Ground Water Hydrology

Groundwater is the water found underground in the spaces created in the soils,
sands and rock mass in the cracks and voids. It is stored in and moves slowly
through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks. Many kinds of geological
formations under the earth posses different levels of storage capacities and
varying transmission properties that determine the ground water availability in
different locations. The ground water constitutes about 30% of the world's fresh
water resources. According to global water availability in the world, it is 0.61 %. It
is the major source of water in arid and semi arid tropical zones of the world.
Ground water is widely distributed under the ground and is a replenishable
resource unlike other resources of the earth. The problems in Ground Water
Investigation are the zones of occurrence and recharge. The modern trends are to
create more opportunity for recharge of ground water from natural sources like
rain, percolation dams, etc. The ground water is free from pollution and the
ground water storage is free from atomic attacks. Ground water can be developed
at a small capital cost in least possible time.
 Ground Water Hydrology
In many of the villages or urban areas it is a major source of drinking water availability
in India in the form of open wells, handpumps and drill wells. With the ground water
intensive irrigation can be practised with double and tripple cropping including
commercial crops; ground water can be used for supplemental irrigation during
periods of deficient surface supply, for the year-round irrigation practice. However, in
many of the areas of our country the ground water over utilization has depleted water
levels to such a lower level that the areas have become critically dry. This calls for
ground water management and replenishment.
The ground water study aspects include hydrology and hydraulics of storage and
movement of water for the purpose of its use. The geological formations that contains
or transmit ground water required to be understood.
 Geological Formations for Ground Water Occurrence
Aquifer: A water bearing geologic formation or stratum capable of transmitting water
through its pores at a rate sufficient for economic extraction by wells is called
‘aquifer’. Formations that serve as good aquifers are • unconsolidated gravels, sands,
alluvium; • lake sediments, glacial deposits; • sand stones; • limestones with cavities
(caverns) formed by the action of acid waters (solution openings in limestones and
dolomites); • granites and marble with fissures and cracks, weathered gneisses and
schists; • heavily shettered quartzites; • vescicular basalts; • slates (better than
shales owing to their jointed conditions)
Aquiclude: A geologic formation, which can absorb water but can not transmit
significant amounts is called an ‘aquiclude’. Examples are clays, shales, etc.
Aquitard: A geologic formation of rather impervious nature, which transmits water at
a slow rate compared to an aquifer (insufficient for pumping from wells) is called an
‘aquitard’. Examples are clay lenses interbedded with sand.
Aquifuge: A geologic formation with no interconnected pores and hence can neither
absorb nor transmit water is called an ‘aquifuge’. Examples are massive basalts,
granites, etc.
 Vertical Distribution of Subsurface Water
The subsurface water below the
ground surface may broadly be divided
into two zones
•Zone of aeration.
•Zone of saturation.
•In zone of aeration, soil/rock pores are
partly filled with air and partly with
water.
•In zone of saturation, all the soil/rock
pores are filled with water it means soil
is under saturated condition.
Vertical Distribution of Subsurface Water
Zone of Saturation: In the saturated zone all the soil pores are filled with water and
extends up to the underlying impermeable rock. The upper boundary of saturation is
seen in the form of a surface usually called as water table or phreatic surface. The
water table or phreatic surface is defined as the surface where the water pressure
equals atmospheric pressure. The water table appears as the level at which the water
stands in a penetrating well. The water appearing in the zone of saturation is termed
as groundwater. The pressure in the zone of saturation is always more than or equal to
atmosphere pressure.
Zone of Aeration: In the zone aeration, soil pores are partly filled with air and partly
with water. This zone is further classified into three zones: (i) soil water zone, (ii)
vadose or intermediate zone, and (iii) capillary zone, as shown in Figure.
Soil Water Zone: Soil water zone extends from the ground surface down up to the
major root zone. It is the zone, which contains the plant roots; its thickness depends
on the type of vegetation. Most of the times the water in the soil water zone exists at
less than saturation, except when the excess water reaches the ground surface as
rainfall or irrigation. Since the soil water zone contains the plant roots, agriculturists
and soil scientists have studied soil moisture distribution and movement extensively in
Vadose or Intermediate Zone or Unsaturated Zone: The vadose zone extends from
the bottom of soil water zone to the upper surface of the capillary zone. This zone
connects the soil water zone near the ground surface and the zone of saturation.
The pressure in the unsaturated zone is less than atmospheric (negative). This
means that water in the unsaturated zone is held in the soil pores under surface
tension forces.
Capillary Zone: The capillary zone, also called capillary fringe, extends from the
water table upto the height of capillary rise of water. The water is held in the
capillary zone due to surface tension forces. In capillary fringe, the pores are
saturated, but the pressure is less than atmospheric.
Capillary Rise in Samples of Unconsolidated Materials (Lohman, 1972)

