1.1: Introduction to Group Dynamics
The group can give the effect of SYNERGY, that
Group dynamics are the interpersonal processes
that occur within and between groups. The
tendency to join with others in groups is perhaps the
single most important characteristic of humans, and
the processes that unfold with these groups leave
an indelible imprint on their members and on
society. To understand people, one must
understand groups and their dynamics.
Kurt Lewin (1943, 1948, 1951), who many have
argued is the founder of the movement to study
groups experimentally, chose the word dynamic to
describe the activities, processes, operations, and
changes that transpire in groups. This word suggests
that groups are powerful and influential: they
change their members and society at large.
Dynamic systems are also fluid rather than static, for
they develop and evolve over time.
GROUP DYNAMICS
Field of study within the social sciences that focuses
on the nature of groups and functions of groups
The branch of social psychology that studies the
dynamics of interaction in social groups
Study of groups with an emphasis on dynamics
intra-group processes. Understanding how groups
work and communicate.
Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and
behavioral patterns of a group. Group dynamics
concern how groups are formed, what is their
structure and which processes are followed in their
functioning. Thus, it is concerned with the
interactions and forces operating between groups.
 The word dynamic means ‘force’
GROUP DYNAMICS means the study of forces within
a group. Since human beings have an innate desire
for belonging to a group, group dynamism is bound
to occur.
IMPORTANCE OF GROUP DYNAMISM:
1. The group can influence the thinking of its
members. The members are always influenced
by the interactions of other members in the
group.
2. A group with a good leader performs better as
compared to a group with a weak leader.
3.
is, if the group consists of positive thinkers then
its output is more than double every time.
Factors that contribute to synergy:
 The ability of group members to bounce ideas
off one another
 To correct one another’s mistakes
 To bring a diverse knowledge base to bear on
a problem
 To accomplish work that is too vast for any
one individual to achieve
4. Group dynamism can give job satisfaction to
the members.
5. The group can also bring team spirit among the
members.
6. Even the attitude, perceptions, and ideas of
members depend on group dynamism. For
example, the negative thinkers can be
converted to positive thinkers with the help of
the facilitator.
7. If the group works as a cohesive group,
cooperation and convergence can result in the
maximization of productivity.
8. Group dynamism can reduce labor unrest and
labor turnover due to emotional attachment
among the group members.
GROUP PROCESS
Study of group interaction through extensive
personal growth experiences. It aims to exploit the
existing behavior potentials of members in order to
broaden understanding of the laboratory type of
learning experience.
 The continuous ongoing movement of the
group toward the achievement of its goals
 It represents the flow of the group from its
starting point to its termination.
TERMINOLOGIES IN GROUP WORK/PROCESS
GROUP
Two or more persons who are interacting with one
another in such a manner that each person
influences and is influenced by the others
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUP:
 2 or more persons
 Formal social structure (the rules of the game
are defined)
 Common fate (they will swim together)
 Common goals(the destiny is the same and TYPE OF GROUP INVOLVEMENT:
emotionally connected)
 Face-to-face interaction(they will talk with each 1. Primary group – a greater degree of personal
other) involvement, informal. Ex. Friends, family
 Interdependence(each one is complimentary 2. Secondary group – formal and lesser degree of
to the other) personal involvement. Ex. Club or sorority
 Self-definition as group members (what one is 3. Exclusive group – membership limited to a
who belongs to the group) certain class of individuals
 Recognition by others (yes, you belong to the 4. Inclusive group – greater interaction with the
group). context of equalization in society
5. “IN” GROUP or “WE” GROUP – a strong feeling
DYNAMICS – means “force” of loyalty, sympathy, and devotion
6. “OUR” group or “THEY” group – more detached
GROUP DYNAMICS – the study of forces within the and less cohesive
group
Any group that has a normative effect on our
 deals with the ATTITUDES and behavioral behavior is a REFERENCE GROUP because we refer
patterns of a group. our behavior to its standard.
 concern how groups are formed, what is their
structure, and which processes are followed in PURPOSE OF GROUP FORMATION
their functioning
 concerned with the interactions and forces 1. ACCIDENTAL or VOLUNTARY
operating between groups.
o The accidental formation is beyond control
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF THE GROUP PROCESS not at all deliberated.
o The voluntary formation is a result of mutual
A group refers to two or more persons engaged in attraction or goals
any kind of relationship. When two members
disagree with a third (triad), the group is called
2. TASK-ORIENTED or SOCIAL FUNCTION
COALITION. Group membership is affected by the
following:
o Task-oriented – formed in order to
accomplish a job
1. Satisfaction (reward)
o Social Function – developed in order to
2. Problems (cost), which serve to interfere or
enhance human interaction or improve
inhibit the performance of action
interpersonal relationship
3. Influence upon others (social pressure)
4. Each member influencing others(reciprocal or
mutual control)
5. Cohesiveness – forces acting on the group
member to remain in the group (commitment)
6. Compatibility – the ability of people to develop
harmonious relationships with one another
7. Norms – adherence to uniform patterns of
behavior of the group
8. Morale – optimistic feelings and confidence in
the group with respect to problems or tasks
9. Social climate – the emotional atmosphere of
the group which may be characterized by
warm or cold acceptance, hostilities, being
detached or released
10. Reference group – any group that has a
normative effect on behavior or standard of the
group.
2.1: Self-Awareness
The objective of group dynamics is patterned after the
graphic model of awareness in interpersonal relations. It is
called “Johari Window,” taken from Joe Luft and Harry
Ingham of California, USA. Through analysis, the Johari
Window allows us to see why others may respond to us
differently from what we expect.
KNOWN TO SELF NOT KNOWN TO SELF
KNOWN TO 1st quadrant 2nd quadrant
OTHERS OPEN BLIND
NOT 3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
KNOWN TO HIDDEN UNKNOWN
OTHERS
DEGREE OF OPENNESS
QUADRANT 1 – the area of free activity or openness refers
to a behavior known to self and known to others. “People
see me the way I see myself” e.g., name, gender, and
affiliations
QUADRANT 2 – the blind area, is where one can see
things in ourselves of which we are unaware. This is the
“bad breath” area. “People have certain beliefs about
me but they don’t tell me.”
QUADRANT 3 – repressed or hidden area. Things we do
not reveal to others or that which are sensitive, like
embarrassing experiences.
QUADRANT 4 – the area of the unknown where neither
the individual nor others are aware of certain behavior
that could influence interpersonal relationships.
Sometimes hypnosis, psychotherapy, or other mind-
altering experiences allow a person to get a glimpse into
the unknown self. Later as the group interacts, there is a
shift from Q4 to one of the other quadrants. The changes
from one quadrant to another require different levels of
trust to share self-perception with one another.
PRINCIPLES OF CHANGES FROM QUADRANT 1 TO
QUADRANT 4
1. Any changes in any one quadrant can have a chain
reaction to all other quadrants
2. It takes energy to hide, denies, or repress behavior.
Threat decreases awareness, while mutual trust
enhances interaction.
3. An increase in Q1 means better interaction. The
smaller the Q1, the poorer the communication.
4. Increase awareness or sensitivity means appreciating
the covert aspects of behavior in quadrants 2,3, & 4.
Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson have
suggested that other people respond to us in three
distinct ways. These three responses include:
CONFIRMATION occurs when others treat us in a manner
consistent with our own notion of who we are. For
instance, if we see ourselves as athletic and
knowledgeable about physical fitness, we are confirmed
when others ask our advice about jogging, working out,
and staying in good physical health/shape. Confirmation
is not only satisfying, it strengthens our established self-
concept.
REJECTION occurs when others treat us in a manner
inconsistent with our self-definition; consider these people
who mistakenly believe they have unusual insight in
solving problems. These individuals believe their ideas are
generally excellent and that others can benefit from
them. In meetings, these people offer their ideas freely,
but they observe that no one seems to respond positively
to their ideas. Their ideas are ignored and are discarded
as unworkable. The result is that the individual definitions
of self are rejected.
DISCONFIRMATION occurs when others fail to respond in
a neutral way. Neutrality may not sound disconfirming,
but consider small children who have continual attempts
to gain responses to their notions of self from their parents.
Think about grandparents who are the recipients of little
conversation and almost no conversation about how
they are seen by others. The individuals are disconfirmed,
and their self-concept may be altered as a result of such
interactions. Disconfirmation suggests to people they do
not exist or they are irrelevant to others.
WHAT CAUSES POOR GROUP DYNAMICS?
Group leaders and group members can contribute to a
negative group dynamic. Let's look at some of the most
common problems that can occur:
1. WEAK LEADERSHIP: when a team lacks a strong
leader, a more dominant member of the group can
often take charge. This can lead to a lack of
direction, infighting, or a focus on the wrong priorities.
2. EXCESSIVE DEFERENCE TO AUTHORITY: this can
happen when people want to be seen to agree with
a leader, and therefore hold back from expressing
their own opinions.
3. BLOCKING: this happens when team members
behave in a way that disrupts the flow of information
in the group. People can adopt blocking roles such
as:
o AGGRESSOR: this person often disagrees with
others, or is inappropriately outspoken.
o NEGATOR: this group member is often critical of
others' ideas.
o WITHDRAWER: this person doesn't participate in
the discussion.
o RECOGNITION SEEKER: this group member is
boastful, or dominates the session.
o JOKER: this person introduces humor at
inappropriate times.
4. GROUPTHINK: this happens when people place a
desire for consensus above their desire to reach the
right decision. This prevents people from fully
exploring alternative solutions. – is a phenomenon
where people tend to confirm with group decisions
to avoid feeling outcast, leading to errors in decision
making.
5. FREE RIDING: here, some group members take it easy,
and leave their colleagues to do all the work. Free
riders may work hard on their own, but limit their
contributions in group situations; this is known as
"social loafing."
6. EVALUATION APPREHENSION: team members'
perceptions can also create a negative group
dynamic. Evaluation apprehension happens when
people feel that they are being judged excessively
harshly by other group members, and they hold back
their opinions as a result.
STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING GROUP DYNAMICS
1. KNOW YOUR GROUP: As a leader, you need to guide
the development of your group. So, start by learning
about the phases that a group goes through as it
develops. When you understand these, you'll be able
to preempt problems that could arise, including
issues with poor group dynamics.
2. TACKLE PROBLEMS QUICKLY: If you notice that one
member of your team has adopted behavior that's
affecting the group unhelpfully, act quickly to
challenge it. Provide feedback that shows your team
member the impact of her actions, and encourage
her to reflect on how she can change her behavior.
3. DEFINE ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES. Teams that lack
focus or direction can quickly develop poor
dynamics, as people struggle to understand their role
in the group. Create a team charter – defining the
group's mission and objective, and everyone's
responsibilities – as soon as you form the team. Make
sure that everyone has a copy of the document, and
remind people of it regularly.
“A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting
and independent, who come together to achieve
particular objectives.” – Stephen P. Robbinse
2.2: Stages of Group Development
Group dynamics theory teaches that each group
experiences various different stages of development.
There is no guarantee that a group will reach the next
development stage and the length of time a group
remains in a particular stage varies from group to group
and stage to stage. The group development process is
not linear: a group that has reached the 3rd or 4th stage
can easily fall back into the "Storming" stage. A group
might skip a stage, but this will haunt the group later in
the process; in order to reach the "Performance" stage,
the previous stages have to be successfully concluded
first.
TUCKMAN’S GROUP DEVELOPMENT STAGE
FORMING STAGE: In this stage, a primary concern is the
initial entry of members to a group. During this stage,
individuals ask a number of questions as they begin to
identify with other group members and with the group
members, and with the group itself. Their concern may
include: "What can the group offer me?" " What will I be
asked to contribute?" Can my needs be met at the same
time I contribute to the group?" Members are interested
in getting to know each other and discovering what is
considered acceptable behavior, in determining the real
task of the group, and in defining group rules.
– Team acquaints and establishes group rules, formalities
are preserved and members are treated as strangers.
– Members start interacting and try to work out what is
expected of them. Excitement and enthusiasm are mixed
with fear and uncertainty.
STORMING STAGE: This is a period of high emotionality
and tension among the group members. During this
stage, hostility and infighting may occur, and the group
typically experiences many changes. Coalitions or cliques
may form as individuals compete to impose their
preferences on the group and to achieve the desired
status position. Outside demands, including premature
expectations for performance results, may create
uncomfortable pressures. In the process, membership
expectations tend to be clarified and attention shifts
toward obstacles standing in the way of group goals.
Individuals begin to understand one another's
interpersonal styles, and efforts are made to find ways to
accomplish group goals while also satisfying individual
needs.
– Members start to communicate their feelings but still
view themselves as individuals rather than part of the
team. They resist control by group leaders and show
hostility.
– Conflict occurs as personal agencies come to light.
Members assert themselves and start questioning
decisions and challenging authority.
NORMING STAGE: This stage is sometimes called initial
integration, is the point at which the group really begins
to come together as a coordinated unit. The turmoil of
the storming stage gives way to a precarious balancing
of forces. With the pleasures of a new sense of harmony,
group members will strive to maintain a positive balance.
Holding the group together may become more
important to some than successfully working on the
group's tasks. Minority viewpoints, deviations from group
directions, and criticisms may be discouraged as group
members experience a preliminary sense of
closeness. some members may mistakenly perceive this
stage as one of ultimate maturity. In fact, a premature
sense of accomplishment at this point needs to be
carefully managed as a stepping stone to the
next- higher level of group development.
– People feel part of the team and realize that they can
achieve work if they accept other viewpoints.
– The group find ways of resolving conflict and begin to
emerge as a cohesive unit. Criticisms and feedback are
given constructively and members start c0-operating with
one another
PERFORMING STAGE: This stage is sometimes called total
integration, marks the emergence of a mature,
organized, and well-functioning group. The group is now
able to deal with complex tasks and handle internal
disagreements in creative ways. The structure is stable,
and members are motivated by group goals and are
generally satisfied. The primary challenges are continued
efforts to improve relationships and performance. Group
members should be able to adapt successfully as
opportunities and demands change over time. A group
that has achieved the level of total integration typically
scores high on the criteria of group maturity. Better able to see the Members might not think
importance of their their efforts are really
– The team works in an open and trusting atmosphere personal contributions needed
where flexibility is the key and hierarchy is of little
importance.
– Confidence grows both individually and with other
members of the group as they work towards a common
goal. ROLES IN A GROUP

