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ELANG 100 – Semantics

Overview of Semantics
Introduction of the Lesson
Semantics is the study of meaning in language, and it is a field that has been explored by
linguists, philosophers, and cognitive scientists for centuries. The study of semantics is
concerned with understanding how language refers to objects, concepts, and events in the world,
and how meaning is constructed and communicated through language.

One of the fundamental questions in semantics is the nature of meaning itself. Some
theories suggest that meaning is innate, hardwired into the human brain and reflected in the way
we use language (Chomsky, 1957). Others propose that meaning is derived from the relationship
between words and objects in the world, and that it is determined by the way words are used in
context (Harris, 1946).

There are several different approaches to understanding meaning in semantics, and each
has its own strengths and weaknesses. One influential theory is the referential theory, which
suggests that the meaning of a word is determined by its reference to objects or concepts in the
world (Frege, 1892). Another theory is the dictionary meaning theory, which proposes that the
meaning of a word is fixed and can be looked up in a dictionary, where it is defined in terms of
its reference to objects or concepts in the world (Chomsky, 1957).

Despite the many different approaches to understanding meaning in semantics, there is no

single definition that can explain all aspects of meaning. Meaning is a complex and multifaceted
concept, and it is shaped by a variety of factors, including context, usage, and the relationships
between words and objects in the world.

In addition to the theoretical approaches to understanding meaning, there are also several
practical applications of semantics. For example, semantics plays a crucial role in natural
language processing, machine learning, and artificial intelligence, where it is used to develop
algorithms and models that can understand and generate human language (Lyons, 2013).
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Semantics is also important in language translation, where it is used to ensure that the meaning
of a text is preserved across languages (Evans & Levinson, 2016).

In conclusion, semantics is a rich field that is concerned with understanding the meaning
of language. From the referential theory to the dictionary meaning theory, there are many
different approaches to understanding meaning, and each has its own strengths and weaknesses.
Semantics has many practical applications, from natural language processing to language
translation, and it continues to be an important area of research and study in the fields of
linguistics, philosophy, and cognitive science.

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to;
1. explained the kinds of meaning;
2. discussed the types of semantic analysis; and
3. exhibited mastery with the theories of meanings.

Content

KINDS OF MEANING
1. Conceptual meaning: This type of meaning refers to the ideas or concepts that words and
phrases represent. It's the meaning that we associate with a word or phrase when we use it to
describe a thing, idea, or concept.

 For example, the word "dog" has a conceptual meaning that refers to a specific animal.
The phrase "the big brown dog" has a conceptual meaning that refers to a specific animal
that is big and brown.
 Another example is the word "freedom". It has a conceptual meaning that refers to the
idea of being able to do something without restrictions or limitations.

2. Connotative meaning: This type of meaning is the emotional or cultural association that a
word or phrase has. It's the meaning that we get from the word or phrase beyond its literal
meaning.
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 For example, the word "home" has a connotative meaning that evokes feelings of
warmth, comfort, and security. The word "snake" has a connotative meaning that evokes
feelings of fear or disgust.

3. Affective meaning: This type of meaning refers to the emotional impact that a word or phrase
has on the listener or reader. It's the meaning that we get from the word or phrase that is related
to our emotions or feelings.

 For example, the word "love" has an affective meaning that is associated with positive
emotions such as happiness, joy, and affection. The word "hate" has an affective meaning
that is associated with negative emotions such as anger, bitterness, and resentment.

4. Collocative meaning: This type of meaning refers to the meaning that is associated with a
group of words that are commonly used together. It's the meaning that we get from the
combination of words that are frequently used together in a language.

 For example, the phrase "strong coffee" has a collocative meaning that refers to a type of
coffee that is brewed to be strong and rich in flavor. The phrase "heavy rain" has a
collocative meaning that refers to a lot of rain falling in a short amount of time.

TYPES OF SEMANTIC ANALYSIS

SEMANTIC FEATURES

Semantic features are the basic building blocks of semantic analysis. They are the
smallest units of meaning that can be combined to form larger units of meaning, such as words,
phrases, and sentences. Semantic features can be divided into two main categories: lexical
features and grammatical features.