Material Grain Size (mm) Capillary Rise (cm)

Fine Gravel 5–2 2.5
Very Coarse Sand 2–1 6.5
Coarse Sand 1 – 0.5 13.5
Medium Sand 0.5 – 0.2 24.6
Fine Sand 0.2 – 0.1 42.8
Silt 0.1 – 0.05 105.5
Silt 0.05 – 0.02 200
Porosity and Water Content: The portion of the soil which is not occupied by the
solids is called voids or pores. The pore space is of fundamental importance in the
study of subsurface water, since the subsurface water flows through the
interconnected pores. The pores are usually characterized by their shape, size,
irregularity, and distribution. The Effective porosity may be defined as the porosity
due to interconnected pores that can be filled with and emptied of water. Whenever
porosity is used, effective porosity will be assumed.

In the figure VT is the total Volume; Vs is the

volume of solids; Vw is volume of water; Va
is the air volume. The V v is the volume of
voids which is: Vv = Vw + Va
The porosity of a soil is defined as the ratio
of volume of voids and the total volume.
V V  V
  v
 w a
V T V T
Specific Yield: Specific yield (Sy) is defined as volume of water that can be drained
out by the force of gravity (Vg) from a fully saturated aquifer per unit volume of
aquifer material. It is given by
Sy = Vg/VT
Specific Retention: Specific Retention (Sr ) is the volume of water which retains or
held in a saturated aquifer material against force of gravity per unit volume of
aquifer material
Sr = Vh/VT
According to definition the porosity is sum of specific yield and specific retention
η = S y+ S r
For sand and gravel specific yield is high whereas for silt and clay specific yield is
low. There is a relationship between the grain size i.e. soil particle sizes with
porosity, specific yield and specific retention are shown in figure. The volumetric
water content (θ) is defined as the ratio of volume of water present in a soil and
the total volume. θ = Vw/VT; If all the voids are occupied by water, then the soil is
said to be fully saturated. In saturated condition, Vw becomes Vv and θ becomes η.
The ratio of volume of water to volume of voids is defined as the degree of
saturation (S), i.e.,

The soil moisture is reported as the ratio of weight of water in the sample and the
dry weight of the sample; and this ratio is called the dry weight moisture fraction
(W).

