at a 90º angle. However, this results in underwater may appear closer or farther away than it
things looking much closer than they really are – typically about
actually is. As a general rule, the closer it is, the more
a metre/three feet away, depending upon the dome size.
likely it is to look too close and the farther away it is, the
Another effect of refraction is the constantly changing more likely it will look too far away. But, the more you
light ripples appearing on the dive, the more our adaptable minds compensate for both
bottom. You notice these ripples conditions – so that with experience where you perceive
easily on flat, sandy bottoms. an object to be is usually, in fact, exactly where it is.

Reflection. When light strikes something, it may is significant because electromagnetic energy can exist
bounce off or reflect. Whether light reflects depends apart from matter and travel through a vacuum. Sound
primarily on the object’s color. If it’s black or very dark and other mechanical energy can only exist in and travel
colored, it will reflect relatively little light. If it’s white or a through matter.
very light or pale shade, it will reflect a lot. If it’s reflective Sound results when something sets in motion a wave
enough – like a mirror – it’s color or shade will appear or pattern of waves in matter. The wave or wave pattern
to be exactly the same as the light striking it because it may transmit into another medium, such as a noise
reflects almost all the light. underwater transmitting through the bottom of the boat
Some substances, including water, may reflect and then into air. When the waves vibrate air or water in
or transmit light depending on the angle light hits it. contact with your eardrum, your ear converts some of the
Light penetrates water, but as light rays hit the surface energy into nerve impulses that you perceive as sound.
at increasingly shallower angles, proportionately more Sound can travel through any form of matter.
light reflects and less penetrates. This is why it’s brightest Generally speaking, it travels best in dense media like
underwater from approximately 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. The solids and liquids. This is partly because denser material
sun is directly overhead, so light strikes the water at a has more tightly packed molecules to transmit the sound
steep (near perpendicular) angle and most of it penetrates. wave from one to the next. However, it’s not really the
density but the elasticity of a substance that allows it to
transmit sound more effectively. Think about sending a
wave down a taut rope by snapping it compared to doing
the same with a taut rubber band. A wave travels along
the rubber band faster and farther because of its elastic
quality. Since in nature dense materials usually have
superior elasticity, it’s common to associate good sound

transmission with high density. While this is a usable rule
of thumb within the scope of diving purposes, remember
that it’s not technically or universally accurate. Lead and
carbon, for example, are quite dense but don’t transmit
sound well because they have little elasticity. Similarly, a
blanket has greater density than air, yet hanging one in
a room absorbs sound rather than transmits it. This is
Maximum light penetration occurs when light enters water
because most fabrics have poor elasticity.
perpendicularly. The shallower the angle of penetration, the
more light reflects off the surface.
When the sun is lower in the sky, more reflects off the
surface so there’s proportionately less light below. If you’re
shooting underwater pictures or video, you’ll probably
find 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. provides the best conditions with
respect to natural light from the surface.
WATER AND SOUND _________________________

APPLICATION TO DIVING: Sound travels faster in water
than in air, making it hard to determine its source. This is why
you can’t tell where the boat is by the sound of its engines.
However, you can hear it from farther away than you would
in air.
The elasticity of a substance determines how well it transmits
Like light, sound is an energy form that travels in waves. sound. Think about sending a wave down a taut rope by
Unlike light, however, sound is a form of mechanical snapping it compared to doing the same with a taut rubber
energy whereas light is electromagnetic energy. This band. A wave travels along the rubber band faster and farther
because of its elastic quality.

Victoria Newman, Courtesy of Steam Machines, Inc.
The speed of sound depends on the matter through
which it travels, influenced by temperature and pressure
in many cases. Sound cannot travel in a vacuum at all
(absence of matter, as mentioned). In air at sea level at
0°C/32°F, sound travels at about 332 metres/1087 feet
per second. In fresh water at 15°C/58°F, the speed is
approximately 1410 metres/4625 feet per second, while
seawater at the same temperature it’s approximately 1550
metres/5084 feet per second.
The reason you often can’t tell where a sound is
coming from underwater is that the speed of sound is
about four times faster than in air. Your brain determines
sound direction based on the slight difference in intensity
and time at which a sound reaches each of your ears.
Underwater, the intensity and time are the same (as
far as your brain can tell), which you perceive as being Although sound resists transmission from air into water,
directly overhead. This isn’t always the case, though. rebreather divers can sometimes communicate by talking loudly
Depending on the sound frequency, distance from the and getting close to each other. This works because rebreathers
are very quiet, making it possible to hear the small amount
source, intensity and other variables, sometimes you
of sound that transmits from the speaking diver’s air into the
can determine a sound’s direction reasonably accurately surrounding water.
underwater.
While sound will transmit from one medium to that your buddy receives electronically, but in essence this
another, it resists transmitting through media of differing is underwater two-way radio, not the human voice carried
densities. When sound travels from air into water or vice through water.
versa, for example, it loses much of its energy crossing the If you become trained to dive with closed-circuit
interface between air and water. This is why you may not rebreathers, however, this changes somewhat. The sound
hear someone shouting to you even when you’re less than of your voice still resists transmission from air into
a metre or yard under the surface. water, but a rebreather is very, very quiet. Even without
The resistance to transmission due to differing any special equipment, you and a buddy can talk to
densities can apply to a single medium. As you read each other, to some extent, if you speak loudly and stay
earlier, water will form layers due to differing temperature reasonably close.
or dissolved salts. Sound resists traveling between the
layers due to their differing densities. A thermocline or
Buoyancy and the
halocline can greatly affect sound transmission so that
you may readily hear a sound quite well while in the same “Weightless” World
water layer, yet find it harder to hear the same sound only Although some divers like to wax eloquently about the
a short distance above or below the source in a different experience of “weightlessness” underwater, from a physics
water layer. How significantly water density affects sound point of view, you’re not weightless underwater. The
transmission depends on the degree of density change and earth’s gravity attracts your mass with the same force as
the sound. However, the differences can be enough that on dry land. This is why you feel right-side-up or upside-
military submarines will descend into a deeper, denser down (an astronaut in true zero gravity conditions does
water layer to help avoid detection by sonar. not), and why, if you relax in the water column, you’ll roll
The resistance to sound transmission from air into into whatever position puts your heaviest side closest to
water is one reason why you can’t readily talk to another the bottom. However, even though you’re not technically
diver underwater in most circumstances. Your vocal weightless, diving provides an experience similar to
cords produce sound in air, but it’s difficult to transmit weightlessness because buoyancy provides a force that
enough sound energy into the water to overcome the noise opposes gravity.
of your regulator and bubbles. Electronic underwater APPLICATION TO DIVING: Buoyancy control marks you as
communication equipment a skilled diver. Understanding buoyancy principles allows you
overcomes this problem because to predict how changes in your weight, volume or water density
it turns your voice into a signal will affect your buoyancy control.

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE ______________________
What is buoyancy? You probably have a general The Archimedes Legend
understanding, but let’s be more specific. Buoyancy Legend has it that Archimedes conceived his famous
is the upward force exerted on any object placed in a principle when he had to determine whether a crown
fluid (liquid or gas). Even though you’re presumably made for the king of Syracuse was made of pure gold.
on dry land as you read this, buoyancy is acting on you Archimedes could not harm the crown in any way.
right now because you’re in a fluid – air. It just happens When he stepped into a bath, he noticed the water
rising. By this, goes the legend, he deduced that he
that the buoyant force on your body is so weak that
could determine whether the crown was pure gold by
it doesn’t significantly offset gravity. A giant hot air
comparing its displacement and weight with something
balloon, however, paints a different picture: it rises due to known to be pure gold.
buoyancy based on the same principle that makes you rise
Although this is a compelling story, many historians
underwater when you add air to your BCD. and engineers doubt it. The primary objection is that
The force of buoyancy is predicted by Archimedes’ for something the size of a crown, the difference in the
Principle (named for the Greek mathematician), which weight of gold compared to a likely substitute metal,
says: An object wholly or partly immersed in a fluid is buoyed such as silver, is too trivial to have been measurable
up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the with any methods available at the time. It’s quite
object. possible the Archimedes Legend is exactly that – a
This means that the amount of buoyancy – upward legend.
force – is based on how much fluid the object displaced
and the weight of the fluid displaced. This means that the
denser the fluid, the more upward force (buoyancy) you per cubic foot. On the other hand, due to the dissolved
get for a given volume of displacement. salts, seawater weighs approximately 1.03 kg per litre/64
In diving, we’re primarily interested in the buoyancy pounds per cubic foot. The difference between fresh and

characteristics of water, of course. Seawater is denser and salt water may not look like much, but it’s enough that
weighs more than fresh water because of its dissolved you need more weight when diving in the ocean than in
salts. One litre of pure fresh water weighs one kilogram, a lake, assuming you’re using the same exposure suit and
or in the imperial system, pure water weighs 62.4 pounds other gear.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY ____________________________

Scientists measure the tendency of a solid or liquid to
10x10x10 cm 10x10x10 cm float or sink in water as its specific gravity. Specific gravity
or 1 cubic Ft. or 1 cubic Ft.
compares the density of a given substance or object to the
density of pure water as a ratio. Pure water is the standard
Fresh Water Salt Water and therefore has a specific gravity of 1.0. Anything less
dense than pure water will have a specific gravity less
than 1.0 and will float in pure water. This is because the
upward force of buoyancy is greater than the downward
pull of gravity. Anything more dense than pure water will
have a specific gravity greater than 1.0 and will sink in
pure water. This is because the upward force of buoyancy
is less than the downward pull of gravity. Anything that
has a specific gravity of 1.0 will neither sink nor float in
10x10x10 cm 10x10x10 cm pure water. Gravity and buoyancy balance, and the object
or 1 cubic Ft. or 1 cubic Ft.
will remain suspended in the water column (assuming
no currents or other forces act on it). (By the way, gases
are measured on the basis of the density of air at standard
1 kg
62.4 lbs
1.03 kg
64 lbs
temperature and pressure – termed STP – which is
273K/492°R at 1.0 bar/atmosphere absolute.)
Because salt water is denser than fresh water, it weighs more You’ve probably heard the terms positive, negative
for a given volume. This means that salt water buoys up an and neutral to describe buoyancy states. An object that
object place in it more than fresh water does. floats is called positively buoyant, one that sinks is called