ADJOURNING STAGE: A well-integrated group is able to 1.
disband, if required when its work is accomplished. The
adjourning stage of group development is especially 2.
important for the many temporary groups. When these
tasks have been accomplished, the group reaches a 3.
natural end to its existence or sets itself new tasks - in this
case, the group development process starts again from 4.
the start. Work and processes are reflected upon and
objectives are readjusted. If the team will stop existing 5.
after intensive cooperation, participants need time to tie
up loose ends and become familiar with the idea that the 6.
end is near. The stronger the relationships that have
developed, the more emotional this parting process will 7.
be.
8.
– The team conducts an assessment of the year and
implements a plan for transitioning roles and recognizing
9.
members’ contributions.
– Having completed their task the group dissolves.
Members will share either a sense of loss or relief, ALL TEAMS ARE GROUPS BUT NOT ALL GROUPS ARE TEAMS
depending on the outcome of the task.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A GROUP AND A TEAM
2.2.1: Roles in a Group
HARMONIZER: agrees with everyone in the group,
wants everyone to get
TENSION-REDUCER: jokes or clowns around, wants the
group to be relaxed.
QUESTIONER: keeps the group moving forward with
questions.
ENCOURAGER: helps others contribute to the group,
wants the group to reach its goal.
ENERGIZER: keeps the group on the topic, pushes the
group forward.
DESERTER: withdraws from group, wanders from the
subject, distracts others.
AGGRESSOR: see himself as more important than
others, wants attention
NEGATIVIST: rejects others' ideas, refuses to
cooperate, always finds something wrong.
DOMINATOR: wants everything to be his way, often
interrupts others

GROUP SIZE GROUP TEAM

- for better interaction and cooperation, it is suggested

that the group size should be kept minimum so as to have Members work intensely with
No opportunity to engage
better control over the activities and performance of its individual and mutual
in collective work, which
group members. accountability and
requires a joint effort
complementary skills

SMALL GROUP LARGE GROUP

Generates positive synergy
due to the capability of
More resources at their group members to bounce
Interact more with each
disposal to achieve group ideas off one another to
other
goals correct one another’s
No positive synergy to
mistakes, to bring a diverse
create
knowledge base to bear on
Easier to coordinate their a problem, and to
Division of labor
efforts accomplish work that is too
vast for any one individual to
achieve
More motivated, satisfied,
Lower level of motivation
and committed
Performance not greater Generates greater outputs
than the sum of inputs with no increase in inputs
Problem of communication
Easier to share information
and coordination
More flexible and more
Less responsive to a
responsive to a dynamic
dynamic environment
environment
THE 5 MOST IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF GREAT
TEAMS
1. SELF-AWARENESS AT THE TEAM LEVEL. While teams
consist of individuals, a cohesive team is in fact a stand-
alone, unified structure.
THE RIGHT NUMBER. The ideal number of team
members is two.

MEDIUM-SIZED TEAMS: 5-9 members is the optimal

number for building
closeness

LARGER GROUPS: 11-18 team members are the

maximum number of people someone can trust.