Dry Weight soil mositure content and the mositure content θ are related as

γb is the bulk specific weight of the dry soil. It is related to the specific weight γs
the specific weight of soil particles (soil solids or specific gravity) as
Creation of Ground Water Storage and Kinds of Aquifers
As it has been dscussed previously that the ground water storage is created by the
deep percolation of infiltered water through the surface of the earth. Thus rainfall and
irrigation are the major sources for cration of ground water. The surface of the earth
comprises of many kinds of geological and soil formations. Some times it is a thick
layer of soil/sand etc. or sometimes there is an outcrop of an aquifer. There are
varying recharge rates at which the water goes into the deeper layers. If there is
homogeneous porous formation extending from the ground surface up to an
impervious bed underneath rainwater percolating down in the soil saturates the
formation and builds up the ground water table (GWT). This aquifer under water table
conditions is called an unconfined aquifer (water-table aquifer) and well drilled into
this aquifer is called a water table well. On the other hand, if a porous formation
underneath is sandwiched between two impervious strata (aquicludes) and is
recharged by a natural source (by rain water when the formation outcrops at the
ground surface—recharge area, or outcrops into a river-bed or bank) at a higher
elevation so that the water is under pressure in the aquifer (like pipe flow), i.e.,
artesian condition. Such an aquifer is called an artesian aquifer or confined aquifer. In
this kind of aquifer the water table or the phretic surface is replaced by piezometric
head of hydraulic gradient line which is not seen but sensed.
If a well is drilled into an artesian aquifer, the water level rises in the well to its
initial level at the recharge source called the piezometric surface. If the
piezometric surface is above the ground level at the location of the well, the well is
called ‘flowing artesian well’ since the water flows out of the well like a spring, and
if the piezometric surface is below the ground level at the well location, the well is
called a non-flowing artesian well. In practice, a well can be drilled through 2-3
artesian aquifers (if multiple artesian aquifers exist at different depths below
ground level). Sometimes a small band of impervious strata lying above the main
ground water table (GWT) holds part of the water percolating from above. Such
small water bodies of local nature can be exhausted quickly and are deceptive. The
water level in them is called ‘perched water table’.
A confined aquifer or artesian aquifer is underlain and overlain by impermeable
layer so that the water is under pressure like conduit (pipe) flow. Figure (a) shows
a confined aquifer, where the piezometric surface is above the confining layer. In
confined aquifers the water level rises above the top of the aquifer and in some
cases water level may rise above the ground surface then such aquifer is known as
Flowing artesian aquifer. When there is a leakage from overlain or under lain
aquitard into the aquifer, then it is known as semi-confined aquifer. The leakage is
due to the difference of piezometric heads in the aquifer and the aquitard. (Figure
b). Unconfined aquifer is one that has free surface open to the atmosphere shown
in Figure (c).
 Storage and Flow Caharcteristics of Ground Water
Darcy's Law for Velocity of flow through
p o ro u s m e d i u m : T h e g ro u n d w a t e r
movement in and out of an aquifer is
basically flow through porous medium. The
figure indicates the Darcy's Experiment on
sand filled in a tube with two pressure
tappings located at a disctanse dl. He
proved that the velocity is proportional to
the hydraulic gardient
h
v or v  ki
l
The differential form of the equation that is
the Darcy's Law is dh
v  K
dl
 Darcy's Law
The discharge will be given by
Q = AV = -AKi
where V = velocity of flow through the aquifer; K = Hydraulic Conductivity of
aquifer material and is the velocity under unit hydraulic gradient; i = hydraulic
gradient; A is the area of aquifer subjected to flow. The negative sign in the
equations above indicates that the hydraulic head head is lost with the distance
travelled thus the hydrauic gardient has a negative sign. The Hydraulic
Conductivity is the factor of proportionality in Darcy's flow equation. It is a
function of both the fluid and the porous medium through which the fluid is
flowing. It can be expressed as:
K=kg/ν
where, K = hydraulic conductivity [LT -1 ]; k=intrinsic permeability [L 2 ]; g=
gravitational constant [L/T2]; v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid [L2T-1];
 Darcy's Law
The intrinsic permeability or what is commonly referred to now as the
permeability is independent of the fluid and depends only on the porous medium.
The permeability property is:
k = cd2
where, k = intrinsic permeability [L]; ;c = constant (This constant is dimensionless
and is controlled by factors other than the; diameter of the grains in the porous
medium such as packing, distribution and shape); d = mean grain diameter [L]. k
has a high value for high porosity mediums (sands, gravels) and a low value for
low porosity mediums (silts, clay).
Assumptions of Darcy law: 1) Darcy's Law assumes that the flow is essentially
laminar. 2) Assumes a steady state and isothermal conditions. 3) Fluid is assumed
as incompressible 4) Porous medium is assumed as homogenous.
 Stratified Aquifer Formation
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy: Hydraulic
conductivity varies through the space in
the geologic formation this property is
known as heterogeneity. When the
hydraulic conductivity remains constant
with respect to space (i.e. x, y and z
coordinates) then geologic formation is
known as homogenous. Hydraulic
conduc t i vi t y al so vari e s wi t h t h e
direction of the measurement at any
point in the geologic formations this
property is known as anisotropy. Let the
hydraulic conductivity in x, y and z
direction be characterized as Kx , Ky and
Kz respectively. When Kx = Ky = Kz then
the formation is isotropic. When Kx ≠ Ky
≠ Kz then the formation is anisotropic.
 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity
• If the aquifer consists of different
s t ra t a w i t h d i f fe r e n t h y d ra u l i c
conductivities, and flow is occurring
parallel to the strata; then equivalent
hydraulic conductivity of aquifer is
given by n