negatively buoyant, and an object that neither floats nor APPLICATION TO DIVING: Your weight requirements
sinks is called neutrally buoyant. It is this third condition change when you go from fresh water to salt water, or vice versa.
that you strive for underwater because it allows you to Some divers need more weight than others, and you need to
glide through the water with greatest efficiency. adjust your weight when you change your exposure protection.
Specific gravity explains why.
Note also that we’re talking about pure water with
respect to a specific gravity of 1.0, but you’re unlikely
to actually dive in pure water. Seawater has a specific
Specific
gravity of approximately 1.03, which means that an
Gravity object with a specific gravity of 1.0 would be positively
0.9 buoyant, not neutrally buoyant in seawater. For neutral
buoyancy in seawater, the object’s specific gravity would
have to be 1.03. This is why you don’t use specific gravity
to determine your buoyancy as a diver. Even fresh water
will vary in specific gravity, so the only practical way to
determine your weight requirements in an unfamiliar
environment or in a new gear configuration is to perform
a buoyancy check. (As you may recall, you do this by
adjusting your weight so you float at eye level with a
deflated BCD and holding a normal breath. Then add
two kg/five lbs if you do this with a full scuba cylinder to
Specific
Gravity account for the weight of the air you use during the dive.)
1.2
Whether you are positively, negatively or neutrally buoyant

depends upon the specific gravity of you and your equipment
as a whole, as well as the specific gravity of the water you’re
diving. Adding or releasing air from your BCD increases
or decreases your volume, effectively lowering or raising
your specific gravity. This allows you to control your state of
buoyancy.
When you’re
properly
Your buoyancy characteristics depend on the weighted, you
proportion of your various body tissues. Each tissue float at eye level
has a different specific gravity, so we all vary in total with an empty
BCD, a near
specific gravity. For example, fat tissue has a specific
empty cylinder
gravity between 0.7 to 0.9; bone approximately 1.9; and and holding a
muscle 1.08. Depending on factors such as ratio of fat to normal breath.
muscle, most people have a specific gravity near 1.0, but
individuals with a higher fat ratio may be less than 1.0 and PRACTICAL APPLICATION
tend to float. Those with a low fat ratio will be higher than Understanding buoyancy concepts allows you to solve
1.0 and tend to sink in pure water. However, your dive practical diving problems. Suppose you want to recover a
equipment – particularly a wet suit or dry suit – displaces large and expensive outboard engine accidentally dropped
considerably more water without a corresponding weight into the ocean. If you can determine a few figures, you
increase. With a wet or dry suit, even can easily work out how much buoyancy you’ll need to
someone with very little body fat float the motor back to the surface. (Note: to keep the
will need to add weight to offset math simple, metric and imperial figures in the following
the suit’s buoyancy. example are not equivalent.)

You check the owner’s manual and determine that matter of dividing the negative buoyancy by the weight
the engine weighs 100 kg/300 lbs out of the water. You of seawater: 79.4 kg ÷ 1.03 kg per litre = 77.1 litres of
want to know how much additional buoyant force (that water to displace, or 172 lbs ÷ 64 lbs per cubic foot = 2.7
is, buoyancy you must add to the buoyancy already acting cubic feet of water to displace. In practice, a diver would
on the submerged motor) you need to offset the motor’s displace the water by adding this air volume to the lifting
weight. device, plus enough air to offset the negative buoyancy of
First, you determine the existing buoyancy, which the particular type of lifting device.
is equal to the weight of the volume of water displaced In this problem, you may notice that we’ve
by the engine. Suppose your engine displaces 20 litres/2 disregarded the weight of the air you put in the lifting
cubic feet of seawater, which weighs 20.6 kilograms/128 device. Technically, the weight of the air adds downward
pounds. The buoyant force already acting upon the engine force, but it is so trivial that it’s not worth calculating.
is 20.6 kg/128 lbs. This is why in diving, we determine the buoyancy of an air
Now it’s simply a matter of balancing opposing space as though air has no weight.
forces: 100 kg/300 lbs of downward force (gravity – the
engine’s dry weight) opposed by 20.6 kg/128 lbs of Under Pressure
upward force (buoyancy). For the engine to become
neutrally buoyant, the remaining negative buoyancy must PRESSURE AS A FORCE
be offset: 100 kg/300 lbs − 20.6 kg/128 lbs = 79.4 kg/172 Most people know that when you go underwater, you’re
lbs of additional buoyancy needed. subjected to pressure. Those who aren’t divers have at
Disregarding the weight of the lifting device (lift least experienced pressure on their ears by diving 2 to 3
bag or drum), determining how much water to displace metres/6 to 10 feet deep (though they may not know how
and offset the remaining negative buoyancy becomes a to equalize their ears to alleviate the discomfort).
Pressure means a force or weight acting on some unit

of area. You express it mathematically as
Pressure =Force
Area
APPLICATION TO DIVING: Gases compress or expand
proportionately with pressure changes. How gases affect your
body is also proportionate to pressure. To predict these changes
using the gas laws, you must be able to determine the pressure at
79.4 kg/172 lbs a given depth.
Buoyancy
(77.11/2.7cf of air) Atmospheric Pressure. Pressure can come from
many sources. You can exert pressure by pressing your
hand against a table top. In diving, we’re primarily
interested in the pressure of gases we breathe and the
pressure of the water surrounding us.
At the surface, you’re under the pressure of the
atmosphere, which results from the weight of the air.
The Renaissance scientist Galileo first demonstrated
Weight 100kg/300 lbs the air’s weight, and Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian
(in Air) mathematician, reasoned that if the atmosphere surrounds
everything and humanity lives at the bottom of this “sea
of air,” then the body must be under a constant pressure.
Displacement 20.6kg/128lbs By filling a tube sealed on one end with mercury and
79.4kg/172lbs Downward Force
then inverting the mouth into a pan of mercury, Torricelli
calculated the atmosphere’s pressure. The weight of the
If you know the weight and displacement of an object, you mercury caused a space (a vacuum) at the top of the
can determine the buoyancy needed to lift it. tube. The amount of mercury remaining in the tube was

= 10 metres. Therefore, 10 metres of seawater exerts the
same pressure as the atmosphere.
Vacuum To use the imperial system, one cubic foot of
seawater weighs 64 pounds. The bottom of a cubic foot,
76.2cm/30 in against which all the water pressure exerts, would be 144
square inches (12 in × 12 in = 144 in2). To find how
50.8cm/20 in much pressure is exerted per square inch for each foot of
seawater, divide 64 lbs by 144. This shows that each foot
Atmospheric Pressure
25.4cm/10 in of seawater exerts a pressure of .445 lbs/in2.
(1 bar/14.7 psi) Atmospheric Pressure Dividing this pressure into atmospheric pressure per
square inch shows how many feet of seawater equals one
atmosphere of pressure: 14.7 psi ÷ .445 psi per foot = 33
feet. Therefore, 33 feet of seawater exerts the same pressure
as the atmosphere.
Pressure Terminology. Depending on your purpose,
you can measure and express pressure in many different
Mercury ways, many of which you don’t see in diving applications
much. In diving, you most commonly hear references
Torricelli demonstrated the weight of the atmosphere by inverting to bar, atmospheres and psi (pounds per square inch).
a tube of mercury in a pan. Atmospheric pressure held 760 Less commonly, you hear pressure expressed in metres or
mm/30 inches of mercury in the pan, revealing the force feet of fresh water or sea water. Let’s go over the various
exerted by atmospheric pressure. pressure terms you’ll use in this chapter and in diving.
The most basic pressure unit is an atmosphere or
760 mm/30 in, which equals 1.03 kilograms per square bar, abbreviated atm and bar, respectively (bar is always
centimetre /14.7 pounds per square inch. Torricelli singular). One atm/bar is the pressure exerted by the
reasoned this must therefore be the same as the pressure of atmosphere at sea level. (Note: Technically there’s a slight
the atmosphere trying to hold the mercury in the tube. difference between an atmosphere and a bar, but it is
Water Pressure. Underwater, you’re subjected to so trivial that within the scope of diving, we ignore the
water pressure (also called hydrostatic pressure). This is the difference and treat them as equal.)
weight of the water pressing down on you, just as the For any given measurement system, absolute pressure
weight of the air causes atmospheric pressure. Several years is the total pressure, which is what you typically need to
after Torricelli, French philosopher and scientist Blaise understand the effects of pressure on gases and your body.
Pascal used a similar experiment to demonstrate that the Gauge pressure, on the other hand, uses 1 atm/bar as the
pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level equals the zero point. This is what you need to determine useable
pressure exerted by approximately 10 metres/33 feet of pressure; hence it’s the pressure reading used by most
seawater. You can do this yourself with some simple math: gauges. To illustrate the difference, suppose a gauge on
Using the metric system, one litre of seawater weighs an empty scuba cylinder at the surface reads 0. If you
1.03 kg, which in volume equals 1000 cm3 – in other open the valve, no air flows out. The gauge pressure is
words, a 10-cm cube (10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm = 1000 therefore 0. However, there’s still air in the cylinder –
cm3). The bottom of the cube is, therefore, 100 cm2 (10 × nothing flows from it because the pressure inside and
10 =100). To find the pressure per cm2, divide 1.03 kg by outside the cylinder are the same. The absolute pressure
100 cm2, which equals 0.0103 kg/cm2. This means each in the cylinder is 1 atm or 1 bar, which is the same as the
10 cm of seawater exerts a pressure of .0103 kg/cm2. To pressure outside the cylinder.
convert this to pressure per metre, multiply by 10 (1 metre To differentiate between absolute and gauge pressure,
= 100 cm; 100 cm ÷ 10 cm = 10), which is .103 kg/cm2 imperial pressure measurements often (but not always)
pressure for each metre of seawater. end in “a” for “absolute” or “g” for “gauge.” Atmospheres
Dividing this pressure into atmospheric pressure per absolute is typically abbreviated ata, and pounds per
square centimetre shows how many metres of seawater square inch may be psia (absolute) or psig (gauge). Metric
equals one atmosphere of pressure. measurements are usually followed by the word “absolute”
One atmosphere exerts 1.03 kg/ or “gauge” if it’s not clear which you mean from the
cm2 ÷ .103 kg/cm2 per metre context, such as “2 bar gauge.”