2. TEAM CHEMISTRY. Chemistry is indisputable. It can

never be forced or fabricated. If it's there, we can't deny
it. If it's not there, we can't make it manifest. This applies to
our personal relationships as well as team dynamics.
When team members have good chemistry, their brains
produce more OXYTOCIN, which is the hormone that
helps us feel more connected to other people. Greater
levels of Oxytocin produce more pleasure, deeper trust,
and stronger intimacy. Team members that have strong
chemistry are deeply unified in their common purpose.
HOMOGENOUS GROUP:
HETEROGENOUS GROUP:
3. COGNITIVE DIVERSITY. The highest-performing teams
consist of people who think differently, who approach
problems from different perspectives, and who have
varying levels of risk tolerance.

LEFT-BRAIN THINKERS: logical and analytical

RIGHT-BRAIN THINKERS: creative and intuitive

When you're building a team, choose "A WHOLE-

BRAIN TEAM" with an equal distribution of left-brain and
right-brain thinkers.

GROUP COMPOSITION
- refers to the compatibility of the group
members with each other. How much they feel relaxed
after being part of the group.

HOW GOOD TEAMS WORK

 Informal atmosphere management of large

companies
 Clearly defined objective
 Active listening by all members
 Disagreement exists
 Decisions reached by consensus
 Criticism is frequent and relatively comfortable –
no personal attack
 Free expression in feeling and/or ideas on the
problem
 Clear assignments are made and accepted
 The leader of the group does not dominate
 The group is conscious of its operation
3.1: Communication
COMMUNICATION is the process of generating meaning
by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols
and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts.
FIVE FORMS OF COMMUNICATION:
1. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION is communication
with oneself and occurs only inside our heads.
2. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION is communication
between people whose lives mutually influence one
another and typically occurs in dyads, which means
in pairs.
3. GROUP COMMUNICATION occurs when three or
more people communicate to achieve a shared
goal.
4. PUBLIC COMMUNICATION is sender-focused and
typically occurs when one person conveys
information to an audience.
5. MASS COMMUNICATION occurs when messages are
sent to large audiences using print or electronic
media.
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication models are not complex enough to truly
capture all that takes place in a communication
encounter, but they can help us examine the various
steps in the process in order to better understand our
communication and the communication of others.
1. THE TRANSMISSION MODEL OF communication
describes communication as a one-way, linear process in
which a sender encodes a message and transmits it
through a channel to a receiver who decodes it. The
transmission of the message may be disrupted by
environmental or semantic noise.
2. THE INTERACTION MODEL OF communication
describes communication as a two-way process in which
participants alternate positions as sender and receiver
and generate meaning by sending and receiving
feedback within physical and psychological contexts. This
model captures the interactive aspects of
communication but still doesn’t account for how
communication constructs our realities and is influenced
by social and cultural contexts.
3. THE TRANSACTION MODEL OF communication
describes communication as a process in which
communicators generate social realities within social,
relational, and cultural contexts. This model includes
participants who are simultaneously senders and
receivers and accounts for how communication
constructs our realities, relationships, and communities.
3. 2: Non Verbal Communication
VOCAL AND NONVOCAL ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Verbal
Nonverbal Communication
Communication
Paralanguage (pitch, volume,
Vocal Spoken words
speaking rate, etc.)
Writing, sign Body language (gestures, facial
Nonvocal
language expressions, eye contact, etc.)
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Non-Verbal communication is integral yet complex part
of our overall communication skills. Non-verbal
communication is a message or response not expressed
in words or hints. Non-verbal signals are deeply rooted
and conscious parts of our overall behaviors. It is
recognized as a route to discover what the other side
wants. It is a combination of the implicit and explicit
meanings of words. It gives us information about the
emotional state and reinforces the meaning of
words. Nonverbal communication is stronger than verbal
communication.
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION (by Albert Mebrabian)
7% - verbal
38% - tone and vocal inflection
55%- facial expression, body posture, gesture, and
body language
4 REASONS WHY UNDERSTANDING NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION IS IMPORTANT
1. To show interest: Nonverbal signals are a great way
to communicate attentiveness and engagement to
those around you. Controlling your posture and eye
contact will demonstrate to others that you are
interested in what they have to say.
2. To convey specific meaning: Many words have
multiple different meanings, and the things we say
can often be misheard. Learning how to
complement your words with nonverbal
communication can prevent misinterpretation and
miscommunication.
3. To establish connection: Nonverbal communication is
a great way to establish connection and trust. It’s no
accident that many cultures see some sort of
physical gesture like a handshake or hug as
necessary in certain types of personal interactions.
4. To demonstrate authenticity: Your nonverbal
communication goes a long way in establishing the
authenticity of your feelings to those you are
speaking with. Complementing your actual words
with direct eye contact and confident posture will
demonstrate to others that you are giving voice to
your true feelings.
TYPES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION:
1. KINESICS – comes from the root word kinesis, which
means “movement,” and refers to the study of hand,
arm, body, and face
GESTURES - are arm and hand movements
3 TYPES OF GESTURES
 ADAPTORS – are touching behaviors and
movements that indicate internal states
typically related to arousal or anxiety.
eg. clicking a pen, scratching your face
 EMBLEMS - are gestures that have a
specific agreed-on meaning. eg.
thumbs-up to say “OK”
 ILLUSTRATORS- are the most common
type of gesture and are used to illustrate
the verbal message they accompany.
eg. bouncing your hand along with the
rhythm of your speaking
NONVERBAL CUES
TYPICAL GESTURE INTERPRETATION
Open hands, unbuttoning coat,
OPENNESS
uncrossed legs
hand-to-cheek, finger raised,
head tilted, chin-stroking, looking
EVALUATING down over glasses, gesturing,
chewing on glasses, pacing
pinching bridge of the nose
hands-on-hips, sitting on the
edge of the chair, arms spread,
READINESS leaning on the table, moving in
(decreasing distance), and
speaking confidentially
sitting on edge of the chair,
leaning forward, high eye
COOPERATION contact, tilted head, high hand-
to-face gestures, and coat
unbuttoning
finger "steepling", hands clasped
CONFIDENCE
behind back, and chin upward
feet on the desk, defining
psychological space, leaning on
TERRITORIALITY an object, elevating self clucking
sound, leaning back with both
hands, and supporting the neck
doodling, fidgeting,
BOREDOM/DISINTEREST sleeping/yawning, and staring
off into space
arms crossed, fists clenched,
sitting with a leg over chair arm
DEFENSIVENESS
crossed legs, and sitting
backward in a chair
no eye contact, defensiveness
syndrome (above), sideways
SUSPICION, glance, feet/body pointed
SECRETIVENESS toward the exit, touching the
bridge of the nose, and rub ear,
eye
clenched hands, thumb rubbing,
cuticle or nail picking sucking on
REASSURANCE
pen, pencil, paperclip, and
pinching self, hands
short breaths, running hands
through hair, rubbing back of
neck, tightly clenched hands,
FRUSTRATION/ "tsk" sound, hand wringing,
DESPERATION
finger-pointing, kicking ground
(imaginary), and palm to the
back of the neck
the body feels "pressurized",
“whew” sound, clearing throat,
anxious whistling, cigarette
smoking, heavy breathing,
NERVOUSNESS tightness in the chest, hands
covering mouth while speaking,
jingling money in pockets,
interrupting the conversation,
and foot-tapping
locked ankles, clenched hands,
SELF-CONTROL restraining arms, and gripping
wrists
HEAD MOVEMENTS include the orientation of movements
of our head and the orientation and positioning of our
body and the various meanings they send. Head
movements such as nodding can indicate agreement,
disagreement, and interest, among other things.
POSTURE can indicate assertiveness, defensiveness,
interest, readiness, or intimidation, among other things.
EYE CONTACT provides turn-taking signals, signals when
we are engaged in cognitive activity, and helps establish
rapport and connection, among other things. Examples:
eyes fixed in a stare (means anger), and eyes which
open wide (means fear)
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS refer to the use of the forehead,
brow, and facial muscles around the nose and mouth to are committed to people
committed to the task
convey meaning. Facial expressions can convey and human relationships
happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and other emotions.

HAPTICS refers to touch behaviors that convey meaning change plans often and
during interactions. Touch operates at many levels, adhere strictly to plans
easily
including functional-professional, social-polite, friendship-
warmth, and love-intimacy.
are concerned about not are more concerned with
VOCALICS refers to the vocalized but not verbal aspects disturbing others; follow rules those who are closely
of nonverbal communication, including our speaking of privacy and consideration related than with privacy
rate, pitch, volume, tone of voice, and vocal quality.