 K iBi
K e  1
n

 1
Bi

• If the flow is occurring normal to the

strata, then equivalent hydraulic
conductivity of aquifer is
n

 Li
K e  n
1

 Li 

1

 K i 
A confined aquifer has 3 layers. The bottom layer consists of coarse sand of
thickness 3.0 m, having hydraulic conductivity of 0.1 cm/sec. The middle layer
consists of fine sand of thickness 2.0 m, having hydraulic conductivity of 0.02
cm/sec. The top layer consists of gravel of 3.0 m having hydraulic conductivity of
2.0 cm/sec. Calculate the equivalent hydraulic conductivity of the confined aquifer if
(i) the flow is along the stratification, and (ii) the flow is normal to the stratification.
(i) When the flow is along the stratification
n

K B i i
(300 0.10)  (200 0.02)  (300 2.0)
Ke  1
  0.7925cm / sec
n
300  200  300
B i
i

(ii) When the flow is normal to the stratification

n

L i
300  200  300
Ke  1
  0.0608 cm / sec
n
 Li  300 200 300
i  K i 
  
0.10 0.02 2.0
 Compressibility
Compressibility can be defined as change in volume induced in the material under
an applied stress. Compressibility is the inverse of modulus of elasticity. In case of
porous media compressibility of both porous media and that of water are
defined.
Compressibility of water: Let the change in pressure be dp, change in volume of
water be dV w , original volume of water be V w , density of the fluid be ρ, and
compressibility of the water be β. dvw
vw
  
dp
By conservation of mass says that mass of fluid remains to be constant i.e. ρVw =C
by differentiating it we get  dvw  vw d   0
or (dVw /Vw) = - (dρ/ρ) Thus β = dρ/ρdp
or
 Compressibility
When a stress σ is applied to a saturated geological formation, part of the stress is
borne by the fluid and part of the stress is borne by the grains of the porous
medium. The effective stress is the stress borne by the grains of the porous
medium. Due to the change in effective stress there will be rearrangement of soil
and result in compression of the granular skeleton.
 e  p
If dσ is differencial change in σ then d  d e  dp
The weight of rock and water overlying at each point can be assumed to remain
essentially constant through time. Therefore, such flow problems generally do not
involve the changes in stress. So, dσ = 0 and we get dσe = -dp
This indicates that when fluid pressure increases, the effective stress decreases
with the same amount of effective stress. The rearrangement of sand grain and
volumetric deformation are caused due to the change in effective stress and are
controlled by the fluid pressure.
 Compressibility
Let p 0 be the atmospheric pressure and ρ 0 is the corresponding fluid density.
Integration of the Equation between limits p0 to p for dp and ρ0 to ρ for dρ gives:
p 
d    p  p0  
 
p0
dp   
  0 e
0

For an incompressible fluid, β = 0. So, ρ = ρ0 = constant.

