EXERCISE

8 The Appendicular Skeleton

Time Estimates for Completing This Lab

The activities in this laboratory exercise can be completed in 2 to 2.5 hours. Extra time may be
needed to complete the review sheets at the end, or they may be assigned as homework. Times
listed are only estimates.
Activity 8.1: Upper Limb: Examining the Bones of the Pectoral Girdle
20 minutes
Activity 8.2: Upper Limb: Examining the Bones of the Arm and Forearm
20 minutes
Activity 8.3: Upper Limb: Examining the Bones of the Wrist and Hand
20 minutes
Activity 8.4: Lower Limb: Examining the Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
20 minutes
Activity 8.5: Lower Limb: Examining the Bones of the Thigh and Leg
20 minutes
Activity 8.6: Lower Limb: Examining the Bones of the Foot
20 minutes

List of Materials
This list of materials shows the quantities needed for a standard 24-seat lab, with six tables and
four seats at each table.
 Human skeleton
 Model of the knee
 6–24 sets of the following disarticulated bones of upper and lower extremities
(at least 1 per table):
 Clavicle
 Scapula
 Humerus
 Ulna
 Radius
 Carpals
 Metacarpals
 Phalanges of the fingers
 Coxal bone (ilium, ischium, and pubis)

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  Femur
 Patella
 Tibia
 Fibula
 Tarsals
 Metatarsals
 Phalanges of the toes
 24 sets of colored pencils (or your students may be required to buy their own)

To Do in Advance
 ____ 1. Position skeleton and knee model(s) where they are accessible.
 ____ 2. Set bones out on lab tables.
 ____ 3. Set colored pencils out at each seat.
 ____ 4. Review the bones yourself in advance.

Tips and Trouble Spots

Introduction
Stress to your students that they can zip through this lab rather quickly, but that is
insufficient. They really need to spend time identifying the bones on the articulated skeleton
and also as separate bones, and do that repeatedly. Then they need to spend time going over
and over the specific parts of the individual bones. The more time they spend reviewing
these, the better they will learn them and the longer they will retain that knowledge.
Advise your students that they can identify the bones from illustrations first so they do not
all go to the skeleton at one time. If you have models of the extremities, they may also be
used to alleviate some of the traffic at the skeleton, but stress that they also need to view them
on the articulated skeleton as well. Also encourage them to take the disarticulated bones over
to the skeleton to see how they fit, and to learn how to tell which bones belong on the left or
right sides.
Many student use flashcards to learn the bones. Advise them that studying from two-
dimensional images on their flashcards is not the same as studying/learning from the three-
dimensional bones; most of their time should be spent on the latter.

Activity 8.1: Upper Limb: Examining the Bones of the Pectoral Girdle
Learning Outcome: Identify the bones of the pectoral girdle and their bone markings and explain
how these bones articulate.
Show your students how the acromion and coracoid process point to the shoulder, thus
making it easier to determine to which side of the body a scapula belongs. They can also
palpate the scapular spine on each other. They should also be able to palpate the acromion at
the tip of the shoulder and the coracoid coming forward a bit medial to that.

52 INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL FOR VISUAL ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LAB MANUAL Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Activity 8.2: Upper Limb: Examining the Bones of the Arm and Forearm
Learning Outcome: Identify the bones of the arm and forearm and their bone markings and explain
how these bones articulate.
Students sometimes have trouble distinguishing anterior and posterior views of the humerus.
Point out that the olecranon fossa, which is posterior, is much deeper than the anterior side’s
coronoid fossa. Also, having just learned the coracoid process on the scapula, students often
confuse “coracoid” and “coronoid.”
Students may have trouble understanding that pronation and supination do not occur at the
elbow and wrist. Demonstrate these motions on an articulated skeleton so they see that the
action, instead, occurs at the two radioulnar joints.
Make students aware that if they palpate the medial epicondyle in just the right location,
they could compress the ulnar nerve. Explain that the ulnar nerve passes superficially along
the posterior surface of the medial epicondyle. The medial epicondyle is called the “funny
bone” because compression of the nerve at this location can cause a tingling sensation along
the medial aspect of the forearm and hand.

Activity 8.3: Upper Limb: Examining the Bones of the Wrist and Hand
Learning Outcome: Identify the bones of the wrist and hand and their bone markings and explain
how these bones articulate.
Provide a mnemonic device for the students to use to memorize the names and order of the
carpal bones. One good example is the following: Sam likes to push the toy car hard. You
might write that on the board and list the corresponding bones under each word. Or, enlarge
an illustration of the wrist bones and label each with the corresponding words from the
mnemonic and also the names of the bones. Encourage them to develop their own mnemonics
(but don’t be shocked by what they come up with! Hey, if it helps them remember…). They
can add their mnemonic to their sketch.
Remind them that all the fingers have three phalanges except the thumb, which has only a
proximal and a distal. They tend to look at the first metacarpal and count that as the proximal
phalanx.
On the skeleton, demonstrate for your students the importance of anatomical position. In
that position, the radius and ulna are parallel instead of crossed, and the radius and thumb are
lateral.