PROXEMICS refers to the use of space and distance within

show great respect for
the communication. Proxemics also studies territoriality, or borrow and lend things
private property; seldom
how people take up and defend personal space. often and easily
borrow or lend

PUBLIC SPACE FORMAL AND NOT FORMAL- base promptness on the

engaging in a formal speech emphasize promptness
(12 feet or more) relationship

SOCIAL SPACE PROFESSIONAL OR CASUAL have a strong tendency

are accustomed to short-
INTERACTION – preferred in many to build lifetime
term relationships
(4 - 12 feet) professional settings relationships

PERSONAL SPACE ARTIFACTS – a form of nonverbal communication having

PERSONAL AND INTIMATE ZONE -
reserved for friends, close
(1.5 - 4 feet)
acquaintances, and significant
others
INTIMATE SPACE INTIMATE ZONE – reserved for only
the closest friends, family, and
(1.5 feet) romantic/intimate partners
CHRONEMICS refers to the study of how time affects
communication and includes how different time cycles
affect our communication.
to do with the way in which one's attire affects the way
he communicates.
the things that one carries. Example the way of dressing.
It adds to one's personality. Our outlook can impress
people. It is very important the way one carries oneself. It
helps the audience to interpret and analyze us
better. For example, healthy persons with good self-
esteem tend to pay attention to details of dress while the
person with low self-esteem shows much less interest in
them
GUIDELINES FOR SENDING NONVERBAL MESSAGES
Eye Contact

Monochronic People
do one thing at a time
concentrate on one task
Polychronic People
do many things at once
do not see interruptions or
diversion as something to
be avoided
 To make sure someone is available for interaction
and to avoid being perceived as rude, it is usually a
good idea to “catch their eye” before you start
talking to them.
 Avoiding eye contact or shifting your eye contact
from place to place can lead others to think you are
being deceptive or inattentive.
Facial Expressions