Compressibility of porous medium
Let the change in total volume of porous medium be dV t , the total volume of
porous medium be Vt = (volume of solids + volume of voids), change in effective
stress be dσe, and compressibility of porous medium be α. then
vt
dv
   t
d e
Compressibility
Substituting p = ρgh the effective stress will be
dσe = -ρgdh
Specific Storage: Volume of water releases
from a unit volume of a saturated aquifer
under a unit change in head is known as
specific storage.
Consider a confined aquifer and let a unit
decline of hydraulic head occurred due to the
pumping of well. Due to decrease in head, the
fluid pressure (p) decreases and the effective
stress (σe) increases. Therefore, the water that
is released form the storage will be due to the
compaction of aquifer and the expansion of
water caused by the decrease in head.
 Specific Storage
Amount of water produced due to the compaction of aquifer dVw  dVt   Vt d  e
Since dσe = -ρgdh so dVw = - α Vt ρgdh
Amount of water produced due to expansion of water = d V w    V w d p
and dp = ρgdh hence dVw = -βVwρgdh now Vw= Vtη so dVw = -β Vtηρgdh
The total Volume produced per unit of the change of head ( -dh = 1) that is
the
Specific storage = Amount of water produced due to (compaction of aquifer
+ expansion of water) for unit volume of aquifer= Ss= ρg(α+βη)
The dimension of specific storage is [L]−1 since it is volume per unit volume per unit
decline in head.
 Storativity
Volume of water released from storage per unit surface area of aquifer per unit
decline in the component of hydraulic head normal to that surface is known as
storativity.
Volumeof water
S
Unit area × Unit headchange
The storativity, also known as storage coefficient, and specific storage are related
as: S  Ss b
Where S is the storativity, SS is the specific storage, and b is the thickness of
confined aquifer. Thus
S   g b   n 
Storativity is dimensionless. In most confined aquifers, the values fall in the range
between 0.00005 and 0.005. For unconfined aquifers the storativity is defined as
volume of water released from storage per unit surface area of aquifer per unit
decline of the water table. The storativity or storage coefficient is the same as
specific yield and may range between 0.05 and 0.30. .
Definition of storativity for Confined and Unconfined Aquifers
 Transmissivity
For an confined aquifer with a thickness b transmissivity T can be defined as
T  Kb
It is defined as the discharge per unit width of an aquifer. For an unconfined
aquifer, transmissivity will be
T  Kh
where h is the saturated thickness of the aquifer or height of the water table
above the top of the underlying aquitard that bounds the aquifer.
The hydraulic diffusivity is defined as the ratio of transmissivity and storativity.

T K
D 
S Ss
Equations of Groundwater Flow
The ground water flow equations are
usually studied under saturated flow
conditions for which the Darcy's Law and
continuity equation is valid. The mass
conservation equation is the basic
equation on which the Grund water flow
equation is based.Figure shows a control
vo l u m e o f d i m e n s i o n s d x , d y, d z ,
centered at point P(x, y, z). Our objective
is to derive a conservation of mass
equation which implies:
Mass inflow rate − mass outflow rate =
change of mass storage with time
 Mass Conservation Equation    vx  dx
Rate of flow of mass entering the face ABCD is = vx dy dz  x 2
d y .d z
   vx  dx
Rate of flow of mass leaving the face A1B1C1D1 is =  v x dy dz  d y .d z
x 2
The net mass rate of flow being retained in the control volume along x-axis is =
Mass inflow rate − mass outflow rate =    vx  dx     vx  dx 
vxdydz  dy.dz  vxdydz  dy.dz
 x 2   x 2 
Net Gain of mass per unit time along x axis=     v x 
d x d y d z
 x

 vy  dy
the net gain of mass per unit time along y-axis will be =  dx dz
y

   vz 
Net gain of mass per unit time along z-axis will be=  dz dx dy
z

  vx    vy    vz  

 
Therefore, the total net gain of mass per unit time is = 
x

y

z 
 dx dy dz

 
Mass Conservation Equation
Hence, n v  vy  v  The left hand side indicates the
x z
dx dy dz     dx dy dz
t  x y z 

variation of density and porosity with respect to time indicating the rate of change
of mass with respect to time thus the mass conservation equation for saturated
transient flow is    vx     v y     vz     n 
   
x y z t
 n n 
The right hand side of the equation can be written as   n
t t t
or    n   n
  n
  p
 
t  p p  t
n 
we know that p
  and p
  (the compressibility of aquifer and water)
thus
 n p
    n 
t t
 Flow Equation for Confined Aquifer
But gn Ss specific storage and p   g h therefore the Equation becomes
   vx     v y     vz  h
     Ss
x y z t