Activity 8.4: Lower Limb: Examining the Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
Learning Outcome: Identify the bones of the pelvic girdle and their bone markings and explain
how these bones articulate.
As with Activity 8.1, advise students that they can identify the bones from illustrations first
so they do not all go to the skeleton at one time. If you have models of the extremities, they
may also be used to alleviate some of the traffic at the skeleton, but stress that they also need
to view the bones on the articulated skeleton as well.
Stress that they compare the bones of the upper and lower extremities, keeping in mind
that lower extremity bones are used not only for locomotion, but also to support body weight.
The upper extremity bones are used for fine motor skills and other movements, but normally
are not used to support the body. Along this line, have them examine the sacrum, coxal
bones, and femur to see how the surfaces that transmit upper body weight to the lower body
are expanded for this purpose.

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 Review gender differences in the bony pelvis and ask students to consider what advantages
there are for the female design, in terms of supporting a developing fetus and also for
delivery, and what advantages there are to the more narrow male design.

Activity 8.5: Lower Limb: Examining the Bones of the Thigh and Leg
Learning Outcome: Identify the bones of the thigh and leg and their bone markings and explain
how these bones articulate.
Having students estimate height by measuring the femur gives them practice in using the
scientific process, measurement, and data analysis.
When students are palpating their patella and tibial tuberosity, explain the connection of
the quadriceps tendon/patellar ligament. Students struggle a bit with the medial and lateral
malleoli, because they have trouble understanding that the tibia is the medial leg bone and so
forms the medial malleolus. This is especially challenging when they are asked to determine
to which side of the body a tibia belongs. They tend to think of their lateral ankle bone
(lateral malleolus) and then jump to the conclusion that this is from the tibia.

Activity 8.6: Lower Limb: Examining the Bones of the Foot

Learning Outcome: Identify the bones of the foot and their bone markings and explain how these
bones articulate.
Have your students directly compare the foot and the hand. Again, encourage them to use a
mnemonic device to learn the names and positions of the tarsals. One example is the
following: Tom can control not much in life. Also, remind them that the great toe, like the
thumb, has only two phalanges—proximal and distal. Also point out that the singular form is
phalanx, but the plural is phalanges—many students learn phalanges and assume the singular
is phalange. Finally, have them examine their own or their partner’s feet to see the arches.

Additional Student Engagement Ideas

 To be sure your students are really learning the bones, considering placing an
assortment of bones inside a pillowcase and having students reach in to select one.
Allow them to feel it until they can identify it, and then remove it to confirm their
identification.
 Have students work in small groups to write pneumonics to help them recall the order
of the carpals and tarsals.
 Instruct your students to compare and contrast homologous joints of the upper and
lower extremity, writing down similarities they see and explaining differences. This
will help them understand that the upper and lower limbs are constructed almost the
same, but are specialized for functions. Ask them to explain why the shoulder joint is
more easily dislocated than the hip even though they are both ball-and-socket joints.
 When students do Activity 8.5, instead of having them just measure a provided
femur, have them measure their own or those of some classmates to test the
hypothesis of the relationship between femur length and body height. Ask them what
other bones might be predictive, and have them measure those bones and determine
whether there is a reliable correlation to height.

54 INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL FOR VISUAL ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LAB MANUAL Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Exercise 8 Answers
Pre-Lab Quiz
1. d
2. scapula, clavicle
3. humerus, scapula
4. radius, ulna
5. carpal bones, metacarpals, phalanges
6. ilium, ischium, pubis
7. femur
8. femur, tibia
9. tibia, fibula
10. True

Activity 8.1 Answers

A 2.  The pectoral girdle articulates with the axial skeleton only at the sternoclavicular joint.
B 1.  sternal
2.  acromial
C 2.  The head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula.
4. 

Description Bone Markings

Anterior scapula Superior angle, subscapular fossa, lateral

Posterior scapula
Articular surface for shoulder
joint
border, medial border, inferior angle, acromion,
coracoid process
Scapular spine, acromion, supraspinous fossa,
infraspinous fossa, lateral border, medial
border, inferior angle
Glenoid fossa

 MAKING CONNECTIONS: The clavicle acts as a strut to hold the upper extremity out away
from the axial skeleton, allowing us more freedom of movement for our arms. If there was
no clavicle, the scapula would likely shift inferiorly and anteriorly and the shoulder would
be much less mobile.

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Activity 8.2 Answers
A 3. 

Bone Marking Function

Articulating surface Attachment Passageway

Head 

Greater tubercle 

Intertubercular  
groove
Medial 
epicondyle
Olecranon fossa 

Radial groove 

B 1.  medial: ulna
 lateral: radius
 In anatomical position, the radius and ulna lie on the coronal plane and the two
bones are uncrossed.
3. 