Lexical features are the meanings associated with individual words or lexical items. They
include the semantic fields of words, which are the range of meanings that a word can have, as
well as the connotations, associations, and nuances of meaning that a word may have.
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 For example, the word "dog" has a semantic field that includes meanings related
to animals, pets, loyalty, and companionship.

Grammatical features, on the other hand, are the meanings associated with the
grammatical structure of language, such as the relationships between words, the order of words,
and the use of grammatical markers like prepositions and conjunctions.

 For example, the phrase "the big brown dog" has a grammatical feature that
indicates that "big" and "brown" are modifying the noun "dog."

In order to analyze the meaning of a sentence or text, semantic analysts use a variety of
techniques to identify and interpret the semantic features and grammatical features that are
present. One common technique is semantic decomposition, which involves breaking down a
sentence or phrase into its constituent parts and identifying the semantic features and
grammatical features that are present in each part. Another technique is semantic role labeling,
which involves identifying the roles played by entities in a sentence, such as "agent," "patient,"
and "theme."

Semantic features and grammatical features are the foundation of semantic analysis, and
understanding how they work together to create meaning is essential for effective
communication and accurate interpretation of language.

SEMANTIC ROLES

Semantic roles are the roles played by entities in a sentence, such as "agent," "patient,"
and "theme." They are an important aspect of semantic analysis because they help us understand
the relationships between the entities in a sentence and the actions or events that are taking place.

 For example, in the sentence "The dog bit the man," "dog" is the agent (the entity
that performs the action) and "man" is the patient (the entity that receives the
action). In this case, the action is "bit," and the theme (the entity that the action is
done to) is also "man."
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Semantic roles are not always straightforward, and they can be ambiguous or context-
dependent.

 For example, in the sentence "The man ate the sandwich," "man" could be either
the agent or the patient, depending on the context and the intended meaning.

To identify semantic roles, analysts use a variety of techniques, such as semantic

decomposition and semantic role labeling. Semantic decomposition involves breaking down a
sentence or phrase into its constituent parts and identifying the semantic features and
grammatical features that are present in each part. Semantic role labeling involves identifying the
roles played by entities in a sentence, such as "agent," "patient," and "theme."

There are several different approaches to semantic roles, and different researchers have
proposed different sets of roles. Some common approaches include:

 Agent-patient-theme (APT) roles: This approach identifies three basic roles: agent (the
entity that performs the action), patient (the entity that receives the action), and theme
(the entity that the action is done to).
 Agent-theme-goal (ATG) roles: This approach identifies three basic roles: agent (the
entity that performs the action), theme (the entity that the action is done to), and goal (the
entity that the action is directed towards).
 Situation-action-object (SAO) roles: This approach identifies three basic roles:
situation (the context in which the action takes place), action (the action that is taking
place), and object (the entity that is affected by the action).

Semantic roles are an important aspect of semantic analysis because they help us
understand the relationships between entities in a sentence and the actions or events that are
taking place. By identifying the semantic roles in a sentence, we can gain a deeper understanding
of the meaning of the sentence and the relationships between the entities involved.

LEXICAL RELATIONS
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Lexical relations refer to the relationships between words in a language, specifically in

terms of their meanings. These relationships can be categorized into several types, including
synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, hypernymy, and collocation.

Synonymy refers to the relationship between words that have similar meanings. For
example, "happy" and "joyful" are synonyms, as they both describe a positive emotional state.
Antonymy, on the other hand, refers to the relationship between words that have opposite
meanings, such as "hot" and "cold."

Hyponymy refers to the relationship between a general term and a specific term. For
example, "animal" is a hyponym of "dog," as a dog is a specific type of animal. Hypernymy
refers to the relationship between a specific term and a general term, such as "dog" being a
hypernym of "poodle," as a poodle is a specific breed of dog.