take time commitments
(deadlines, schedules)
seriously
are low-context and need
information
 you may be able to strategically use your facial
consider an objective to
expressions to cheer someone up, lighten a mood, or
be achieved, if possible
create a more serious and somber tone
 Smiles are especially powerful as an immediacy
behavior and a rapport-building tool. Smiles can also
are high-context and help to disarm a potentially hostile person or
already have information deescalate conflict.
4.1: Leadership
“Leadership is the ability of a person in a position to
influence others to behave in such a manner that goals
are achieved.” – Chester Barnard
LEADERSHIP
A process by which an individual guides others in their
collective pursuits, often by organizing, directing,
coordinating, supporting, and motivating their efforts.
Before we move onto specific approaches to studying
leadership, let’s distinguish between designated and
emergent leaders. In general, some people gravitate
more toward leadership roles than others, and some
leaders are designated while others are
emergent. Designated leaders are officially recognized in
their leadership role and may be appointed or elected
by people inside or outside the group. Designated
leaders can be especially successful when they are
sought out by others to fulfill and are then accepted in
leadership roles. On the other hand, some people seek
out leadership positions not because they possess
leadership skills and have been successful leaders in the
past but because they have the drive to hold and wield
power. Many groups are initially leaderless and must
either designate a leader or wait for one to emerge
organically. Emergent leaders gain status and respect
through engagement with the group and its task and are
turned to by others as a resource when leadership is
needed. Emergent leaders may play an important role
when a designated leader unexpectedly leaves.
PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP
The trait perspective assumes that traits play a central role
in differentiating between leaders and non-leaders.
Personality traits that are generally suited for all leaders,
such as decisiveness, persistence, a high level of self-
confidence, and assertiveness.
The behavioral perspective assumes that leadership is
central to the performance and other outcomes. The
influence of the leader’s behavior on members.
The participative perspective involves people making
common decisions.
The situational perspective assumes that there is no one
style of leadership and that leadership behavior is based
on the factors present in a situation, and usually takes into
consideration how followers behave.
The transactional perspective states that leadership
involves a transaction or negotiation of resources or
positions, and usually employs reward and punishment.
The transformational perspective involves a vision, which
a leader uses to rally support from followers, and the role
of the leader is in motivating others to support the vision
and make it happen.
The leader-member exchange perspective (by Graen)
focuses on the quality of the working relationship
between leaders and followers. It involves a leader’s
emphasis on assignments to interesting tasks, a
delegation of important responsibilities, and information
sharing.
LEADERSHIP STYLE
1. Autocratic (authoritarian) Power is centralized and
decision-making is assumed by the leader. The
leader determines the policy of the group
Advantages: Foster decision and implementation
of goals. Leaders have a high sense of responsibilities
Disadvantages: More frustrations and conflicts
since members are not asked to share opinions or
decisions. Have low consideration to others
Three types of autocratic leaders:
 Strict Autocrat- influences the members by
frightening, criticizing and imposing penalties
 Benevolent autocrat- influences the
members by encouragement and guidance
 Incompetent autocrat- hides his
incompetence and lack of skill by being
harsh with the members
2. Democratic (Participative). Decentralized authority,
consult follower, decisions are not one-sided or
unilateral.
Advantages:
 Better understanding between followers
 Encourages constructive suggestions
Disadvantages:
 Members tend to be assertive and
arrogant
 Lack of discipline and limited control of
the leader
3. Laissez fair (Free-Rein). Avoid power and
responsibilities
Advantages:
 More freedom and independence
 Followers play a major role in decision-
making
Disadvantages:
 Highly permissive that might lead to
chaos and disunity
 Lack of unity among members, no
guidance and supervision
4. Paternalistic. Provides a conducive environment,
guidance, and motivation.
Advantages:
 Nurturing love and affection- it nurtures love
and affection
 No misunderstanding- there is no room for
misunderstanding, apathy, discrimination.
Disadvantages:
 No opportunity to grow- there is a little scope
for members to exercise his/her own initiative
to grow and realize his/her potential
 Limited applicability
5. Charismatic. Capable of having a profound and
extraordinary effect on members.
Advantages:
 Ability to affect change
 Energetic and driving leader
 Sensitivity to people’s emotions
 Supportive environment
 Vision and articulation
Disadvantages:
 Members rely too much on the leader
 Lack of clarity
 Poor management
6. Transformational. Occurs when a leader broadens
and elevates members’ interests and stir members to
look beyond their own interests to the good of others.
Advantages:
 It treats leadership as a process that occurs
between members and leaders
 It places a strong emphasis on members’
needs, values, and morals
Disadvantages:
 Dependence on leader
 Usage of impression management
 Can be seen as a personality trait or
personal disposition rather than a behavior
in which people can be instructed
7. Transactional. Involves leader-follower exchanges
necessary for achieving routine performance agreed
upon between leaders and followers.
Advantages:
 Good behavior is promoted and
encouraged
 Short-term goals can be achieved
 Instructions, expectations, and roles are
clear
Disadvantages:
 Discourages creativity and innovation
 Some people need other motivation than
performance-related rewards
8. Pacesetting. The leader sets an example of high
performance, high pace, and high quality.
Advantages:
 Strict timelines and emphasis on high-quality
output make pacesetting leadership ideal
for achieving short-term, time-sensitive
organizational goals.
 Highlights the competencies of a highly
skilled and experienced team. Issues are
swiftly addressed. The leader requires
constant progress updates so that the
project’s timeline is kept intact.
Disadvantages:
 Members can feel stressed, overwhelmed,
and unmotivated. Members who prefer
more guidance and opportunities to learn
and improve will quickly feel overwhelmed
and unmotivated by this leader
 Trust is lost. There isn’t a high level of trust in a
team. Instead of focusing on doing their
best, team members second-guess their
work because they aren’t sure that it’s what
the leader wants.
 Work becomes repetitive and boring
6 LEADERSHIP STYLES by Daniel Goleman
1. Commanding leadership (Directive or Coercive) –
telling members what to do and when to do it.
2. Affiliative leadership – growing personal bonds and
striving towards team well-being. Focus on harmony
rather than results.
3. Democratic leadership (participative) – this style is
about working together through dialogue and
seeking consensus.
4. Coaching leadership – coaching team members to
develop themselves to become better individuals
and professionals
5. Visionary leadership – build on inspiring and
motivating people to pursue a long-term vision.
6. Pacesetting leadership – focused on performance
and results. Leaders act as role models for others to
follow. Excellent output is required.
The Effective Leader
1. Logos – Rational
2. Pathos – Relational
3. Ethos – Practical
4. Praxis – Directional
TYPES OF FOLLOWERS
1. Conformists- Are active and energized, but they are
devoted to the leader; they do not think to question
the leader’s directions and will defend him or her
vigorously
2. Passive- Follow the lead of others, but without great
enthusiasm or commitment. They put time into the
group and will eventually finish their assignments, but
they must be continually monitored or they will simply
stop contributing
3. Alienated- Are not committed to the group or its
goals, in part because they steadfastly maintain their
independence from others’ influence. They are often
sullenly silent, but when they speak they are critical of
their fellow members for remaining true to the group,
and they question the leader’s choices.
4. Exemplary- Are actively engaged in the group, but
they do not simply do what they are told. If they
have issues with the leader’s position, they express
their dissent openly, but constructively.
5. Pragmatic- Are the rank-and-file members of the
group; they are neither active nor passive,
conforming or independent, but likely to remain in
the background and contribute what they can
TEN QUALITIES THAT PRODUCE GOOD LEADERSHIP:
1. Good leaders know how to listen. Listening is a
developed art. The leader who is always talking and
seldom listens will soon have difficulties and no one to
listen to him.
2. Good leaders live on ideas. They are looking for new
ideas, new methods, new procedures, and new
people to train.
3. Good leaders set clear goals. The leader does not
operate from the point of personality or impulses. He
sets priorities for his life and organization. The goals
are shared and mutually agreed objectives are set to
reach the goals. The priorities become group
priorities because they are democratically selected.
The leader communicates these priorities and helps
the group accomplish them.
4. Good leaders share both the work and the
honors. The leader does not use his time on minor
tasks which others can handle as well as he. He does
not waste his energy with decisions others can make.
He has trained others to function so he delegates
freely to these. He delegates with appropriate
responsibility to others. He does not seek for and
keep all the honors for himself. He looks for and is
quick to express appreciation for others and call
attention to their accomplishments.
5. Good leaders know how to meet challenges and to
use their energies for the relevant and important
things. The leader does not major in minor issues. He
does not exhaust himself caring for items that are not
relevant to the total task.
6. Good leaders are never judgmental. A leader does
not deal in generalities. He does not condemn or
fasten labels to persons. He speaks out full
information on an issue and deals with the issue and
not the person. He is sensitive to each person's needs
and tactfully relates to each person according to
those needs.
7. Good leaders are involved "with people. Each person
is important and worthwhile. He does not compare or
play one person against another. He is available to
everyone and has no favorites. Interaction with
others gives him insight into himself and others. He
learns from all how to correct undesirable features in
his own personality, attitudes, or conduct.
8. Good leaders learn from their mistakes. A leader who
does anything will make mistakes. The leader does
not fear his mistakes. When one is made, admit it.
Correct it, if possible— evaluate it—learn why it
happened then proceed with the knowledge of how
not to make the same mistake again.
9. Good leaders are flexible. The leader must be open
to changes. Any program not achieving results needs
to be altered or abandoned. No project is so sacred
to the leader that he is unwilling to evaluate it, adjust
to a new approach and enter into a new endeavor.
10. Good leaders are reliable. The leader who cannot
be depended upon to accomplish what he says or
projects is one who will soon be abandoned by his
followers. A good leader doesn't point his finger at
what needs to be done. He is at the forefront of
training people to work as he works beside them.
What he says he will do. Where he wants others to
go, he will lead the way.
CAUSES FOR FAILURE IN LEADERSHIP
1. Pride. This may be overconfidence in one's ability,
education, physical appearance, personality, or
powers to manipulate others. He expects to be
rewarded for who he is or what he knows rather than
for what he is or what he does.
2. Everything has to be for his personal benefit. All praise
and accomplishments must be for him. He cannot
allow others to receive appreciation. He holds on to
all important positions and tasks so he will get all the
credit.
3. Disloyalty. For fear of not being accepted by all, he
compromises on his convictions and beliefs. He
criticizes those for whom he works if it will gain
personal advantage.
4. Lack of Discipline. He is unable to control his own
time. Being unable or unwilling to organize he is
always behind in his work or forgetting to do what is
expected of him. He is not concerned about his
dress, attitudes, emotions, or passions.
5. Unable to Express Emotions. People respond to a
leader who is human. Inability to laugh with and at
self and his problems will handicap a leader.
Expressing compassion and other emotions are good
attributes. Willingness to "unwind" with others lends
itself to acceptance as a leader.
6. Authoritarian Attitude. He demands people to follow
him because of who he is or his position. He has not
learned that respect comes from recognition of his
caring attitude and his competent performance.
7. Fear of Competition from Followers. Being afraid that
others in the group are as competent as he makes
the leader develop a sense of inferiority about his
ability to perform. When he discovers the abilities of
others he may develop a self-pitying attitude to call
attention to himself. He may tend to ignore or put
down others who are also capable leaders.
8. Lack of Imagination. He wants to know the future
and all that is involved before daring to attempt the
new. He avoids projects in which all things are not
clearly marked out. He is afraid of anything which
carries with it an idea of failure. He is bound by
the "status quo".
9. Emphasis on Title. He has not learned that titles are
given by man and are only an indication of a point
reached in the growth pattern. Insistence upon being
"titled" creates a barrier between the people and the
leader.
10. Unwillingness to Organize. Failure to set long and
short-range goals is a failure on the part of the
leader. His unwillingness to set objectives and
 priorities for a project leads to failure. Fearing failure
he fails to plan to succeed.
11. Lack of Understanding of the Job. Failure to have a
clear understanding of his job leads to confusion,
frustration, and ultimate failure? Being unable to give
a clear job description to others tends to turn people
away from him as a leader.
LEADERSHIP AND POWER
Leaders help move group members toward the
completion of their goals using various motivational
strategies. The types of power leaders draw on to
motivate have long been a topic of small group study. A
leader may possess or draw on any of the following five
types of power to varying degrees: legitimate, expert,
referent, information, and reward/coercive. Effective
leaders do not need to possess all five types of power.
Instead, competent leaders know how to draw on other
group members who may be better able to exercise a
type of power in a given situation.
 Legitimate power flows from the officially recognized
power, status, or title of a group member.
 Expert power comes from knowledge, skill, or
expertise that a group member possesses and other
group members do not.
 Referent power comes from the attractiveness,
likeability, and charisma of the group member.
 Information power comes from a person’s ability to
access information that comes through informal
channels and well-established social and professional
networks.
 Reward power comes from the ability of a group
member to provide a positive incentive as a
compliance-gaining strategy, and coercive power
comes from the ability of a group member to provide
a negative incentive (punishment).
4.2: Group Member Roles
GROUP MEMBER ROLES
Group roles are more dynamic than leadership roles in
that a role can be formal or informal and played by more
than one group member. Additionally, one group
member may exhibit various role behaviors within a single
group meeting or play a few consistent roles over the
course of his or her involvement with a group. Some
people’s role behaviors result from their personality traits,
while other people act out a certain role because of a
short-term mood, as a reaction to another group
member, or out of necessity. Group communication
scholars have cautioned us to not always think of these
roles as neatly bounded all-inclusive categories. After all,
we all play multiple roles within a group and must draw
on multiple communication behaviors in order to
successfully play them. When someone continually
exhibits a particular behavior, it may be labeled as a role,
but even isolated behaviors can impact group
functioning.
THREE CATEGORIES OF COMMON GROUP ROLE
1. Task-Related Roles and Behaviors. Task-related roles
typically serve leadership, informational, or procedural
functions.
Task Leader: Within any group, there may be a
task leader who has a high group status because of his or
her maturity, problem-solving abilities knowledge, and/or
leadership experience, and skills and functions primarily to
help the group complete its task.
Task-leader behaviors:
The substantive leader is the “idea
person” who communicates “big picture” thoughts and
suggestions that feed group discussion.
The procedural leader is the person who
gives the most guidance, perhaps following up on the
ideas generated by the substantive leader.
Expediter: functions to keep the group on track
toward completing its task by managing the agenda and
setting and assessing goals in order to monitor the group’s
progress.
Information Provider: Includes behaviors that are
more evenly shared. In other roles, ideally, all group
members present new ideas, initiate discussions of new
topics, and contribute their own relevant knowledge and
experiences.
Information seeker: Asks for more information,
elaboration, or clarification on items relevant to the
group’s task.
Gatekeeper: Manages the flow of conversation
in a group in order to achieve an appropriate balance so
that all group members get to participate in a
meaningful way.
Recorder: takes notes on the discussion and
activities that occur during a group meeting. The
recorder is the only role that is essentially limited to one
person at a time since in most cases it wouldn’t be
necessary or beneficial to have more than one person
recording.
2. Maintenance Roles and Behaviors. Maintenance roles
and their corresponding behaviors function to create and
maintain social cohesion and fulfill the interpersonal
needs of group members. All these role behaviors require
strong and sensitive interpersonal skills.
Social-Emotional Leader is generally someone
who is well-liked by the other group members and whose
role behaviors complement but don’t compete with the
task leader.
Supporter: The role of supporter is characterized
by communication behaviors that encourage other
group members and provide the emotional support
needed. The supporter’s work primarily occurs in one-on-
one exchanges that are more intimate and in-depth than
the exchanges that take place during full group
meetings.
 Tension Releaser: Is someone who is naturally
funny and sensitive to the personalities of the group and
the dynamics of any given situation and who uses these
qualities to manage the frustration level of the group.
Harmonizer: played by group members who help
manage the various types of group conflict that emerge
during group communication. They keep their eyes and
ears open for signs of conflict among group members
and ideally intervene before it escalates.
others within the group, and being outspoken to the point
of distraction.
Doormat is a person who is chronically
submissive to the point that it hurts the group’s progress.
Doormat behaviors include quickly giving in when
challenged, self-criticism, and claims of inadequacy.