Now considering the expansion of individual terms in the left side we know
   vx  vx 
   vx
x x x
and the second term in the right hand side is much smaller in comparison to first
term and substituting the Darcy's Law, the final equation becomes
  h    h    h  h
K
 x   K
 y   K
 z   S s
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
The equation is the flow equation for saturated confined aquifer. As special cases:
i) If the aquifer is isotropic  2 h   2 h   2 h  S s  h
x 2 y 2 z 2 K t
 2h  2h  2h
ii) and also if the flow is steady 2
 2
 2
 0 (Laplace Equation)
x y z
 Equation for Unconfined Flow with Recharge
In the figure we have shown an
unconfined aquifer having recharge of
water at a rate R m3/sec/m2 of area due
to the infiltration. Our aim is to derive the
flow equation for the recharge condition
in an unconfined aquifer.
Rate of flow of mass entering face ABCD =
 vxhdy
Rate of flow of mass leaving the face
A1B1C1D1 =  v hdy     v hdy  dx
x
x

x
The net mass rate of flow being retained
in the element = Mass inflow rate − mass
outflow rate    v x h dy 
 dx
x
 Equation for Unconfined Flow with Recharge
Similarly, the net gain of mass per unit time in the element along y-axis will be =
   v y h dx 
 dy
y
Since there is recharge in Z direction, the net inflow into the element in Z direction
will be =  R d x d y     v h dy     v h dx  
y

Therefore, the total net gain of mass per unit time is =   x dx  y dy   R dx dy 
x

For steady, incompressible flow, the total net gain of mass per unit time is zero.
    vx h dy     v y h dx  
 dx  dy    R dx dy  0
 x  y 

   vx h    vy h  
 dx  dy   R dx dy  0
 x y 
 Equation for Unconfined Flow with Recharge
Applying Darcy's Law for velocity and substituting:     hK h dx   hK h dy  Rdxdy 0
 
x  x  y  y  
  h 1 2h2
Since the term  hK   K 2similarly the second term substituting both the
x  x  2 x 2 2 2 2
expression in the Equation and simplifying we get  h   h   2 R 2 2
x y K
It is the is the flow equation for unconfined aquifer with recharge.
If there is no recharge, R = 0 then
2 2 2 2
 h  h
 2
 02
x y

This Equation (6.105) is the steady, incompressible flow equation for unconfined
aquifer.
Steady Flow in Unconfined Aquifers between two water bodies with
vertical boundaries
 Dupuit's simplifying assumptions
The above problems were solved by Dupuit in 1863 by adopting certain simplifying
assumptions, which are well-known as the Dupuit assumptions or Dupuit-
Forchheimer assumptions. These assumptions are: (i) the hydraulic gradient in an
unconfined flow system is equal to the slope of the water table, and (ii) for small
water-table gradients, the streamlines are horizontal and the equipotential lines
are vertical. Solutions based on these assumptions have proved to be very useful in
many practical problems. Though there are variations due to non fitness of these
assumptions in the practical situations.
One dimensional Dupuit's Flow with Recharge:
Consider an unconfined aquifer on a horizontal impervious base situated between
two water bodies with a difference in water surface elavations (as shown in Figure)
There is a recharge R (m3/sec/m2) and flow is occurirng from upper level water
body to lower level water body. The aquifer is of infinite depth and a unit depth is
considered for the present case.
Well Hydraulics