Collocation refers to the relationship between words that are commonly used together in
a language, such as "strong coffee" or "happy birthday." These phrases have a specific meaning
that is different from the individual meanings of the words themselves.

Lexical relations are important in semantic analysis because they help us understand the
relationships between words and their meanings, and how they contribute to the overall meaning
of a sentence or text. By analyzing the lexical relations in a language, we can gain a deeper
understanding of the language's structure and how it is used in communication.

There are several different approaches to lexical relations, and different researchers have
proposed different theories and methods for analyzing them. Some common approaches include:

 Word sense disambiguation: This approach focuses on identifying the different

meanings of a word and how they are used in different contexts.
 Lexical semantic theory: This approach focuses on the meaning of words and how they
combine to form meaningful expressions.
 Corpus linguistics: This approach focuses on the study of large databases of texts to
identify patterns and trends in language use.
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Lexical relations are an important aspect of semantic analysis because they help us
understand the relationships between words and their meanings, and how they contribute to the
overall meaning of a sentence or text. By analyzing the lexical relations in a language, we can
gain a deeper understanding of the language's structure and how it is used in communication.

THEORIES OF MEANING
DICTIONARY MEANING

The dictionary meaning theory, also known as the dictionary definition theory or the
lexical definition theory, is a semantic theory that suggests that the meaning of a word is
determined by its dictionary definition. According to this theory, the meaning of a word is fixed
and can be looked up in a dictionary, where it is defined in terms of its reference to objects or
concepts in the world.

One of the main proponents of the dictionary meaning theory is the philosopher and
linguist, Noam Chomsky. Chomsky argues that the meaning of a word is determined by its
innate meaning, which is hardwired into the human brain and can be accessed through the use of
language. According to Chomsky, the innate meaning of a word is its reference to a specific
object or concept in the world, and this reference is determined by the way the word is used in a
sentence. For example, the word "bird" refers to a specific type of animal, and this reference is
established by the way the word is used in a sentence such as "The bird is in the tree."

Another influential proponent of the dictionary meaning theory is the linguist, Zellig
Harris. Harris argues that the meaning of a word is determined by its distribution and function
within a language, and that this meaning can be discovered through the use of linguistic analysis.
According to Harris, the meaning of a word is not derived from its internal structure or its
relationship to other words, but rather from its relationship to the external world.

One of the main strengths of the dictionary meaning theory is its ability to provide a clear
and concise definition of a word's meaning. This allows for a more nuanced understanding of
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language and its use, and it highlights the importance of context and usage in determining
meaning. Additionally, the dictionary meaning theory provides a framework for understanding
the relationship between words and objects in the world, and it emphasizes the importance of the
reference of a word in determining its meaning.

However, the dictionary meaning theory has also faced criticism and challenges. One of
the main criticisms is that it oversimplifies the nature of meaning and ignores the complexities of
language use. For example, the meaning of a word can be influenced by its relationship to other
words, its internal structure, and its context of use, and these factors cannot be captured by a
dictionary definition alone. Additionally, the reference of a word can be ambiguous or vague,
making it difficult to determine its exact meaning.

Despite these challenges, the dictionary meaning theory remains an important and
influential theory in the study of semantics. It highlights the importance of context and usage in
determining meaning, and it provides a framework for understanding the relationship between
words and objects in the world.

MENTAL IMAGE

The theory of meanings, also known as semantics, is a crucial aspect of linguistics that
studies the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in language. One of the most influential
theories of semantics is the theory of mental images, also known as the mental representation
theory.

According to this theory, the meaning of a word or phrase is determined by the mental
image or representation that it evokes in the mind of the speaker or listener. In other words, when
we hear or use a word, it triggers a mental representation or image that is associated with that
word. This mental image is not a visual image but a cognitive representation that is built based
on our experiences, knowledge, and cultural background.

 For example, when we hear the word "justice," it might evoke a mental image of a
balanced scale, a judge's gavel, or a person standing in front of a courtroom. The mental
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image of justice might also be associated with concepts such as fairness, equality, and
morality.