Interpreter: helps manage the diversity within a

group by mediating intercultural conflict, articulating
common ground between different people, and
generally creating a climate where difference is seen as
an opportunity rather than as something to be feared.
The interpreter may help manage conflict that arises as a
result of diversity.

3. Self-Centered Roles

The behaviors associated with all the self-centered

roles divert attention from the task to the group member
exhibiting the behavior. Although all these roles share in
their quest to divert attention, they do it in different ways
and for different reasons.

Central Negative argues against most of the

ideas and proposals discussed in the group and often
emerges as a result of a leadership challenge during
group formation.

Monopolizer: is a group member who

makes excessive verbal contributions, preventing equal
participation by other group members.

Self-Confessor: is a group member who

tries to use group meetings as therapy sessions for issues
not related to the group’s task. Self-confessors tend to
make personal self-disclosures that are unnecessarily
intimate.

Insecure Compliment Seeker: wants to

know that he or she is valued by the group and seeks
recognition that is often not task-related.

Joker: a person who consistently uses

sarcasm, plays pranks, or tells jokes, which distracts from
the overall functioning of the group.

Unproductive Roles

Blocker intentionally or unintentionally

keeps things from getting done in the group. Intentionally,
a person may suggest that the group look into a matter
further or explore another option before making a final
decision even though the group has already thoroughly
considered the matter.

Withdrawer mentally and/or physically

removes herself or himself from group activities and only
participates when forced to.

Aggressor exhibits negative behaviors

such as putting others’ ideas down, attacking others
personally when they feel confronted or insecure,
competing unnecessarily to “win” at the expense of
5.1: Teams
“A team is a small group of people with complementary
skills who work actively together to achieve a common
purpose for which they hold themselves collectively
accountable.” Jon R. Katzenbach and Douglas K. Smith
Think about what it means to be a part of a team--- a
successful team. What makes one team more successful
than another? What does each team member need to
do in order for their team to be successful? What are the
characteristics of an effective team?
A team is a special type of group in which people work
interdependently to accomplish a goal. All teams need
members who believe in team goals and are motivated
to work with others actively to accomplish tasks --
whether those tasks involve recommending things,
making or doing things, or running things. Indeed, an
essential criterion of a true team is that the members feel
“collectively accountable” for what they accomplish. This
sense of collective accountability sets the stage for real
teamwork, with team members actively working together
in such a way that all their respective skills are well utilized
to achieve a common purpose. A commitment to
teamwork is found in the willingness of every member to
“listen and respond constructively to views expressed by
others, give others the benefit of the doubt, provide
support, and recognize the interests and achievements of
others.
11 Qualities of A Great Team Member
1. Self-aware. Teams benefit when individual members
are fully aware of their strengths and weaknesses, but it’s
especially important that leaders understand the key
attributes of their subordinates. Good leaders know how
to delegate effectively, while bad leaders give
inappropriate work to the wrong workers.
2. Committed to mastery. As Robert Greene, author
of Mastery, states: “The time that leads to mastery is
dependent on the intensity of our focus.” When every
member of the team is committed to personal growth,
this not only creates an awesome working atmosphere,
but it constantly brings new information into the
organization which assists creative problem-solving.
3. Intrinsically motivated. When your teammates are
passionate about their disciplines and intrinsically
motivated, the POSITIVITY IS INFECTIOUS.
4. Honest. Team members should be honest about their
achievements as well as their shortcomings. Everyone
makes mistakes from time to time, but when people try to
shift the blame and weave false narratives, disasters can
occur. “Honesty is the fastest way to prevent a mistake
from turning into a failure.”
5. Positive. Positivity means finding a solution to a problem
rather than passing the blame and dwelling on things you
can’t control.
6. Empathic. Empathy is about being aware of how other
people feel. If you’re unable to put yourself in someone
else’s shoes and see things from their viewpoint, people
are not going to enjoy working with you.
7. Good communicator. By showing appreciation for
what the person did well, and then explaining what they
could have done better, creates a positive framework for
the criticism Being a good communicator also means
knowing when to stay silent. Oftentimes, if you don’t have
an insightful comment that will drive the discussion
forward, it’s better to say nothing. Good listeners don’t
receive the same formal recognition as good talkers, but
they’re just as valuable to a team.
8. Confident. Confident people prefer to give
compliments that make people feel better, rather than
slander their colleagues. Also, confident people aren’t
as emotionally reactive to failure and criticism. While an
insecure person may view constructive criticism as a
personal attack, a confident person will view the same
information as feedback that they can use to make
improvements.
9. Autonomous. Good leaders want dependable
members to who they can assign a task and know that
it’ll be completed by the set deadline.
10. Adaptable. Adaptability also means being flexible to
the working habits and personalities of your members.
11. Persistent. “Success is stumbling from failure to failure
with no loss of enthusiasm.” Winston Churchchill
When you’re working with a great team, every day can
feel like an ADVENTURE. With a bad team, your team can
quickly become a DUNGEON.
Organizations use teams in a variety of ways. Because of
this variety, there are many ways to classify teams and
these classifications help explain the psychological and
organizational differences among different types of
teams.
Sundstrom (1999) identifies six types of work teams on the
basis of the functions they perform:
1. Production teams, such as factory teams,
manufacture or assemble products on a repetitive
basis.
2. Service teams, such as maintenance crews and food
services, conduct repeated transactions with
customers.
3. Management teams, composed of managers, work
together, plan, develop policy, or coordinate the
activities of an organization.
4. Project teams such as research and engineering
teams, bring experts together to perform a specific
task within a defined period.
5. Action or performing teams, such as sports teams,
entertainment groups, and surgery teams, engage in
brief performances that are repeated under new
conditions and that require specialized skills and
extensive training or preparation.
6. Parallel teams are temporary teams that operate
outside normal work, such as employee involvement
groups and advisory committees that provide
suggestions or recommendations for changing an
organization.
Theory on group dynamics is changing and becoming
more sophisticated. Rather than simple models that look
at cause-effect relationships, new models focus on the
conditions that help teams manage their own processes.
Instead of looking at group behavior as the sum total of
individual variables, there is a focus on the emergent
properties of teams. The search to find the best approach
to manage a team has been replaced by the
recognition of what is termed equifinality-- that there are
many ways for teams to operate
successfully. Researchers have conducted a number of
studies on work teams to determine the characteristics
that predict success. Successful teams have clear goals,
good leadership, appropriate task characteristics, and
mutual accountability with rewards.
A team must develop social relations among its members.
The social interactions necessary for teamwork require
group cohesion and good communication. Cohesion
comes from the emotional ties that team members have
with one another. Good communication depends on
understanding and trust. When team members fail to
develop good social relations, they do not communicate
well, have interpersonal problems that interfere with task
performance, and are unable to reward and motivate
one another. This limits the ability of the team to continue
to operate.
What makes an effective team?
 It has a range of individuals who contribute in
different ways and complement each other. A good
team produces more than the individual
contributions of members.
 Clear goals are agreed on that everyone
understands and is committed to.
 Everyone understands the tasks they have to do and
helps each other.
 It has a coordinator who may adopt a leadership
style from autocratic to democratic depending on
the circumstances. Different people may assume the
role of leader for different tasks.
 There is a balance between the task (what do we
need to do?) and the process (how do we achieve
this?)
 There is a supportive, informal
atmosphere where members feel able to take risks
and say what they think.
 The team is comfortable with disagreement and can
successfully overcome differences in opinion.
 There is a lot of discussions in which everyone
participates. Team members listen to each other and
everyone's ideas are heard.
 Members feel free to criticize and say what they think
but this is done in a positive, constructive manner.
 The group learns from experience: reviewing and
improving performance in the light of both successes
and failures.
What makes an ineffective team?
 People talk more than they listen and only a few
people may contribute.
 Some members are silent and don't contribute. They
may be indifferent, bored, or afraid to contribute.
 Members' ideas are dismissed or even ridiculed and
their views are ignored.
 There are arguments between members of the group
(as opposed to constructive differences of opinion).
 One or two members dominate the others and make
the decisions.
 Disagreements are put to the vote without being
discussed.
 Some members are unhappy with decisions
and grumble privately afterward.
 Little effort is made to keep to the point or to work to
deadlines.
 There is a lack of clarity regarding goals and specific
tasks are not agreed to.
 Roles are not delegated to particular team members.
 There is a lack of trust and helpfulness.
 Members don't talk about how the group is working
or the problems it faces.
5.2: Team Leader
Team leadership is a process whereby an individual
influences the progress of team members toward the
attainment of a goal. Leadership can be centralized in
one person or distributed among various roles. Teams vary
in types of leadership, selection of leaders, and
delegation of leader powers. Teams rarely exist without
leaders, since leaders emerge through a team’s
interactions. Leaders may be designated, or teams may
select their own leaders and be self-managing.
The focus of the team leader depends on the situation
the team faces and the maturity of the team. Leaders
help the team solve problems in order to meet its goals
while developing the skills and abilities of the team
members in order to meet goals while developing the
skills and abilities of the team members so they have the
collective capacity for leadership. They promote team
learning by giving performance feedback to the team
and using this information to help the team develop
performance strategies that are more effective.
There are several approaches that team leaders can
take to support the team. Research on project team
leaders at Google shows that effective leaders give the
team freedom while being available to provide advice
and support when needed.
9 Roles of Team Leader
1. Provide purpose. Everything starts with → VISION.
Capturing and communicating vision is your role as a
team leader. Only you can do it. Create an
inspiring vision. Provide the big picture and keep the
vision of the big picture before yourself and your people.
Every team member … "has a role to play, and every role
has its part in contributing to the bigger picture. Without
that perspective, the team cannot accomplish its goal,
whether the team's "game" is sports, business, family,
ministry, or government," John C. Maxwell, the author
of The 17 Indisputable Laws of Teamwork
2. Build a star, not a team of stars. Your team will not
reach its potential if players are unwilling to subordinate
their personal goals to the good of the team. "Everybody
on a championship team doesn't get publicity, but
everyone can say he's a champion." - Ervin “Magic”
Johnson
3. Establish shared ownership for the results. Start with
yourself – share your own individual results with the group.
Shared responsibility is better achieved if the pay and
reward system has a significant element that is
dependent on the overall outcome. Keep the team
informed how individual members are performing – it is
important if Individuals' rewards depended on the
performance of the group as a whole.
4. Develop team members to the fullest potential. Bring
out the best in your people. Help team members to
develop so that all of them could effectively participate
on the team. Lead by setting a good example.
5. Make the work interesting and engaging. Create an
enjoyable work environment. Encourage entrepreneurial
creativity, risk-taking, and constant improvement. This
includes also the freedom to fail and have fun in the
workplace. Maintain healthy group dynamics. Facilitate
problem solving and collaboration.
6. Develop a self-managing team. Be a super leader.
Develop team members so that they can lead
themselves. Don't give direct commands or instructions,
use questions (such as "What do you think should be
done?") and coaching
 empower people, delegate authority, and be
open to ideas.
 trust your team, rely on their judgment.
 give your people authority to decide as much as
possible.
 encourage your team to engage in self-
leadership behaviors such as self-observation,
role-playing exercises, and self-problem solving.
 encourage your team or groups within your team
to evaluate themselves and to give both positive
and negative feedback.
 share with the team members certain areas of
your responsibility.
 ask for their input when you need to make a
decision
7. Motivate and inspire team members.
 be enthusiastic, inspire and energize people
 set stretch goals
 recognize and celebrate team and team
member accomplishments and exceptional
performance.
8. Lead and facilitate constructive
communication. Lead the rich array of types of
communication exchanged between team
members that include goal setting, task assignments,
work schedules, announcements, problem-solving,
performance evaluation, corrective feedback,
praise, discussions, etc.
 communicate in a way that is truthful and
believable to team members.
 provide constructive feedback to the team
on where and how it might improve
 encourage open communication among
team members and communicate team
views to and from other teams
 encourage self-criticism and rehearsal
 strive for team consensus and win-win
agreements
 provide guidance to the team based on
upper management direction
 escalate issues that cannot be resolved by
the team and communicate team views to
upper management
 serve as a focal point to communicate and
resolve interface and integration issues with
other teams.
9. Monitor, but don’t micromanage.
 avoid close supervision; do not over boss; do
not dictate
 help keep the team focused and on track
 communicate team status, task
accomplishment, and direction
 intervene when necessary to aid the group
in resolving issues
Roles and Role Dynamics
In groups and teams, new and old members alike need
to know what others expect of them and what they
expect from others. A role is a set of expectations for a
team member. When team members are unclear about
their roles or experience conflicting demands,
performance problems can occur. Role
ambiguity occurs when a person is uncertain about his or
her role. To do any job well, people need to know what is
expected of them. Role overload occurs when too much
is expected and the individual feels overwhelmed with
work; role underload occurs when too little is expected
and the individual feels underutilized. Role conflict occurs
when a person is unable to meet the expectations of
others. The individual understands what needs to be
done but for some reason cannot comply. The resulting
tension can reduce satisfaction and affect both an
individual’s performance and relationships with other
group members. There are four common forms of role
conflict, these are:
 Intrasender role conflict occurs when the same
person sends conflicting expectations
 Intersender role conflict occurs when different
people signal conflicting and mutually exclusive
expectations
 Person-role conflict occurs when one’s personal
values and needs come into conflict with role
expectations and
 Interrole conflict occurs when the expectations of creativity. Teamwork occurs when members of teamwork
two or more roles held by the same individual together so that their skills are well utilized to accomplish
become incompatible, such as the conflict between common goals.
work and family demands.