Pounds per square inch (psi, psia or psig) is a common give you an idea of just how compressible matter is,
pressure unit in imperial system diving used primarily though, consider the material thought to exist inside
to express cylinder pressures. Divers using the metric collapsed stars (neutron stars) due to the extreme gravity
system typically measure cylinder pressure with bar. You that generates there. Some astronomers think that one
rarely find kilograms per square centimetre (kg/cm2) used in teaspoon of a collapsed star’s core, if brought to earth,
diving, though this is a common pressure unit in science would weigh 1 billion tons. That’s how much room there is
applications. to compress the types of matter that surround us on earth.
In both the metric and imperial systems, sometimes Obviously (and fortunately), the forces required to
you find pressure measurement expressed in terms of cause this kind of compression do not exist on earth.
depth – metres of seawater (msw), metres of fresh water Within the general scope of diving, therefore, we consider
(mfw), feet of seawater (fsw) and feet of fresh water (ffw). liquids and solids incompressible. Gases, on the other
This is common, for example, in expressing the maximum hand, are highly compressible. Although not compressible,
pressure rating for an underwater camera housing. liquids transmit and exert pressure (as you just learned).
According to Pascal’s principle, any outside pressure
applied to the surface of water (or other liquid) transfers
Pressure Equivalents equally in all directions through the liquid. This is the
1 bar = 0.987 atmospheres principle by which a hydraulic lift operates. A pump
1 bar = 14.5 pounds per square inch applies pressure to hydraulic fluid in the lift piston. The
1 bar = 10 metres of seawater transmitted pressure forces the piston to expand, raising
1 bar = 1.02 kg/cm2 the object being lifted. Hydraulic lifts can direct and
1 atmosphere = 1.01 bar use tremendous force simply by applying the required
1 atmosphere = 14.7 pounds per square inch pressure.
1 atmosphere = 34 feet of fresh water The ability to transmit pressure affects you in two

1 atmosphere = 33 feet of seawater primary ways underwater. First, it means that at depth,
1 atmosphere = 1.03 kg/cm2 you’re subjected to all the pressure of the water above
1 metre of fresh water = .097 bar you, plus the pressure of the atmosphere on the water.
1 metre of seawater = .1 bar When determining the absolute pressure, then, you have
1 foot of seawater = .445 psi to determine the hydrostatic pressure, and then add the
1 foot of fresh water = .432 psi atmospheric pressure. At 10 metres/33 feet in the ocean,
for example, the pressure is 2 bar/ata absolute.
Notes:
• 1 bar and 1 atmosphere are so close they’re Depth Pressure
typically treated as equal in diving contexts, and
are treated as equal throughout this book. 0m/ 0’ 1 ATA
• The figures shown are based on the commonly
used figures in diving. Some are adjusted from
the precise equivalents for consistency. For
example, actually 1 atm = 33.8995 fsw and 1 10m/ 33’ 2 ATA
fsw = .433501 psi. However, 1 atm is rounded
to 34 fsw, and 14.7 psi ÷ 34 = .432 psi, which
is why we use .432 psi per foot of fresh water in
diving. These minor variations have no practical
20m/ 66’ 3 ATA
effect within diving contexts.
PRESSURE, SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS 30m/ 99’ 4 ATA Pressure increases

Technically, all states of matter are compressible. On predictably with depth.
a molecular level, even in very dense matter like lead, Each 10m/33 feet in
seawater adds one
carbon and uranium, there is far more space than bar/atm of pressure to
atoms and particles filling it. This may seem incredible 40m/ 132’ 5 ATA the one bar/atm at the
considering how dense and heavy a lead brick feels. To surface.

1 bar/atm atmospheric pressure + 1 bar/atm our buoyancy. Pressure affects how our bodies absorb
hydrostatic pressure = 2 bar/ata gases, which is why you have to plan your dive so that you
stay within dive table or dive computer limits. Heat affects
As you descend, water pressure increases at a rate of 1 gas pressures, which is why a warm scuba cylinder has a
bar per 10 metres/1 atmosphere per 33 feet in salt water, higher pressure than the same cylinder when it cools.
or 1 bar per 10.3 metres/1 atmosphere per 34 feet in fresh Kinetic Gas Theory. Understanding gas and
water. Because water is incompressible, this value remains pressure begins with the kinetic gas theory. You may recall
constant regardless of your depth. that kinetic energy is mechanical energy in motion.
Because this relationship to depth and pressure Gases behave as they do because of the motion of their
doesn’t change, you can easily determine the absolute molecules.
pressure at any depth. For example, to determine the
ambient (surrounding) pressure at 30 msw (metres of APPLICATION TO DIVING: The gas laws you apply as a
seawater)/99 fsw (feet of seawater): diver apply uniformly to all gases (practically speaking). Kinetic
gas theory explains why, for example, you can apply the same
formulas for calculating gas consumption while breathing air
Metric and while breathing EANx, even though the ratios of oxygen
30 msw ÷ 10 msw = 3 bar and nitrogen differ.
3 bar hydrostatic pressure + 1 bar atmospheric =
On a molecular scale, gas molecules are relatively
4 bar absolute pressure
distant from one another compared to those in solids
and liquids, but they’re constantly moving, striking each
Imperial other and other matter. This somewhat understates the
99 fsw ÷ 33 fsw = 3 atm phenomenon, considering that in a container confining
3 atm hydrostatic pressure + 1 atm atmospheric = gas at room temperature at 1 bar/ata pressure, more
4 atmospheres absolute pressure (4 ata) than 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules
per second strike each 6cm2 /1in2 of that container. Gas
Once you have the absolute pressure in bar/ata,
pressure is the collective impact of these molecules.
you can get kilograms per square centimetre or pounds
Further, gas kinetic energy relates to the speed at
per square inch. Multiply bar/ata by 1.03 for kg/cm2
which the molecules move and the mass of the individual
absolute or 14.7 for psia. For example, at the depth of 240
molecules. The faster a molecule moves and the bigger it
msw/792 fsw, the absolute pressure is 25 atmospheres:
is, the more pressure it exerts when it strikes something.
metric (240 ÷ 10) + 1 = 25 As you learned, temperature is a measure of molecular
imperial (792 ÷ 33) + 1 = 25 motion. The higher the temperature, the faster the
molecules move and the more often they strike the sides of
This gives you 25.75 kg/cm2 absolute the container – and therefore exert more pressure.
(25 × 1.03 = 25.75) or 367.5 psia (25 × 14.7 = 367.5). Interestingly, for a given amount of heat, a gas of
The fact that liquids transmit pressure is the reason heavy molecules exerts the same pressure as a gas of light
you can scuba dive without being crushed by the pressure. molecules. The heavier molecules strike the container at
Because your body tissues consist primarily of water, a slower speed and exert the same force (pressure) as the
pressure transfers through them directly and equally in all lighter, high-speed molecules because of their mass. The
directions, with no direct effect. Hence, your body can lighter gas exerts the same pressure because of its speed.
endure the tremendous pressures exerted on it underwater. The temperature would be different (remember that heat
The only places you feel pressure are in the body’s air and temperature are not the same thing), though the heat
spaces, which you learn to equalize with the surrounding energy would be the same. For example, a light gas such as
pressure to avoid discomfort and injury. helium, when heated, will have its molecules accelerate to
greater speeds than a heavier gas, such as oxygen, heated
PRESSURE AND THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES the same amount. Nonetheless, the pressure increase
Most of the pressure effects that concern us in diving would be the same. The heavier oxygen, though unable to
relate to gases. As we experience pressure changes move as quickly as the light gas, exerts the same pressure
ascending and descending, the gas in our body air spaces increase as helium through its heavier molecular mass.
and in our equipment adjusts Think of a tennis ball and a baseball hurled against
during descent and ascent to a wall. If you throw both with an equal force, the lighter
prevent injury and to control tennis ball will travel faster. Yet, both balls would hit

In reality, they don’t exactly do so because of individual
characteristics such as the shape of their molecules. For
example, some gases compress more than they should
(according to the ideal gas law) when you increase the
pressure. Hence, physicists apply the real gas law, which
accounts for individual variation due to differences in gas
molecules.
The real gas law is more precise than the ideal gas law,
but it is much more complex mathematically. Fortunately,
the ideal gas law is more than accurate enough within
the scope of diving. Variations between gases due to
real gas characteristics aren’t really an issue within the
temperatures and pressures you’d experience even as a
technical diver descending below 100 metres/330 feet.
About the only diving application that experiences a
measurable difference between the real and ideal gas laws
is the cylinder pressures in gas blending of enriched air
nitrox and trimix (oxygen, helium and nitrogen used in
tec diving). Even so, most gas blenders still use ideal gas
law principles because the simplicity more than offsets
very minor variations in the gas blends.
If you hurl a light tennis ball and a heavy baseball with the same
force, both will hit with the same force, though the tennis ball will Avogadro’s Number. In 1811, Italian scientist/
fly faster. Similarly, according to the Kinetic Gas Theory, two gases philosopher Amedeo Avogadro discovered that a given

heated the same amount will have the same pressure increase. volume at the same temperature and pressure always has
the same number of gas molecules, no matter what gas the
the wall with an equal impact force because the heavier volume holds. Later, physicists determined that at 0°C and
weight of the baseball carries the same energy. So, the 1 bar/ata, 22.4 litres of gas consists of 602.2 billion trillion
same energy applied to either ball yields the same impact molecules (6.022 x 1023), which today we call Avogadro’s
(pressure), even though the balls travel at different speeds. number. Avogadro’s number of particles of any given
In addition to temperature and pressure, the substance is referred to as one mole.
behavior of gases also relates to volume. Imagine you Applying Avogadro’s number led to the development
have a balloon full of a gas. Squeeze the balloon, and its of the Ideal General Gas Law, which describes the
volume reduces. As the volume reduces, the gas molecules common behaviors of gases with respect to the
come closer together. The closer the molecules, the more relationships between pressure, volume and temperature.
frequently they will collide with each other and the side
Expressed mathematically, the General Gas Law is:
of the balloon. The increased frequency of collision results
in greater pressure being exerted. Conversely, stretch the PV=nRT
balloon, and the volume increases (without adding any Where:
additional gas molecules). The additional space means
P is the absolute pressure
fewer collisions and a pressure decrease.
V is the volume
These interrelationships of speed and mass make
all gases behave the same way with respect to changes n is the number of moles of gas
in temperature, volume and pressure. This means that, R is 8.314 joules per kelvin
regardless of the particular gas you’re dealing with, it (the universal gas constant)
behaves exactly the same way as any other gas with respect and
to the basic gas laws that concern us in diving. T is the absolute temperature
Well, almost. The principle that all gases have exactly
This single law encompasses two gas laws developed
the same properties with respect to pressure/volume
earlier, Boyle’s Law and Charles’ Law. We’ll look at these
relationships, pressure changes with temperature changes,
independently, and then at a simplified version of the
and so on is called the ideal gas law. This principle says
General Gas Law that you can apply for the purposes
that all gases behave according to the same ideal law.
of diving.