• Cone of depression
• Radius of influence
• Area of influence
• Drawdown
Steady state flow into a well
• At certain time after pumping is
started steady state condition is
reached.
• Water level does not decline further.
• O n c e p u m p i n g i s sto p p e d , t h e
recovery takes place and the cone of
depression is completely filled up.
Steady state flow into a confined aquifer
• For a confined aquifer under steady state flow the
flow equation using Darcy’s law can be written as
 h  dr  2  KB 
Q  KiA  K    2  rB     dh
  r  r  Q 

• Integrating between limits r1, r2 and h1, h2

h2
r2 dr  2  KB 
r1 r
 h 1  Q  dh


 r  2  KB
ln  2   h 2  h1 
 r1  Q
 Q 
2  KB h 2 h1 
 r 
ln  2 
 r1 

• For confined aquifer T=KB

• Using the above equation the aquifer hydraulic
conductivity can be computed for the given the
aquifer head and discharge. Q  r 
K  ln  2 
2  B  h 2  h1   r1 

• This equation is known as Thiem’s equation

• When observation wells are not available r2 can be
taken as R and r1 as rw
Q 
2  KB H  hw 
 R 
ln  
r
 w 
Thiem’s Assumption
• Fully penetrating well
• Aquifer of uniform thickness
• Steady state flow
• Homogenous and isotropic aquifer
Steady radial flow in an unconfined aquifer
Dupuit’s assumption
• Aquifer is infinite aerial extent.
• Aquifer is homogenous and isotropic.
• Aquifer is of uniform thickness.
• Darcy’s law is valid.
• Flow is horizontal i.e. flow line are assumed to be
horizontal and equi-potential lines are assumed
to be vertical.
• Hydraulic gradient does not vary with depth and
is taken as the slope of the free surface.
The flow lines indicate the path followed by a particle of water.

The boundary where the hydraulic head is constant is known

as equipotential lines.

The plot of flow lines and equipotential lines for specified

boundary conditions is known as flow net .
Flow lines and equipotential lines must intersect at right
angles.

Equipotential lines must meet impermeable boundaries at

right angles .

Velocity Actual
based on velocity
Dupit's
Assumption
• For an unconfined aquifer under steady state
flow the flow equation using Darcy’s law can be
written as
 h 
Q  KiA  K   2 r h 
 r 

• Where h is the saturated thickness of aquifer

dr  2 K 
   h dh
r  Q 

• Integrating between limits r1, r2 and h1, h2

 r 
ln  2  
 K
h 2
2
 h1
2

 r1  Q

Q 
 2
 K h 2  h1
2

 r 
ln  2 
 r1 

• Observation well should be reasonably away from

pumping well.
• We know h1  s1   h2  s2   H
 K  h 2  h1   h 2  h1 
Q 
 R 
ln  
r
 w 
h1  h2   2 H
h2  h1 h2  h1   2 H s1  s2 

• The drawdown is measured the flow can be computed

as
2  KH  s  s 
Q  1 2

 r 
ln  2 
 r1 

• If pumping well is taken as one of the observation well.

Q 

 K H 2  hw 2 
 R 
ln  
r
 w 
 Well Test
• Aquifer test or pumping tests are carried to determine
aquifer properties (such as Sy, T, Ss, K etc.)
• Aquifer parameters are determined by pumping a
known discharge Q from the well and measuring the
drawdown either at the pumping well and/or at some
other observation well.
• When the drawdown is measured at the pumping
well itself, it is known as well test.
Water wells
• Wells are hole or shaft vertically excavated in the
earth usually to bring ground water up.
• The world's oldest wells, located in Cyprus, date to
7500 B.C
• Other purposes of wells are subsurface exploration,
artificial recharge, disposal of waste water.
Classification of wells
Based on type of the aquifer in which well is located
• Open or Dug well
• Dug cum bore well
• Tube well
(a) Shallow tube well
(b)Deep tube well
• Bore well
Based on the use of the well
• Pumping well
• Recharge well
• Monitoring well
Types of well
Open well
• They are generally less than 15m deep.
• They may be circular or rectangular in cross-
section.
• Generally draw water from the uppermost
saturated aquifer at that location (the upper
unconfined aquifer).
• More susceptible to contamination.
• Used for domestic as well as small scale irrigation
purposes.
• Open wells are best suited to shallow and low-
yielding aquifers.
• Types of open well
(i) Unlined wells
(ii) Wells with pervious lining
(iii) Wells with impervious lining