Norms

Are rules or standards for the behavior of team

members. Norms help clarify the expectations
associated with a person’s membership in a group. They
allow members to structure their own behavior and
predict what others will do. They help members gain a
common sense of direction, and they reinforce the
desired group or team culture. When someone violates a
group norm, other members typically respond in ways
that are aimed at enforcing the norm. These responses
may include direct criticisms, reprimands, expulsion, and
social ostracism.

Sample Team Norms or Guidelines

 Treat each other with dignity and respect.

 Transparency: avoid hidden agendas.
 Be genuine with each other about ideas, challenges,
and feelings.
 Trust each other. Have confidence that the issues
discussed will be kept in confidence.
 Team members will practice a consistent
commitment to sharing all the information they have.
Share the complete information that you have
upfront.
 Listen first to understand, and don’t be dismissive
of the input received when you listen.
 Practice being open-minded.
 Don’t be defensive with your colleagues.
 Rather than searching for the guilty, give your
colleagues the benefit of the doubt; have a clean
slate process.
 Support each other
 It's okay to not know the right answer and to admit it.
The team can find the answer.
 Problems are presented in a way that promotes
mutual discussion and resolution.
 Practice and experience humility—each of the team
members may not have all the answers.
 If you commit to doing something—do it. Be
accountable and responsible for the team and the
team.