Boyle’s Law. Sir Robert Boyle was a seventeenth Boyle’s Law makes it very easy to predict what
century Irish scientist who was greatly influenced by happens to a gas volume as you ascend or descend. Every
Torricelli’s work. While Torricelli first determined the 10 metres/33 feet of descent in seawater adds the pressure
pressure exerted by the atmosphere, Boyle wanted to find of 1 bar/atm. According to Boyle’s Law, a gas volume in a
out what happens to a volume of air when the pressure flexible or inverted open container will expand or contract
changes. in a precise relationship to the depth (pressure). So, a
APPLICATION TO DIVING: Boyle’s Law is perhaps the
given gas volume taken from the surface to 10 msw/33 fsw
most useful gas law in diving, from a practical point of view. (2 bar/atmospheres absolute) will be reduced to half the
For example, you can use it to calculate how fast you’ll consume volume. The volume will reduce to one third at 3 bar/ata
your air supply at one depth compared to another, or how much (20 msw/66 fsw), one fourth at 4 bar/ata (30 msw/99 fsw)
useable gas volume you have in a cylinder at a given pressure. and so on.
It explains why you should never hold your breath while scuba
diving, and why you have to release air from your BCD as you
Depth Pressure Volume
ascend.
m/ft
Boyle’s now-famous experiment involved a U-shaped
0m / 0 1 ATA Full
glass tube sealed at one end. He poured mercury into the
open end until there was an equal quantity of air in each
end. Since the level of mercury on either side of the tube
10 / 33 2 ATA 1/2 Full
was level and equal, the pressure inside the closed end
must have been equal to the pressure being exerted by the
atmosphere at the open end – 1 bar/ata.
20 / 66 3 ATA 1/3 Full
Exactly
1/2 the
2 bar Volume
1 bar
14.7 psi
29.4 psi 30 / 99 4 ATA 1/4 Full
76 cm
30 in
40 / 132 5 ATA 1/5 Full
Mercury Mercury
In accordance with Boyle’s Law, gas volume decreases
proportionately with the increase in water pressure as you descend.
Boyle demonstrated that gas volume is inversely proportional to
pressure. Doubling the pressure in a U-shaped mercury tube halved
the gas volume.
You can use this constant relationship to determine
Next, Boyle added more mercury until he reduced the the new volume when any given volume is taken to
volume in the closed end to half the original volume. He a different depth. For example, suppose a volume of
found that he had to add 76 cm/30 in of mercury (recall 280 litres/10 cubic feet is taken from the surface to
that this is the amount of mercury that equals 1 bar/1 ata). 30 metres/99 feet. The absolute pressure is four bar/
To halve the volume, he had to double the pressure. Sinceboyle's epx atmospheres (three of water, one of air), so expressing this
4-34 (C-41)
the pressure must be in balance on both sides of the tube, as a fraction, the numerator (top number) is the original
Boyle also knew that the halved air space must now have volume, and the denominator (bottom number) is the
twice the pressure. number of atmospheres. The result is 280/4 = 70 litres, or
What Boyle had demonstrated was that if the 10/4 = 2.5 cubic feet.
temperature remains constant, the volume of a gas is Mathematically, we can express Boyle’s Law:
inversely proportional to the absolute pressure – the law PV=K
we today call Boyle’s Law. If the pressure increases, the
Where:
volume must decrease proportionately. If the pressure
P is the absolute pressure
decreases, the volume must increase
V is the volume
proportionately.
and
K is a constant.

As an illustration, assume a balloon has a volume of 1 of buoyant force to free it from the bottom. To find out
(a litre or a cubic foot — it doesn’t matter) at the surface. how much the air will expand upon surfacing:
This is expressed mathematically as:
P1 = 3.6 bar/ata.
(P) (V) (K) (Depth is 26 msw/85 fsw; 26 ÷ 10 or
1 bar/ata × 1 litre/ft3 = 1 86 ÷ 33 = 2.6 bar/atm of water + 1 bar/atm of air = 3.6
bar/ata)
If you take this balloon to 20 metres/66 feet (3 bar/
ata) in seawater, then: V1 = 28.1 litres/1 ft3.
(Seawater weighs 1.03 kg per litre. 29 kg ÷ 1.03 = 28.1
3 bar/ata × V = 1 litre/ft3 litres. Seawater weighs 64 lbs per cubic foot.
Using algebra to isolate V yields: 64 ÷ 64 = 1 cubic foot)
V = ⅓ litre/ft3 P2 = 1 bar/ata (the pressure at the surface)
In other words, the pressure increase reduces the V2 is the unknown volume you need to find.
volume to a third of its surface volume. Suppose you take If we take P1 × V1 = P2 × V2 and fill in what we know,
the same balloon to 40 metres/132 feet in seawater (5 bar/ and then solve for the unknown we get:
ata). What is the volume now compared to the surface
volume? Metric
5 bar/ata × V = 1 3.6 bar/ata × 28.1 litres = 1 bar/ata × V2
therefore: or
V = 1/5 101.2 litres = V2
Because Boyle’s Law involves a constant – a number Imperial
that doesn’t change – we can rearrange the formula to 3.6 ata × 1 ft3 = 1 bar/ata × V2

make it more useful for comparing one pressure and
or
volume with another pressure and volume. We’ll call the 3.6 ft3 = V2
first pressure and volume P1 and V1, respectively, and the
Now you know that if your inner tubes can hold
second pressure and volume P2 and V2. According to our
101.2 litres/3.6 ft3, they can bring your object to the
formula:
surface without bursting. You can apply P1 × V1 = P2 ×
P1 × V1 = K
V2 any time you know three of the four variables, and
and you can use any measure of volume or absolute pressure
P2 × V2 = K provided you use them consistently throughout. You
Therefore, we can say: could have worked the previous examples using kg/cm2 or
P1 × V1 = K = P2 × V2 psia instead of bar/ata, and gallons instead of cubic feet.
or more simply Boyle’s Law says that the pressure and volume of a
P1 × V1 = P2 × V2 gas are inversely proportional. Pressure and density, on
the other hand, are directly proportional. This is easy to
Therefore, if we know the pressure and volume at one grasp intuitively. If you reduce the gas volume by raising
depth, we can determine the volume at any other pressure the pressure, the same number of molecules must occupy
(depth), even when the depth doesn’t fall on an even ata/ less space. This means the gas becomes more compact or
bar increment. denser. The density is therefore directly proportional to
For example, (Note: Metric and imperial figures in the absolute pressure.
this example are approximately, but not exactly equal to At two bar/ata, a given air volume is twice as dense as
simplify the mathematics.) suppose you’re attempting to at the surface. At three bar/ata, it is three times as dense,
salvage an object from a depth of 26 metres/85 feet in and so on. This explains why the deeper you go, the faster
seawater. The only lifting devices you have are tire inner you use your air supply. You’re breathing air at the same
tubes, so you must determine how much air volume pressure as the surrounding depth. If you take a full breath
you need to lift the object, and you need to be sure that at 10 metres/33 feet, you’re inhaling twice the number of
expanding air doesn’t overinflate and burst the inner tubes air molecules as a full breath at the surface. Therefore, each
during ascent. breath takes twice as much from your tank as it would at
Based on the weight and buoyancy of the object, you the surface and your air supply lasts only half
determine that you need to add 29 kilograms/64 pounds as long.

Gas Gas
Depth Pressure Volume Density Depth Pressure Volume Density
0m / 0’ 1 ATA 1 x1 0m / 0’ 1 ATA 1 x1 Gas density is directly
proportional to the pressure.
On the left, the density rises
10m / 33’ 2 ATA 1/2 x2 10m / 33’ 2 ATA 1/2 x2 as the pressure squeezes the
same number of molecules into
a smaller volume. On the right,
20m / 66’ 3 ATA 1/3 x3 20m / 66’ 3 ATA 1/3 x3 the volume doesn’t change –
much like your lungs as your
breathe with scuba at increasing
30m / 99’ 4 ATA 1/4 x4 30m / 99’ 4 ATA 1/4 x4 depths – but the density rises
nonetheless. Therefore, the
deeper you are, the more gas
40m / 99’ 5 ATA 40m / 99’ 5 ATA you use from your cylinder for
1/5 x5 1/5 x5
each breath.
As you descend, this relationship continues as your air consumption rate isn’t constant. It will change
predicted by Boyle’s Law, so that the deeper you go, the drastically due to factors such as cold, exertion and stress,
more each breath takes from your scuba cylinder. At three and you may not remain at one depth for an entire dive.
atmospheres, the air supply will last only one-third as long Clearly, Boyle’s Law has many diving applications.
as at the surface; at four atmospheres only one-fourth, During every dive, you take gas-filled containers with
and so on. This is a major factor in technical diving when you – your BCD, scuba cylinder, mask, sinuses, ears and
you consider that a gas supply that lasts two hours at the lungs. Even your wet suit, which has millions of tiny
surface lasts about ten minutes at 100 metres/330 feet. bubbles within its neoprene, expands and contracts as
pressure changes (which is why the deeper you dive, the
less insulation and buoyancy your wet suit has).
Charles’ Law. Boyle’s experiments dealt solely with
the effects of pressure and volume. He did not consider
the effect of a third factor – temperature. The influence
of temperature on gas behavior was first explored by the
French scientist Jacques Charles (although much of his
work was published later by a colleague, Joseph Gay-
Lussac).
APPLICATION TO DIVING: You have a full cylinder before
a dive, but you’ll be diving in cold water. Charles’ Law allows
you to determine how much your air supply will go down due to
cooling the cylinder.
Through experimentation, Charles found that if you
keep the pressure of a gas within a container constant,
the volume increases as the temperature increases. If you
Because each breath uses more gas the deeper you go, technical
keep the volume constant, the pressure increases when the
deep diving requires high capacity double cylinders to provide an temperature increases.
adequate gas supply. In other words, Charles’ Law says that the amount of
change in either volume or pressure of a given gas volume
This is why tec divers typically use twin, high capacity is directly proportional to the change in the absolute
cylinders, and why there’s a growing interest in closed- temperature. An example of this property is the general
circuit scuba, which recirculates exhaled gases. guideline that scuba cylinder pressure will change .6 bar
Although determining the pressure at depth gives you for every change of 1°C, or 5 psi for each 1°F. This isn’t
a useful way to estimate your air precise, but a rule of thumb that happens to work. For
duration when planning a dive, precise calculations, we have to apply the formula for
you can never be exact because Charles’ Law. It’s most useful if we combine it with the

formula for Boyle’s Law, giving us: Imperial
P×V=K×T Your 80 cubic ft cylinder is filled to 3000 psi. During
or filling, the temperature rises to 125°F, and you will be
P×V=K diving in water at 45°F. You want to know what your
cylinder pressure will be in water at the start of the dive:
T
where P1 3000 psig + 14.7 psi = 3014.7 psia
P is the absolute pressure T1 125°F + 460°F = 585° Rankine (R)
V is the volume T2 45°F + 460°F = 505° Rankine (R)
T is absolute temperature (such as Kelvin or Rankine)
and Because the factor of volume has been eliminated, the
K is a constant. formula would read:
P1 P2
Again, since we’re dealing with K (a constant) as we were =
with Boyle’s Law, we can eliminate the K and rearrange T1 T2
the formula with two sets of pressure, volume and By applying the values, the formula becomes:
temperature, resulting in: 3014.7 psia P2
=
P 1× V1 = P2 × V2 585°R 505°R
T1 T2 or
This formula takes care of all possible factors: pressure, 505°R × 3014.7 psia
volume and temperature, and is the mathematical = P2
585°R
expression of the Ideal General Gas Law. Here are some
P2 = 2602.4 psia - 14.7 psi = 2587.7 psig