The theory of mental images was first proposed by the philosopher and linguist, Ludwig
Wittgenstein, who argued that meaning is not inherent in the words themselves but rather in the
way they are used and understood by people. According to Wittgenstein, "The meaning of a
word is its use in the language" (Wittgenstein, 1953).

Another linguist who contributed significantly to the theory of mental images is George
Lakoff. Lakoff argued that our understanding of language is shaped by our embodied
experiences and that our mental images are rooted in our bodily experiences. For example, he
suggests that the concept of "time" is often metaphorically understood in terms of "space," with
"forward" and "backward" being metaphors for "future" and "past" (Lakoff, 1987).

The theory of mental images has been influential in the study of semantics and has been
applied in various fields such as cognitive linguistics, psychology, and anthropology. It
highlights the dynamic and subjective nature of meaning and emphasizes the importance of
context and cultural background in shaping our understanding of language.

REFERENTIAL THEORY

The referential theory of meaning, also known as referentialism, is a semantic theory

that suggests that the meaning of a word or phrase is determined by its reference to objects or
concepts in the world. According to this theory, words are not empty symbols, but rather they
have a direct connection to the things they represent. The meaning of a word is not derived from
its internal structure or its relationship to other words, but rather from its relationship to the
external world.

One of the key proponents of referentialism is the philosopher and linguist, Gottlob
Frege. Frege argued that the meaning of a word is its reference to an object or concept in the
world, and that this reference is determined by the way the word is used in a sentence.
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For example, the word "cat" refers to a specific animal, and this reference is established
by the way the word is used in a sentence such as "The cat is on the mat." The meaning of the
word "cat" is not determined by its internal structure or its relationship to other words, but rather
by its relationship to the object it refers to in the world.

Another influential referentialist is the philosopher, Bertrand Russell. Russell argued that
the meaning of a word is its reference to a specific object or concept in the world, and that this
reference is determined by the way the word is used in a sentence. For example, the word "the"
refers to a specific object or concept, and this reference is established by the way the word is
used in a sentence such as "The cat is on the mat."

One of the main strengths of referentialism is its ability to explain the meaning of words
in a way that is independent of their internal structure or their relationship to other words. This
allows for a more nuanced understanding of the meaning of words, and it highlights the
importance of context and usage in determining meaning.

However, referentialism has also faced criticism and challenges. One of the main
criticisms is that it oversimplifies the nature of meaning and ignores the complexities of language
use. For example, the meaning of a word can be influenced by its relationship to other words, its
internal structure, and its context of use. Additionally, the reference of a word can be ambiguous
or vague, making it difficult to determine its exact meaning.

Despite these challenges, referentialism remains an important and influential theory in the
study of semantics. It highlights the importance of context and usage in determining meaning,
and it provides a framework for understanding the relationship between words and objects in the
world.
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REFERENCES

Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.

Evans, V., & Levinson, S. C. (2016). Myths of Meaning: The Truth Behind the Linguistic Wars.
Oxford University Press.
Frege, G. (1892). On Sense and Reference. Translated by P. Geach. Retrieved from
https://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/alexander-grover/docs/Frege-OnSenseandReference.pdf
Harris, Z. (1946). Discourse Analysis. Language, 22(3), 245-265.
Lyons, J. (2013). Semantics. Routledge.
Russell, B. (1911). On the Nature of Meaning. Retrieved from
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/50466/50466-h/50466-h.htm
Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the
Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical Investigations. New York: Macmillan.
Lyons, J. (1963). Language and Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Wilson, K. (2013). The Psychology of Goal Setting. New Harbinger Publications.
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Cruse, D. (2011). Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics. Oxford

University Press.
Heim, I., & Kratzer, A. (1998). Semantics in Generative Grammar. Blackwell Publishing.
Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language
Acquisition. MIT Press.
Hohn, U., & Tu Eva, H. (2015). Collocations in English: A Corpus-Based Study of Word
Combinations. De Gruyter Mouton.
Williams, J. M. (1983). Style: Toward Clarity and Grace. University of Chicago Press.