Articulating Bones Bone Markings

Humerus and radius Capitulum of humerus and head of radius

Humerus and ulna Trochlea of humerus and trochlear notch of ulna

 MAKING CONNECTIONS:

Bone Proximal Epiphysis Distal Epiphysis

Humerus Head, greater and lesser Medial and lateral epicondyles,

tubercles capitulum, trochlea, olecranon
fossa
Radius Radial head Styloid process
Ulna Olecranon, trochlear notch, Ulnar head and styloid process
coronoid process

Activity 8.3 Answers

A 3.  Check drawing. The bones should be drawn/labeled as follows (medial to lateral)
Proximal row: pisiform, triquetrum, lunate, scaphoid
Distal row: hamate, capitate, trapezoid, trapezium
 MAKING CONNECTIONS: The carpal bones are irregular in shape and could easily dislocate
if they were not held together by strong ligaments that limit their mobility.

56 INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL FOR VISUAL ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LAB MANUAL Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Activity 8.4 Answers
B 4.  Appendicular: ilium, ischium, pubis. Axial: sacrum, coccyx.
C 4.  Coccyx, pubis symphysis; ischial spines
 MAKING CONNECTIONS:

Anatomical Feature Male–Female Comparison

Pelvic inlet and outlet Narrower in the male

Curvature of sacrum Curved more inward in male

Angle of pubic arch Narrower in male

Lateral projection of ilia Narrower in male

 The male bony pelvis is designed primarily to contain internal structures within the pelvic
cavity. Although the female bony pelvis shares this function, it also has to allow for
growth of a fetus during pregnancy and ultimately for childbirth. A wider bony pelvis
provides better support during fetal development and allows easier delivery of the child.

Activity 8.5 Answers

A 2.  The femur receives the body weight from the upper extremities, head and neck, and
torso and transmits it to the leg, foot, and ground. It needs to be very strong to do this.
3.  Answers will vary, depending on the length of the femur.
5. 

Bone Marking Function

Articulating surface at joint Attachment site

Femoral head 

Greater trochanter 

Linea aspera 

Medial condyle 

Lateral epicondyle 

C 3. 

Articulation Bone Markings

Lateral articulation Lateral condyle of femur; lateral condyle of tibia

Medial articulation Medial condyle of femur; medial condyle of tibia

 MAKING CONNECTIONS: The patella is a sesamoid bone that forms within the tendon of
the quadriceps femoris muscles. It shields the front of the knee joint and reduces the wear
and tear on the quadriceps tendon when the knee bends. The patella also acts as a pulley to
make movement at the knee joint more efficient.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. EXERCISE 8 The Appendicular Skeleton 57

Activity 8.6 Answers
A 6.  The five metatarsals, like the metacarpals, are numbered I through V, starting at the
largest digit (great toe and thumb are each number I). However, due to anatomical
position, metatarsal I is located medial to the others, but metacarpal I is located
lateral to the other metacarpals.
7.  The phalanges are arranged the same—two in the great toe and three in all of the
lesser toes.
 MAKING CONNECTIONS: The arches allow the foot to mold to uneven ground and also
distribute the body weight more evenly throughout the foot.

Looking Back
1.  Bones of the lower limb transmit our body weight to the ground, and thus need
to be sturdier.
2.  The foot is designed for stability and support, whereas the hand is designed for
dexterity and is capable of fine motor skills.

Answers to Review Sheet

1. c
2. g
3. b and i
4. a
5. f
6–16. Check for correct colors:
 Clavicle = green
 Scapula = red
 Humerus = blue
6. supraspinous fossa
7. spine of scapula
8. coracoid process
9. acromion process
10. head of humerus
11. greater tubercle
12. anatomical neck
13. intertubercular groove
14. lesser tubercle
15. subscapular fossa
16. infraspinous fossa
17–25. Check for correct colors:
 Humerus = blue
 Radius = red
 Ulna = yellow

58 INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL FOR VISUAL ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LAB MANUAL Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
  Carpals = green
 Metacarpals = brown
 Phalanges = orange
17. capitulum
18. head of radius
19. radial tuberosity
20. styloid process of radius
21. trochlea
22. lateral epicondyle
23. olecranon process
24. styloid process of ulna
25. lateral epicondyle
26. c, j
27. h
28. e, l
29. b, f, m
30. d, k
31. o
32. a, i
33. g, n
34. d
35. b
36. h
37. e and i, a
38. f
39. j, c
40–51. Check for correct colors:
 Ilium = green
 Ischium = red
 Pubis = yellow
40. posterior inferior iliac spine
41. greater sciatic notch
42. lesser sciatic notch
43. ischial tuberosity
44. iliac crest
45. anterior superior iliac spine
46. anterior inferior iliac spine
47. acetabulum
48. arcuate line
49. obturator foramen

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 50. articular surface for sacrum (auricular surface)
51. ischial spine
52–64. Check for correct colors:
 Femur = green
 Tibia = red
 Fibula = yellow
52. neck
53. greater trochanter
54. lateral epicondyle
55. patellar surface
56. lateral tibial condyle
57. femoral head
58. head of fibula
59. lesser trochanter
60. medial epicondyle
61. medial tibial condyle
62. tibial tuberosity
63. medial malleolus
64. lateral malleolus
65. Check for correct colors:
 Calcaneus = red
 Talus = green
 Navicular = yellow
 Cuboid = blue
 Cuneiforms = orange
 Metatarsals = purple
 Phalanges = brown

60 INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL FOR VISUAL ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LAB MANUAL Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.