examples of how you can use the General Gas Law
formula in diving: The following examples demonstrate how you can use the
formula if the volumes do not remain constant.
Metric
Your 12 litre cylinder reaches 52°C while being filled to Metric
200 bar. You’ll be using it in 7°C water, so you want to A surface-air-supplied commercial diver has a compressor
determine the cylinder pressure you’ll have when you with a 500 litres/minute capacity at the surface. The
enter the water. temperature on the surface is 29°C. The diver will be
P1 200 bar + 1 bar = 201 bar absolute working in the ocean at 55 metres where the water
V1 Because the cylinder volume won’t change temperature will be approximately 5°C. How much air the
(V1 = V2), the volumes cancel out and you compressor will be capable of supplying per minute at the
can drop them from both sides of the formula specified depth is calculated as follows:
for simplicity. P1 1 bar absolute
T1 52°C + 273°C = 325 kelvins (K) V1 500 litres
T2 7°C + 273°C = 280 kelvins (K)
T1 302 K
Because the factor of volume has been eliminated, the
P2 6.5 bar absolute
formula reads:
P1 P2 T2 278 K
= V2 unknown
T1 T2
By applying the values, the formula becomes: 1bar × 500 liters 6.5 bar × V2
=
201 bar P2 302 K 278 K
=
325 K 280 K or
or 278 K × 1 bar × 500 L = V
2
280 K × 201 bar = P 302 K × 6.5 bar
325 K
2 or
P2 = 173 bar absolute - 1 bar = 172 bar gauge V2 = 70.81 litres/min

Pressure and Altitude Diving Using this rule of thumb, suppose you’re diving in a
mountain lake at 1800 metres/6000 feet. Your depth
As you’re probably aware, the reduced atmospheric
gauge has been adjusted for altitude and reads 10
pressure at altitude calls for special training and diving
metres/33 feet (it’s calibrated for seawater, so you’re
procedures. These include required adjustments for dive
actually slightly deeper in fresh water. This isn’t an issue,
tables. Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law and the General Gas
though, because the concern is pressure, not linear metres/
Law, however, apply just as they do at sea level – though
feet.) If you send up a lift bag with 1 litre of air in it, what
you need to reduce the surface pressure to accommodate
will the air volume be when the bag reaches the surface?
the altitude.
P1 = 1.79 bar/ata (1800 metres ÷ 300 = 6, or
Since air is compressible, the pressure change for a
6000 ÷ 1000 = 6. 6 x .035 = .21 bar/atm. 1 bar/
given altitude change isn’t consistent like it is in water. That
atm - .21 bar/atm = .79 bar/atm atmospheric pressure.
is, a change of 10 metres/33 feet in seawater changes
10 metres/33 feet of hydrostatic pressure = 1 bar/atm. 1
the pressure by 1 bar/atm. Air, however, is compressed
bar/atm hydrostatic pressure + .79 bar/atm atmospheric
by the air above it, so that the pressure change between
pressure = 1.79 bar/ata at depth.
300 metres/1000 feet and 600 metres/2000 feet
is more than the pressure change between 3000
V1 = 1 litre
metres/10,000 feet and 3300 metres/11,000 feet.
P2 = .79 bar/ ata (surface pressure)
You can calculate the absolute pressure in metres or
feet of seawater using the following formulas: So:
pressure in msw = 10 × 2.718 (.000125 x altitude in metres) 1.79 bar/ata × 1 litre = .79 bar/ata × V2
or 1.79 bar/ata × 1 litre
pressure in fsw = 33 × 2.718(.000038 x altitude in feet) = V2
.79 bar/ata
However, for diving purposes a useful rule of thumb is
to subtract .035 bar/atm for each 300 metres/1000 feet 2.26 litres = V2
of altitude up to 3000 metres/10,000 feet. Some people
use .1 bar/1000 metres, which is close to the same Due to lower atmospheric pressure, the gas
thing. Neither approximation is precise, but both are close expansion from 10 metres/33 feet to the surface is
enough for diving purposes. greater than at sea level, as dictated by Boyle’s Law.
Imperial Dalton’s Law. Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law and the two
A surface-air-supplied commercial diver has a compressor together as the General Gas Law describe the behaviors of
with a 75 ft3/minute capacity at the surface. The any gas or mixture of gases, whether you’re dealing with
temperature on the surface is 85°F. The diver will pure oxygen, air, enriched air nitrox or trimix. These laws
be working in the ocean at 187 feet where the water are very important for determining air supply and gas
temperature will be approximately 40°F. How much air volume changes.
the compressor will be capable of supplying per minute at APPLICATION TO DIVING: You use Dalton’s Law for
the specified depth is calculated as follows: determining the maximum depth for enriched air diving. It,
P1 14.7 psia along with Henry’s Law, is also an important principle applied
V1 75 ft3 by the decompression models in your dive computer or tables.
T1 545°R Now let’s get into other gas characteristics that
P2 98 psia particularly relate to physiology. When we start talking
T2 500°R about breathing a gas mixture, the individual gases
V2 unknown become important. When gases mix, they become
14.7 psia × 75 ft3 = 97.9 psia × V2 diffused. This means that even though they may vary in
545°R 500°R molecular weight and size, due to their constant state
or of motion they will nonetheless mix evenly. Yet within
500°R × 14.7 psia × 75 ft3 = V this even mix, each gas continues to demonstrate its own
2 individual behavior in terms of its pressure.
545°R × 97.9 psia
The first person to investigate this phenomenon
or was the English scientist John Dalton. (Dalton is also
V2 = 10.3 ft3/minute (cfm)

noted for describing the structure of matter as being (.21 × 1 bar/ata = .21 ata) of the total, and the nitrogen
comprised of atoms.) In summarizing his experience with partial pressure would be .79 bar/ata (.79 × 1 bar/ata =
gas behavior within mixtures, Dalton’s Law states: The .79 ata) of the total. (Again, note that any measure of
total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the absolute pressure, such as psia or kg/cm2 may be used and
sum of the pressures of each of the different gases making up the principle applies, though in diving contexts partial
the mixture – each gas acting as if it alone were present and pressures are usually expressed in bar/ata).
occupied the total volume. Suppose you double the air pressure to 2 bar/ata.
In essence, this means that each gas within a gas Although the oxygen and nitrogen still make up the same
mixture acts independently of the others. The individual percentage of the air, each still exerts a proportional partial
pressure exerted by a particular component of the gas pressure of the total pressure. Therefore, of the total 2 bar/
mixture is proportional to the number of molecules of ata, oxygen exerts 21% of the total or .42 bar/ata (.21 × 2
that particular gas within the mixture. This individual bar/ata = .42 bar/ata) and nitrogen exerts 79% of the total
pressure exerted by a component gas is referred to as or 1.58 bar/ata (.79 x 2 bar/ata = 1.58 bar/ata).
a partial pressure (sometimes abbreviated “pp” or as a Mathematically, Dalton’s Law can be expressed as:
“P” before a gas, such as “PO2” for “partial pressure of
oxygen”). As the name suggests, the partial pressure of a Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 . . .
gas in a mixture of gases is the part of the total pressure where
exerted by that gas. Understanding partial pressure is Ptotal is the total absolute pressure
important because, as you’ll see later, both the solubility
and diffusion of a gas into body tissues are proportional to and
the partial pressure of the gas. P1 (etc.) is the partial pressure of each component gas.
Using Dalton’s Law, we can find individual partial
79% N2
pressures easily by multiplying the percentage of the

21% O2
individual gas by the total absolute pressure.
P1 = Ptotal × % volume of gas1
Let’s look at an example that would be typical in

technical diving. What would the partial pressures of each
gas in TMx16/33 (trimix consisting of 16% oxygen, 33%
helium, and 51% nitrogen) at 67 metres/220 feet?
Ptotal = 7.7 bar/ata (67 ÷ 10 = 6.7 bar/atm + 1 atm = 7.7

bar/ata: 220 ÷ 33 = 6.7 bar/atm + 1 atm = 7.7 bar/ata)
Total Total
Pressure 1 bar/ata Pressure 2 bar/ata PO2 (oxygen) = .16 x 7.7 bar/ata = 1.23 bar/ata
PN2pp .79 bar/ata PN2pp 1.58 bar/ata PN2 (nitrogen) = .51 x 7.7 bar/ata = 3.92 bar/ata
PO2pp .21 bar/ata PO2pp .42 bar/ata
PHe (helium) = .33 x 7.7 bar/ata = 2.54 bar/ata
Dalton’s Law says that each gas in a mixture of gases exerts a Note that if we add all the partial pressures, we get
proportionate portion of the total pressure. the total pressure of 7.7 bar/ata (7.69 in this example due
to rounding).
If necessary, partial pressure can be calculated in bar/
Take air as an example. For simplicity, we’ll assume it ata and then converted to other pressure expressions.
consists of 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen, ignoring trace In the previous example, what is PN2 in kg/cm2 and psi
gases. If the pressure is 1 bar/ata (sea level at the surface), absolute pressure?
Dalton’s Law says that 21% of the total pressure of the
gas mixture will be exerted by the oxygen molecules and 3.92 bar/ata × 1.03 kg/cm2 = 4.04 kg/cm2
79% of the total pressure will be exerted by the nitrogen absolute pressure
molecules. So, if the total pressure exerted is 1 bar/ata,
then the oxygen partial pressure would be .21 bar/ata 3.92 bar/ata × 14.7 psi = 57.6 psia