Team Cohesiveness

The cohesiveness of a team is the degree to which

members are attracted to and motivated to remain part
of it. Persons in a highly cohesive group value their
membership and strive to maintain positive relationships
with other group members. In this sense, cohesive groups
and teams are good for their members. In contrast to less
cohesive groups, members, members of highly cohesive
ones tend to be more energetic when working on group
activities, less likely to be absent, and more likely to be
happy about performance success and sad about
failures. High-performance teams have core values,
clear performance objectives, the right mix of skills, and
7.1: Problem Solving
Team problem solving is studied using three different
approaches: the methods that teams use to solve
problems, the type of behavior that contribute to
effective problem solving, and the techniques used by
teams to improve team solving problem. Team problem-
solving approaches are based on a rational model of the
process that includes six stages: problem definition,
evaluation of the problem, generating alternatives,
selecting a solution, implementation, and evaluation of
the results. In practice, however, this rational approach is
rarely followed, and the teams often find themselves
developing solutions before they understand the
problems.
At each stage of the problem-solving process, teams can
use a number of techniques to improve their problem-
solving abilities. Using these techniques helps teams
become more effective as problem solvers.
The problem-solving process involves thoughts,
discussions, actions, and decisions that occur from the first
consideration of a problematic situation to the goal.
Problems of all sorts have three common components
such as the undesirable solution, the desired solution, and
obstacles between undesirable and desirable situations.
Specific characteristics of the problem ( by Adams and
Galanes)
1. Task difficulty. Groups should be prepared to spend
time researching and discussing difficult and
complex tasks in order to develop a shared
foundational knowledge. This typically requires
individual work outside of the group and frequent
group meetings to share information.
2. Number of possible solutions. There are usually
multiple ways to solve a problem or complete a task,
but some problems have more potential solutions
than others.
3. Group member interest in the problem. When group
members are interested in the problem, they will be
more engaged with the problem-solving process and
invested in finding a quality solution. Groups with high
interest in and knowledge about the problem may
want more freedom to develop and implement
solutions, while groups with low interest may prefer a
leader who provides structure and direction.
4. Group familiarity with the problem. Some groups
encounter a problem regularly, while other problems
are more unique or unexpected. When group
members aren’t familiar with a problem, they will
need to do background research on what similar
groups have done and may also need to bring in
outside experts.
5. Need for solution acceptance. In this step, groups
must consider how many people the decision will
affect and how much “buy-in” from others the group
needs in order for their solution to be successfully
implemented.
Group problem-solving process (by Bormann )
Step 1: Define the Problem. At this stage, group members
share what they know about the current situation, without
proposing solutions or evaluating the information. Here
are some good questions to ask during this stage:
o What is the current difficulty?
o How did we come to know that the difficulty exists?
o Who/what is involved?
o Why is it meaningful/urgent/important?
o What have the effects been so far?
o What, if any, elements of the difficulty require
clarification?
Step 2: Analyze the Problem. During this step, a group
should analyze the problem and the group’s relationship
to the problem. Whereas the first step involved exploring
the “what” related to the problem, this step focuses on
the “why.” At this stage, group members can discuss the
potential causes of the difficulty. Group members may
also want to begin setting out an agenda or timeline for
the group’s problem-solving process, looking forward to
the other steps.
Step 3: Generate Possible Solutions
During this step, group members generate possible
solutions to the problem. Again, solutions should not be
evaluated at this point, only proposed and
clarified. Discussions at this stage may reveal a need to
return to previous steps to better define or more fully
analyze a problem. Since many problems are
multifaceted, it is necessary for group members to
generate solutions for each part of the problem
separately, making sure to have multiple solutions for
each part.
Step 4: Evaluate Solutions. During this step, solutions can
be critically evaluated based on their credibility,
completeness, and worth. Once the potential solutions
have been narrowed based on more obvious differences
in relevance and/or merit, the group should analyze
each solution based on its potential effects—especially
negative effects. Groups that are required to report the
rationale for their decision or whose decisions may be
subject to public scrutiny would be wise to make a setlist
of criteria for evaluating each solution.
Step 5: Implement and Assess the Solution
Implementing the solution requires some advanced
planning, and it should not be rushed unless the group is
operating under strict time restraints or delay may lead to
some kind of harm. Once a solution has been reached
and the group has the “green light” to implement it, it
should proceed deliberately and cautiously, making sure
to consider possible consequences and address them as
needed.
Three Approaches to Team Problem-Solving:
1. The descriptive approach examines how teams solve
problems. The problem-solving process goes through
developmental stages similar to stages of team
development. Solutions are often generated in a rather
haphazard fashion that sometimes seems more political
than logical.
2. The functional approach provides advice on how to
improve the team problem-solving process. An effective
team views problems from multiple perspectives analyze
a variety of alternatives using established criteria and
manages the group process to ensure that all members
may participate. The team's ability to solve problems may
be hurt by rushing to the solution stage, constraints
limiting the amount of analysis, confusion about
evaluation criteria, and social factors that disrupt the
group process.
3. The prescriptive approach to problem-solving includes
a series of structured stages. The problem identification
and analysis stage is affected by the severity and
complexity of the problem, team norms about discussing
the problems, and the amount of uncertainty in the
environment. The process of developing and selecting
alternative solutions is improved by creativity techniques
to generate alternatives and by analysis techniques to
examine alternatives in a systematic manner.
Implementing solutions requires alternatives in a
systematic manner. Implementing solutions requires
planning and an evaluation system to provide feedback
on the process.
7.2: Decision Making
The largest advantage of group decision-making is the
ability to bring more resources to solving a problem. It also
helps motivate team members and develop their skills.
However, group decision-making takes time and does
not always succeed. Group decisions are better than
individual decisions when the team has a diversity of
perspectives, the discussion is open, and the problem is
suitable for a group. Group decisions benefit from
synergy. Most groups do not use a specific method of
decision-making, perhaps thinking that they’ll work things
out as they go. This can lead to unequal participation,
social loafing, premature decisions, prolonged discussion,
and a host of other negative consequences. Before
groups can make a decision, they need to generate
possible solutions to their problem. The most commonly
used method is brainstorming. Brainstorming refers to the
quick generation of ideas free of evaluation. The
originator of the term brainstorming said the following four
rules must be followed for the technique to be effective:
1. Evaluation of ideas is forbidden.
2. Wild and crazy ideas are encouraged.
3. Quantity of ideas, not quality, is the goal.
4. New combinations of ideas presented are
encouraged.
Personality influences on decision making
A long-studied typology of value orientations that affect
decision making consists of the following types of
decision-makers:
 The economic decision-maker makes decisions
based on what is practical and useful.
 The aesthetic decision-maker makes decisions based
on form and harmony, desiring a solution that is
elegant and in sync with the surroundings.
 The theoretical decision-maker wants to discover the
truth through rationality.
 The social decision-maker emphasizes the personal
impact of a decision and sympathizes with those who
may be affected by it.
 The political decision-maker is interested in power
and influence and views people and/or property as
divided into groups that have different values.
 The religious decision-maker seeks to identify with a
larger purpose, works to unify others under that goal,
and commits to a viewpoint, often denying one side
and being dedicated to the other.
The personalities of group members, especially leaders
and other active members, affect the climate of the
group. Group member personalities can be categorized
based on where they fall on a continuum anchored by
the following descriptors:
 Dominant versus submissive. Group members that
are more dominant act more independently and
directly, initiate conversations, take up more space,
make more direct eye contact, seek leadership
positions, and take control over decision-making
processes.
 Friendly versus unfriendly. Group members on the
friendly side of the continuum find a balance
between talking and listening, don’t try to win at the
expense of other group members, are flexible but not
weak, and value democratic decision-making.
Unfriendly group members are disagreeable,
indifferent, withdrawn, and selfish, which leads them
to either not invest in decision making or direct it in
their own interest rather than in the interest of the
group.
 Instrumental versus emotional. Instrumental group
members are emotionally neutral, objective,
analytical, task-oriented, and committed followers,
which leads them to work hard and contribute to the
group’s decision-making as long as it is orderly and
follows agreed-on rules. Emotional group members
are creative, playful, independent, unpredictable,
and expressive, which leads them to make rash
decisions, resist group norms or decision-making
structures and switch often from relational to task
focus.
Some decision-making techniques involve determining a
course of action based on the level of agreement
among the group members.
1. The majority rule is a commonly used decision-
making technique in which a majority (one-half plus
one) must agree before a decision is made.
2. The Minority rule is a decision-making technique in
which a designated authority or expert has the final
say over a decision and may or may not consider the
input of other group members.
3. The consensus rule is a decision-making technique in
which all members of the group must agree on the
same decision. Although this can be positive, be
cautious that this isn’t a sign of groupthink.
4. The Nominal Group Technique is a decision-making The Black Hat is judgment – the devil’s advocate or why
technique that allows a group of people to focus on something may not work. Questions include:
the task of making a decision without developing
any social relations. It is called "nominal" because it  What are the weaknesses?
does not require a true group. This technique can be
 What may go wrong if we implement this suggestion?
used by a collection of people who are brought
 What are the potential problems?
together to make a decision. When using this
technique, the leader states the problem to the  Do we have the resources to do it?
group. People write down their solutions to the
problem privately. Each person then publicly states
his or her problems, and the answers are recorded so
everyone can see them. The Red Hat signifies feelings, hunches, and intuition.
5. The Delphi Technique uses a series of written surveys Questions include
to make a decision. a group of experts is given a
survey containing several open-minded questions  Based upon my emotions, what is my commitment
about the problem to be solved. The results of this level to the issue?
survey are summarized and organized into a set of  How do I feel about a decision I might make?
proposed solutions. Those solutions are sent to the  What is my intuition regarding this issue?
members, who are then asked to comment on the
solutions, which are based on the first survey. The
process is repeated until the members start to reach
an agreement on a solution to the problem. The Green Hat focuses on creativity; possibilities,
6. The Ringi Technique is a Japanese decision-making alternatives, and new ideas. Questions include:
technique used for dealing with controversial
topics. It allows a group to deal with conflict while
avoiding a face-to-face confrontation. (Face-to-  What alternative solutions are possible?
face confrontations are considered inappropriate in  Could a recommendation be done in another way?
Japanese culture). In this approach, a written  What is a unique way of looking at the issue?
document presenting the issue and its proposed
resolution are developed anonymously. This
document is circulated among group members, who
individually write comments, edit the documents, The Blue Hat is used to manage the thinking process. This
and forward them to other group members. After hat is the facilitator. Questions include:
completing a cycle, the comments are used to
rewrite the document, and it is recirculated through  Where do we start?
the group. This process continues until group
 What sequence of hats will be most appropriate?
members stop writing comments on the draft.
 How much time should be allocated to each hat?
 What is the action plan for the next steps, roles,
SIX HATS METHOD OF DECISION MAKING (by Edward de responsibilities, and time frame?
Bono)

De Bono (1992) says that “confusion arises when we try to

do too much at once [but] the six hats method allows us
to take one direction at a time”. The idea is that wearing
a different colored that enables the wearer to bring a
different perspective to thinking critically about an issue
and to trying to find alternative solutions to any problem
confronted.

The White Hat calls for information known or needed.

Questions might include:

 What facts, data, and information do we have?

 What facts, data, and information do we need?
 What information is missing?
 What does the data reveal?
 What is the methodology for obtaining the facts and
data needed to reach a solution?