Unlined wells
• Well dug for temporary purposes are not generally
lined.
• Sub-soil should be compact enough to stand
vertically under natural conditions.
• The depth is limited upto 6.5m
Wells with pervious lining
• This type of wells are usually lined with dry bricks
or stone masonry. Suitable for gravel or coarse
sand deposits.
Well with impervious lining
• O p e n we l l s w i t h p e r m a n e nt
masonry lining, laid in cement
mortar, are commonly used in
alluvial formations.
• Depths generally do not exceed 30
m
• linings are provided with weep
holes
• For the lateral entry of water.
Dug cum bored well
• Dug wells are sometimes
provided with vertical bores at
their bottom, to augment their
yield.
• Dug-cum-bore wells are
hydraulically superior to
ordinary dug wells.
• If a dug-cum-bore well is
operated by a pump set and the
suction pipe of the pump is
installed on the bored section
i t s e l f, t h e we l l p ra c t i ca l l y
becomes a tube well.
Tube well
• A tube well consists essentially of a bore hole drilled
into the ground for tapping ground water from the
pervious zone
• Passes through different geological formations
consisting of water-bearing and non-water-bearing
strata.
• Blind pipes are located against the non-water-
bearing strata, and perforated pipes or well screens
are placed against the aquifers.
• Can be constructed quickly, but it is costly.
• Construction of tube well requires drilling the bore
hole, installing the casing and well screen, and
developing the well to ensure sand-free operation at
maximum yield.
 Design of well
Designing a well involves the selection of
proper dimensional factors for the well
structure and choice of materials to be
used in its construction.
It involves following items
• Mechanical analysis of soil sample
• Diameter of well and casing.
• Length and location of screens
including slot size, shape, % open area
and screen material
• Design of gravel pack (To prevent entry
of fine particles which may clog screen)
 HYDRAULICS AND YIELD OF OPEN WELLS
OPen wells are quite different than tube wells and none of the hydraulics based
equations can be applied for shallow dug open wells since there is no
instantaneous release of water from the aquifer, most of the water being pumped
only from storage inside the well. If the pumping is faster the wells get emptied
then the wells are required to be rested for recuperation. The yield from the well
has to be determined for planning for the purpose of its use. The mtheods for
determination of yield are: (a) Constant Level Pumping test (b) Recuperation test
(a) Constant Level Pumping Test. In the pumping test, the water level in the well is
depressed to an amount equal to the safe working head for the sub-soil. Then the
water level is kept constant by making the pumping rate equal to the percolation
into the well. The quantity of water pumped in a known time gives an idea of the
probable yield of the well of the given diameter. The test may be carried out in an
existing open well. The practical application of this test is diffcult since in case of an
open well maintainence of the constant level is quite difficult due to many reasons
such as complex geology and irregular shape of well
 HYDRAULICS AND YIELD OF OPEN WELLS
Recuperation Test. In the recuperation test, the water level in
the well is depressed. The pumping is stopped and the water
level is allowed to rise or recuperate. The depth of
recuperation in a known time is noted. Let the water level
inside the well rise from s1 to s2 (measured below static
water level, swl) in time T. If s is the head at any time t, from
Darcy’s law Q = KAi; if head s is lost in a length L of seepage
path then Q = KA(s/L) or Q = CAs; where the constant C =
(K/L) and has dimensions of T–1. If in a time dt, the water level
rises by an amount ds then Q dt = – A ds; the –ve sign
indicates that the head decreases as the time increases.
Putting Q = CAs. Assuming the flow is entirely from the
bottom (impervious steining of masonry), the yield of the
well Q = CAH