Unlike in diving, in medicine, partial pressures oxygen becomes toxic when the PO2 exceeds 1.4 bar/
are commonly expressed in millimetres of mercury ata. Although you won’t exceed this limit diving with
(mmHg). From the above example, to convert the PN2 to air within recreational limits, using enriched air nitrox
millimetres of mercury, multiply bar/atmospheres by 760 (EANx – oxygen-nitrogen mixtures with higher oxygen
(the mmHg of 1 bar/atm): content than air has) you can. Different EANx blends
3.92 bar/ata x 760 = 2979 mmHg have different oxygen contents and therefore different
Now let’s consider why partial pressure is important. maximum depths depending upon the depth at which
If you think back to the discussion on Boyle’s Law and you would reach a PO2 of 1.4 bar/ata. In technical diving,
breathing air at depth, you realize that when you inhale even air may have too much oxygen, depending upon the
underwater, each breath has more molecules compared depth. So, tec divers often dilute their breathing gases with
to a breath of the same volume at the surface. This means helium to reduce the oxygen partial pressure (as well as to
that while the percentage of each gas in a mixture remains reduce narcosis – more about this later). Tec divers also
the same, the number of gas molecules increases with the have to carry two or more gas blends for decompression,
pressure. For example, if a theoretical lung volume at the each with its own oxygen content and maximum depth
surface contains 100 × 10 21 air molecules, you would based on the PO2.
assume that 79 × 10 21 molecules were nitrogen, and
Reference
21 × 10 21 were oxygen (using the simplified 79%/21%
ratio of nitrogen to oxygen that ignores trace gases). If, PADI Enriched Air Diver Manual, DSAT Tec Deep Diver
on the other hand, you were to breathe pure oxygen at Manual, DSAT Tec Trimix Diver Manual
the surface, oxygen would account for all 100 × 10 21
molecules. Dalton’s Law becomes significant when you consider
Going back to air, if the pressure increases fivefold, impurities in breathing air. By applying Dalton’s Law, you
such as during a dive to 40 msw/132 fsw, you’ll need 500 can compare the effects of a single gas in a mix breathed at
× 10 21 molecules to maintain the same lung volume. a particular depth with the effects of a greater percentage
Of this new volume, 395 × 10 21 molecules are nitrogen of the same gas at the surface. This is called surface
(79% of 500 × 10 21), and 105 × 10 21 are oxygen (21% of equivalency, which concerns us when we deal with toxic
500 × 10 21). Note that 105 × 10 21 oxygen molecules is contaminates in our breathing gases.
the same number of molecules you have breathing pure For example, suppose due to a faulty compressor and
oxygen at the surface. improper filtration, a scuba cylinder were accidentally
Instead of counting molecules, Dalton’s Law says filled with 0.5% carbon monoxide (CO) in the breathing
that we can use partial pressures, so let’s look at the air. While this is undesirable, breathing this volume of
oxygen partial pressures from our example. At the surface, CO at the surface isn’t likely to be toxic. The PCO is .005
breathing air, the PO2 is .21 bar/ata (.21 × 1 bar/ata), but Breathing Breathing
breathing 100% oxygen, the PO2 is 1.0 bar/ata (1.0 × 1 Air Contaminated Air
bar/ata). At 40 msw/132 fsw breathing
air, the PO2 is also 1.0 bar/ata (Absolute Molecules of
0m/0ft = 1 bar/ata
pressure at 40 msw/132fsw = 5 bar/ata; Contaminated Air
PCO = .7875 bar/ata
.21 × 5 bar = 1.05 bar/ata). Therefore, PN2pp = .79 bar/ata
PCO = .2075 bar/ata
the physiological effect of oxygen is PO2pp = .21 bar/ata
PCO = .005 bar/ata
essentially the same whether you’re
breathing pure oxygen at the surface
or air at 40 metres/132 feet. From a 40m/132ft = 5 bar/ata
physiological point of view, the effect PCO = 3.9375 bar/ata
PCO = 1.0375 bar/ata
of a gas depends on its partial pressure PN2pp = 3.95 bar/ata
PCO = .025 bar/ata
PO2pp = 1.05 bar/ata
alone. Other gases present may have their
own effects, but they are immaterial with
respect to other gases in the mix.
This is particularly important in
both recreational Dalton’s Law allows us to predict the physiological effects of breathing gases at
and technical depth. Air breathed at 5 bar/ata is physiologically the same as breathing pure
oxygen at the surface. Contaminated air with 0.5% carbon monoxide is not toxic
diving because
at the surface, but at 5 bar/ata, it is.

bar/ata (1 bar/ata × .005 = .005 bar/ata), which while not
EANx and Dalton’s Law good, is not much – at the surface. At 40 msw/132 fsw (5
As you may already know, enriched air nitrox (EANx) bar/ata), it’s another story. At that depth, the PCO is .025
uses air that has had oxygen added to reduce the bar/ata (5 bar/ata × 0.5%), which is the surface equivalent
proportional amount of nitrogen and thereby increase of breathing 2.5% carbon monoxide – a poisonous
the allowable no stop dive time. This is why it has level. Nothing in the cylinder changed, of course, but
become increasingly popular among recreational the physiological consequences did because the partial
divers. It is also used in technical diving to accelerate pressure increased.
the elimination of dissolved nitrogen or helium in the
body, shortening decompression stop times.
When making recreational dives with EANx, you The T Formula
normally use special EANx tables or an EANx dive You can use Dalton’s Law to determine what the
computer for determining and staying within time limits. partial pressure of a gas would be at a given absolute
However, you may also learn the Equivalent Air Depth pressure and gas percentage in a mix, what the gas
(EAD) formula, which allows you to use any EANx percentage would be at a given absolute pressure and
blend with a conventional air table. This formula is partial pressure, or what the absolute pressure would
actually an application of Dalton’s Law: be for a given partial pressure and gas percentage. If
you know any two, you can determine the third.
Metric: To make this convenient, you may want to use the
EAD = (1 - oxygen %) x (depth in metres +10) T Formula, which is:
-10 Pg
.79
Imperial Fg Ptotal
EAD = (1 - oxygen %) x (depth in feet +33)

- 33 Where
.79
Pg = the partial pressure of the gas
Mathematically, this formula finds the depth at Fg = the percentage of the gas (expressed as a
which the PN2 would be the same using air as using decimal, eg. 36% as .36)
the EANx blend in question. The (1 - oxygen %) portion
defines the nitrogen percent, and the (depth + 10 or and
33) portion determines mswa/fswa. When you multiply Ptotal = the total absolute pressure
these together, you get the PN2 in msw or fsw. You To use the T Formula, cover the variable you’re
divide this by .79, which is the fraction of nitrogen looking for and do what’s left with the other two. For
found in air, yielding the depth in mswa or fswa at instance, suppose you know Fg. and Ptotal, and want
which air would have the same partial pressure. Finally, to find Pg. Cover Pg., which leaves Fg. and Ptotal. next to
you subtract 10 or 33 to convert the absolute pressure each other, so you multiply them to get Pg.. Suppose
into the gauge pressure you would read on your depth you know Fg. and Pg. and want to find Ptotal. Cover Ptotal,
gauge or computer. which leaves Pg. over Fg.. Divide Pg. by Fg. to get Ptotal.
You also use Dalton’s Law formula PA = P Total × % Since the Ptotal that normally interests you is the
volume A to determine the maximum depth for a given depth, and you normally express gas partial pressure
EANx blend, which is the depth at which you reach in bar/ata, it’s usually simplest to convert depth to and
a PO2 of 1.4 bar/ata. Suppose you’re diving with from bar/ata when using the T Formula.
EANx36 (36% oxygen).
1.4 bar/ata = Ptotal × .36 Example:
You’re planning a dive to 20 metres/66 feet and don’t
3.9 bar/ata = Ptotal want your PO2 to exceed 1.2 bar/ata. What oxygen
percentage would be the most you could have in your
Converting bar into metres yields 39 mswa; gas mix?
subtract 10 to get the depth of 29 metres. For imperial, Applying the T Formula, you know Pg. (PO2 =
converting ata into feet yields 129 fswa; subtract 33 1.2 bar/ata) and Ptotal (20 metres/66 feet = 3 bar/
to get the depth of 96 feet. Clearly, using EANx36 ata) and need to find Fg. (the oxygen percentage in the
it’s possible to exceed the maximum depth for oxygen mix). Cover Fg, which leaves Pg. over Ptotal. This means
within the general depth limits of recreational diving you divide Pg. (1.2) by Ptotal (3). 1.2 ÷ 3 = .4, or 40%
(40 metres/130 feet). maximum oxygen allowed in the mix.

we say the gas is dissolved in the liquid.
An interesting aspect of gases in solution is that
the gas molecules retain their gas properties. Although
completely surrounded by the liquid molecules, gas
molecules still exert pressure from inside the liquid. This
pressure exerted within the liquid by a particular gas in
solution is called gas tension.
William Henry, an English chemist, physician, and
associate of John Dalton, was one of the first scientists
to study the properties of gases in solution. Based on
experimentation, Henry’s Law says that the amount of
gas that dissolves into a liquid at a given temperature is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas.
Hence, two primary factors that affect gas solubility in
liquids are pressure and temperature. Also, the solubility
of a particular gas in a particular liquid is also a factor, just
Perhaps the most common example of Henry’s Law is a carbonated as salt is more soluble in water than grease is.
beverage. When you open the bottle, it foams and fizzes as In diving, we’re mostly interested in the solubility of
carbon dioxide dissolved in the liquid comes out of solution. This gases in water (because water is the main solvent in our
demonstrates that liquids dissolve gases, and that if conditions
change, the amount of gas that can stay in solution changes.
bodies). Suppose you have a theoretical bucket of water
with no gas dissolved in it. Therefore, the gas tension is
zero. Once the water comes into contact with a gas, gas
Henry’s Law. Day-to-day life gives us examples of
molecules rush to penetrate the solution, flowing from
solutions, such as when we put sugar in coffee to sweeten
high pressure to low pressure, much as gas flows from high
it. The molecules of the solute (substance being dissolved)
pressure to low pressure when you open a scuba cylinder
become interspersed evenly within the molecules of
valve. The gas dissolves into the water until the gas tension
the solvent (substance into which the solute dissolves).
(pressure) of the gas in solution is the same as partial
Although the solvent and the solute coexist, both
pressure of the gas in contact with the solution.
substances still exhibit individual behaviors.
The phenomenon is the same even if you put a
APPLICATION TO DIVING: Henry’s Law is the basis for mixture of gases, like air, in contact with the water.
decompression modeling. Without understanding how gases Following Dalton’s Law, each gas in contact with the water
dissolve into and out of a liquid (or body tissues), we would not dissolves until its partial pressure in solution is the same as
have the dive tables or computers that allow us to minimize the its partial pressure. Each gas in the mix acts independently
risk of decompression sickness by providing no stop limits and of the others. For instance, if you put the bucket into a
decompression schedules.
sealed recompression chamber and exposed the water to
You probably think of solutions as forming when pure nitrogen gas, N2 would go into solution until the
solids dissolve into a liquid, but they also form from dissolved PN2 (tension) reached equilibrium with the PN2
gases dissolving into a liquid. Perhaps the most common in contact with the water. Now suppose you increase the
example of this is a carbonated beverage. When you total pressure by adding pure oxygen. Although the total
open the beverage, it foams and fizzes as carbon dioxide pressure has gone up, the PN2 in contact with the water
dissolved in the liquid comes out of solution. This is the same, so no more nitrogen would go into solution.
demonstrates that liquids dissolve gases, and that if Instead, oxygen would begin dissolving into the water
conditions change, the amount of gas that can stay in until the oxygen tension reaches equilibrium with the PO2
solution changes. in contact with the water.
In the discussion about states of matter, you learned The difference between the partial pressure of gases
that the liquid state lies between solid and gas. The relative in contact with a liquid and the gas tension within the
distance between molecules in a liquid is less than in a liquid is referred to as the pressure gradient. When the
gas, but greater than in a solid, giving more than ample pressure gradient is high, the gas absorption rate into the
room for gas molecules to become water is high. As gas dissolves into the water, the gradient
trapped between the liquid decreases and the rate at which the gas dissolves into the
molecules. When this happens, water slows.

When the gas tension within a liquid reaches with the water, the more of that gas that dissolves into
equilibrium with the partial pressure of the gas in contact the water. The gas dissolves into the water until reaching
with the liquid, no more net exchange of the gas occurs equilibrium (saturation) with the pressure of the gas in
(although equal numbers of molecules will continue to contact with the water.
pass in and out of the liquid). At this point the liquid is Let’s say you’ve placed a bucket of water in a
said to be saturated with that gas. recompression chamber and raised the pressure to 2 bar/
ata. After several hours, the water is saturated with both
oxygen and nitrogen. What happens if you release the
1 bar/ata
pressure and return the chamber to 1 bar/ata?
Less pressure in contact with the water means that a
dissolved gas now has a greater gas tension than the partial
pressure of the same gas in contact with the water. The
water is said to be supersaturated, or containing more gas
than it can keep in solution at that pressure. Again there
exists a pressure gradient, and gas flows from high pressure
to low pressure. In this case, the gas begins to dissolve
out of solution (desaturates) until reaching equilibrium
with the partial pressure of the gas in contact with the
water. The bucket of water had a PN2 of 1.58 bar/ata
Equilibrium
(Saturation) and a PO2 of .42 bar/ata before you released the pressure.
After returning the chamber to 1 bar/ata, the oxygen and
Gas dissolves into a liquid until the gas tension reaches equilibrium nitrogen dissolve out of the water until the PN2 reaches
with the ambient pressure. This is called saturation. .79 bar/ata and the PO2 reaches .21 bar/ata.

Based on your experience with a carbonated beverage,
Suppose you’ve left the water in the recompression you may expect to see bubbles form in the water as oxygen
chamber long enough for it to be saturated with nitrogen and nitrogen desaturate from your bucket of water. In
and oxygen, and you raise the pressure by adding more reality, you probably won’t. This is because a specific liquid
nitrogen. Now the water is no longer saturated with can tolerate some degree of supersaturation of a specific
nitrogen, so once again N2 begins dissolving into it until gas without forming bubbles. Instead, the gas diffuses
the PN2 in solution equals the PN2 in contact with it. out of solution at the water surface. However, if there’s
With respect to oxygen, however, the water remains too much dissolved gas (too high a gradient), then the
saturated because the PO2 in contact with it does not gas may come out of solution faster than it can diffuse
change. Only if you raise the PO2 by bleeding oxygen through the water surface. In this case, bubbles will form.
into the chamber do you cause more oxygen to go into Other factors, such as agitating the liquid, may also make
solution. So, the more pressure exerted by a gas in contact bubbles form more easily.
2 bar/ata 1 bar/ata
Equilibrium Supersaturation Equilibrium

(Saturation) (Saturation)
If the pressure of a gas in contact with the liquid rises, gas will If the pressure of a gas in contact with the liquid decreases, the gas
dissolve into the liquid until reaching equilibrium with the new will dissolve out of liquid until reaching equilibrium with the new
pressure. pressure.
4-43 (C-53) saturation

This is basically how Henry’s Law relates to Despite all these variables, the behaviors of gases in
decompression and diving. During a dive you’re exposed solution according to Henry’s Law form the foundation
to pressure. You breathe air/EANx at the surrounding for decompression theory. Physiologists are still learning
pressure, so the PN2 is higher in your lungs than in your about the specific body processes that come into play
blood and other water in your body tissues. Following regarding dissolved gases, but today we know enough
Henry’s Law, therefore, nitrogen dissolves into your to predict decompression outcomes with very high
body (so does oxygen, but since metabolism and other reliability. This is why you’re very unlikely to experience
biochemical processes consume oxygen, it doesn’t concern decompression sickness if you follow conservative diving
us with respect to decompression). When you come to practices and stay well within the limits of your dive
the surface, your tissues are supersaturated with nitrogen. computer or tables.
Provided you’ve stayed within your dive table/computer Besides pressure, temperature affects gas solution into
limits, the PN2 gradient should be low enough to prevent liquids. With respect to decompression theory this isn’t a
the bubble formation that results in decompression major issue because your body temperature stays within a
sickness. relatively narrow range. However, changes in the solubility
If you exceed the no-stop limits (either in a of gases due to temperature affect the underwater world.
recreational diving emergency or as part of a planned One example is that temperature can affect the amount
tec dive), you make decompression stops. Very basically, of dissolved oxygen available for fish and other aquatic
the stops are planned so that you don’t end up with an organisms to breathe.
excessive pressure gradient that results in decompression As water (or other liquid) heats, molecular motion
sickness. During the stop, nitrogen diffuses into your lungs (temperature) increases. The faster the molecules move,
as it comes out of solution. When the pressure gradient the more space they need, leaving less space for gas
has declined enough, you may ascend to the next stop, molecules. Therefore, the higher the temperature, the less
continuing the process until you’ve reduced the PN2 dissolved gas a liquid can hold. You may have noticed that
tension sufficiently to surface. a warm carbonated beverage fizzes over more easily than
Note that variables in your body make decompression a cold one. When you heat water, small bubbles of air
physiology and decompression modeling far more complex form before it boils because the water can no longer hold
than the behavior of a bucket of water. For one, not all as much dissolved gas. The accelerated water molecules
your tissues absorb gas at the same rate. This is because displace the dissolved air, so that the air diffuses into small
tissues vary in their degree of permeability (ability to let gas gas pockets in the surfaces of the container to form small
pass across the tissues). The absorption rate also depends bubbles that eventually rise out of the water.
on the blood circulation to various tissues, which may in You’ll learn more about how your body deals
turn be affected by variables such as how hard you swim or with dissolved gases, decompression sickness and the
cold water reducing circulation to your extremities. decompression models we use in diving in Chapter Five,
Another important distinction between the bucket of The Diver Within.
water and your tissues is that gases have differing solubility
in different tissues. For example, given an equal quantity Gases You Should Know
of blood tissue and fat tissue, when equilibrated to surface Many elements exist as gases in their natural state. Because
pressure, the fat tissue holds more nitrogen molecules in gases mix easily, in nature, gases normally occur mixed
solution, though both have the same tissue pressure (PN2 = rather than in isolation. On earth, the most common gas
.79 bar/ata). If you were making a tec dive breathing trimix mixture is obviously air. Although we can treat air as 79%
(oxygen, helium and nitrogen), a given tissue may saturate nitrogen and 21% oxygen for most purposes, it actually
with helium faster than nitrogen because helium is less consists of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, neon,
dense and diffuses faster than nitrogen. helium, krypton, hydrogen, xenon, radon, and carbon
Because of these variables, when you dive, your monoxide among other gases.
different body tissues absorb and release nitrogen (or Under normal conditions, the composition of dry air
other gases) at different rates. Given enough time, all remains quite uniform and is made up (by volume) of the
tissues reach equilibrium (saturation), but during the short following:
duration of a typical dive (even a
Nitrogen 78.084%
technical dive), some areas of Oxygen 20.946%
your body will saturate while Argon 0.934%
others will not. Carbon dioxide 0.033%

The remaining components of air — neon, helium, abundance of this gas is thought to be due primarily to
krypton, hydrogen, xenon, radon and carbon monoxide reactions with ozone (O3) in the upper atmosphere, and
— are referred to as rare gases and account for only due to photosynthesis by phytoplankton – primarily
0.003% of the atmosphere. dinoflagellates and diatoms – in the shallow, sunlit surface
Let’s look at some of the individual characteristics of regions of the ocean.
these gases and how they relate to diving. Unlike N2, our bodies require and use O2 during
metabolism (the process by which food is converted
NITROGEN to energy to support life). For this reason, oxygen isn’t
The element nitrogen is very common and reacts readily normally a concern with respect to decompression.
with other substances. This is why you find it in many Metabolism and other body processes react with and
natural compounds such as protein. As a gas, two nitrogen consume oxygen so that its pressure gradient remains low
atoms join to form a single nitrogen molecule (N2), which and it doesn’t contribute decompression bubbles.
is an inert (doesn’t react with other substances) gas so far Experiments have shown that oxygen can act as an
as diving applications are concerned (note that especially inert gas if you were to breathe it at a very high PO2 while
among plants, nitrogen gas is not inert and takes part in diving. This isn’t really an issue, though, because the PO2
important biochemical processes). Nitrogen is the most required is well above the threshold of oxygen toxicity.
abundant component of the atmosphere, but our bodies You would have to grossly violate oxygen limits for this
don’t use it during respiration. to happen, and even then it’s more likely that you would
have a major problem due to oxygen toxicity before you
had a decompression problem caused by oxygen.

Nitrogen gas
molecule
Oxygen gas
Nitrogen
In diving, Molecule
the nitrogen we breathe can cause several molecule
problems. While we don’t use it chemically in our
respiratory processes, when breathed under pressure Oxygen Molecule
nitrogen (and to a varying extent all other inert and It seems odd that since you need oxygen to live,
reactive gases) interferes with signal transmission through under pressure it can become toxic. As you’ve already
the central nervous system, causing the intoxicating effects learned, the maximum PO2 considered acceptable for
of inert gas narcosis, sometimes called “rapture of the an active diver is 1.4 bar/ata (tec divers at rest during
deep.” (See Chapter Five, The Diver Within, for more decompression have an accepted limit of 1.6). When
about gas narcosis.) breathing air within recreational depth limits, you won’t
In addition to its narcotic effects under pressure, reach 1.4 bar/ata, but when using enriched air (air that
in accordance with Henry’s Law, N2 dissolves into has more than 21% oxygen – commonly 32% or 36%
body tissues during a dive. Because of this, you have to oxygen) you can.
follow dive tables or a dive computer to minimize the Interestingly, although metabolism and other
risk of decompression sickness. In recreational diving, chemical processes seem to keep the PO2 from being a
nitrogen is the main gas that concerns us with respect to major concern with respect to bubble formation, there’s
decompression. As you’ll see, however, any gas can cause still enough oxygen gas in solution to contribute to
decompression sickness. narcosis. Nitrogen and oxygen have similar solubility in
lipids (body fats), which is thought to be one factor related
OXYGEN to inducing narcosis. Oxygen contributes to narcosis, but
Oxygen is very reactive as both an element and as a gas the processes involved in narcosis are complex and not
(O2). It readily combines with other elements to form completely understood. Nonetheless, when diving with
many different compounds. Oxygen is also one of the enriched air nitrox, we treat air and enriched air as equally
most plentiful elements in the atmosphere. The vast narcotic.

You’ll learn more about oxygen toxicity and narcosis
in Chapter Five.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide is an active compound that dissolves well
in seawater. As a result, seawater contains a concentration
of carbon dioxide that exceeds the carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
concentration found in air. Carbon dioxide is also a molecule
greenhouse gas that helps the earth hold onto heat. Many
scientists think that the oceans are absorbing much of Although it’s rare for carbon monoxide to get into
the waste carbon dioxide released by burning fossil fuels, breathing air for divers, it can happen. The cause is usually
which is why the pace of greenhouse effect increase has improper compressor lubrication or maintenance coupled
been somewhat slower than we would expect. (Although with poor filtration, or improper location coupled with
the sea has helped delay the problem, global warming is poor filtration. Improper lubrication and maintenance can
thought to be worsening and is a major concern.) allow combustion to occur within the compressor system.
In its normal concentration in the atmosphere, Improper location can also be an issue if, for example, a
carbon dioxide is odorless, colorless and tasteless, though gasoline powered compressor’s exhaust is upwind from the
in high concentrations, it has an acid odor and taste. This breathing air intake. Modern filters provide some safeguard
is what gives a carbonated beverage its distinct smell and by catalyzing carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide (much
taste, and why the same beverage tastes different after it as catalytic converters on automobiles do), followed by
goes flat. filtering out the carbon dioxide. However, improper or
exhausted filters can let either or both gases pass through,
or very high quantities of carbon monoxide can exceed
what the filter can take out.
Fortunately, professional dive operations maintain
their compressor systems and have their air tested
regularly. For this reason, bad air is very rare.
HELIUM
Helium is a relatively rare gas. It wasn’t even known
Carbon dioxide molecule
to exist until 1868, and the ability to extract it from
One of the main sources of carbon dioxide is as a ore didn’t happen until 1895. Today the United States
waste product from respiration. Another important source is the main commercial supplier of helium. Although
is air pollution. The primary concern with carbon dioxide it is affordable (compared to some gases), there are
levels in diving is that carbon dioxide primarily controls some estimates that commercial helium sources will be
breathing in humans. As discussed in the physiology exhausted within this century.
section, The Diver Within, too much carbon dioxide can Helium is the second lightest gas (second only to
cause breathing difficulties and air starvation at depth. hydrogen). It is an inert element that is so stable it doesn’t
During a breath hold dive, too little carbon dioxide can even form a two-atom gas molecule with itself. Helium is
cause you to lose consciousness without warning. never found in a compound. Helium gas (He) therefore
CARBON MONOXIDE
In nature, carbon monoxide is a rare gas. Most of it is Found on the Sun Before
man-produced as a by-product of burning hydrocarbon on Earth
fuels such as fossil fuels. It is highly toxic, odorless and Before 1868, helium’s existence was theorized, but
tasteless, making it difficult to detect without instruments. no one had actually demonstrated that it exists. In that
Fortunately, it commonly occurs with other compounds year, however, Sir Joseph N. Lockyer and P.J. Janssen
that you can taste or smell. This is why you don’t dive with verified the existence of helium by finding it in the sun’s
air that has a foul taste or smell. chromosphere. Lockyer worked with Eduard Frankland,
an expert in spectroscopy, to confirm the discovery.
Helium wasn’t found on earth until almost 30 years later.

consists of individual atoms rather than molecules. use electronic voice communication. This is offset by
Helium is very important in technical and commercial electronic filters that “unscramble” your voice, making you
diving because it doesn’t produce narcosis. Deep diving intelligible to other divers and surface support. The second
with heliox (helium and oxygen) is the standard practice problem is that while helium isn’t narcotic, at extreme
for commercial diving. In tec diving, trimix (oxygen, partial pressures (typically at depths below 120 metres/400
helium and nitrogen) is the standard gas for dives deeper feet), helium causes High Pressure Nervous Syndrome
than approximately 50 metres/165 feet. (HPNS), which is characterized by nervous tremors,
nausea, fatigue and impaired thinking. One solution
to this is to use trimix because the narcotic effect of its
nitrogen helps counteract HPNS. (The first uses of trimix
were for this purpose).
HYDROGEN
In many respects, hydrogen would be an ideal diving gas.
It is the lightest gas of all, and is thought to be the most
Helium atom
abundant element in the universe. Whether it is or not, it
is abundant on earth; you can get hydrogen gas easily by
Because it has lower density than O2 or N2, another using electricity to break water molecules into hydrogen
Helium
advantage Atom
of helium as a deep diving gas is that it is and oxygen molecules. It is somewhat narcotic, but much
easier to breathe at depth. However, it does have some less narcotic than oxygen and nitrogen, and it appears
drawbacks as a diving gas. Being a light gas, He diffuses to have some decompression advantages over helium.
more rapidly than O2 or N2, which means it dissolves into Hydrogen also doesn’t cause HPNS. The France-based
your tissues faster. For a given dive and oxygen percentage, commercial diving company Comex has experimented

the decompression required when using helium is with hydrogen in deep commercial diving.
therefore longer compared to an air/enriched air dive. The primary downside is that hydrogen is highly
A second problem is that helium conducts heat far reactive. As a gas, it forms a two-atom molecule (H2). In
more rapidly than oxygen or nitrogen. This isn’t a big issue its gaseous state, hydrogen reacts violently with oxygen
with respect to breathing, but it makes it ineffective for to form water. To use hydrogen as a breathing gas, you
use in a dry suit. In fact, helium absorbs heat so rapidly
that many divers say they would rather dive in a flooded
dry suit than a dry one inflated with helium.
Beyond heat considerations, using a different dry
suit gas raises a decompression concern. Because helium
diffuses rapidly, during decompression it can dissolve into
the body through the skin faster than other dissolved gases
(like nitrogen) in the tissues can dissolve out through Hydrogen gas
the lungs. As a result, the total amount of dissolved gas molecule
can increase enough to cause bubbles to form. This is
called isobaric counterdiffusion, and can occur when a can’t have more than 4% O2 in the breathing mix or an
diver breathes a slowly diffusing gas while surrounded by Hydrogen
explosive reaction results.Molecule
If you apply Dalton’s Law, you’ll
a rapidly diffusing gas. It can also occur if you breathe find this means that the shallowest you can dive with
a rapidly diffusing gas while decompressing a slowly hydrogen is about 30 metres/100 feet. Since it’s explosive,
diffusing gas. there are many important safety protocols required in
When you dive with a helium mix, therefore, you handling and using hydrogen blends – you even have to
must have a separate inflation system for your dry suit. be cautious about switching gases during decompression
Although you can use air or enriched air, most tec divers to avoid a reaction inside your lungs!
use argon for dry suit inflation. We’ll look at argon shortly. For the present and the immediate future, hydrogen
Two other helium problems relate primarily to gas for diving is likely to remain experimental and reserved
commercial diving, though they’re increasingly factors for deep commercial applications. There’s no foreseeable
in technical diving. The first is that helium transmits utility in tec diving, much less recreational diving, in the
sound faster than air does, distorting speech when you immediate future.

NEON Until now, neon diving has been limited and
You probably know neon best for its ability to emit light experimental primarily due to expense. Pure neon is very
while conducting electricity. While this is neon’s most costly – far more expensive than helium – and therefore
recognized application, over the next few decades it may impractical to use as a breathing gas. However, it’s
become a common diving gas for tec and commercial comparatively easy and inexpensive to extract “helioneon”
diving. At the present its use in diving is experimental, but from air through a freezing process. This gas mix of 25%
there are several reasons why that may change. He, 75% Ne would, in theory, be quite useable for mixing
gases for deep tec diving. As commercial helium becomes
more scarce and expensive, helioneon may replace it in
diving.
ARGON _____________________________________
Argon is a physiologically inert gas (it reacts with other
substances, but not in your body) that does not bond with
itself. Like neon and helium, argon gas exists as individual
atoms.
Neon atom
Like helium, neon is an inert element that doesn’t

even bond with itself. Like helium, neon is never found in
a compound. Neon gas consists of individual neon atoms,
much as helium gas consists of individual helium atoms.
Neon is not narcotic, but being slightly denser than
helium, it has decompression advantages, doesn’t conduct
Argon atom
heat as readily and doesn’t distort speech as much. Because
neon is denser it isn’t as easy to breathe at depth, but it is
light enough for uses to about 155 metres/500 feet – well
within the foreseeable needs of tec diving. When you look at argon, you might wonder what use
it has in diving. It is very dense, making it hard to breathe,
and highly narcotic. You would experience narcosis and
Available Everywhere labored breathing at depths as shallow as 6 metres/20 feet
were you to try to dive with argon.
But Here Argon, however, is an excellent insulator because
Neon, named from the Greek neos, meaning new, it has large molecules and a low specific heat. For this
is thought to be the fourth most abundant element reason, recreational, technical and commercial divers
in the universe. Considering its possible utility as
often use it in their dry suits for insulation superior to air.
a breathing gas, its abundance would be useful –
Because argon is very dense, isobaric counterdiffusion isn’t
except that it’s very rare on earth, accounting for less
than .002% of the atmosphere. Scientists think neon is an issue. However, using argon in your dry suit does have
common beyond earth due to nuclear fusion in stars. some concerns.
First, there’s been little scientific testing of
decompressing surrounded by a heavy gas while breathing
a light gas. This concern is offset, somewhat, by the fact
there are no theoretical concerns, and that divers have
been using argon in their dry suits for years without any
widespread problems reported. Still, you have to accept
that you’re experimenting if you choose to use argon in
your dry suit.

The second concern is that you need to be sure no
one accidentally breathes argon underwater. Since argon
inflation systems generally use pure argon, the lack of
oxygen is the immediate problem rather than the density
or narcosis. To avoid this, your argon inflation system
should not have a second stage or any mechanism that
would allow breathing. Besides this, you typically use a
small cylinder that’s clearly marked to avoid accidental
confusion with breathing gas cylinders.

Tec divers commonly use argon for dry suit inflation. This calls for a
separate cylinder and a special regulator with no second stage.
Reference
PADI Dry Suit Diving video

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Chapter 4

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Diving in the your senses, but vitally affect your safety.

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Electrons 11 12 Bones, shells, coral 13 14 15 16 17 18

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Elements accounting for 99% of the mass of all living things

Elements accounting for 1% of the mass of all living things

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APPLICATION TO DIVING: Water’s distinct properties affect Water Molecule Clinging

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Water is also a special substance because more substances

Diving in the Material World

doesn’t overcome the force of surface tension.

Surface tension plays a major role in the environment

because many tiny organisms rely on it. One example is Na+

the water strider, which is an insect that, thanks to surface

tension, travels over the water’s surface when looking

for food or evading predators. Even more significant are

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The same photo taken

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Diving in the Material World

WATER AND SOUND _________________________

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