SOIL

COMPACTION
Soil Compaction
 1-Proctor compaction test

Soil is compacted into a mould in 3-5 equal layers, each layer receiving 25
blows of a hammer of standard weight. The apparatus is shown in Figure 1
below. The energy (compactivity effort) supplied in this test is 595 kJ/m3. The
important dimensions are
 2- Modified Proctor Test

The procedure and equipment is essentially the same as that used for the
Standard test except that 5 layers of soil must be used. To provide the
increased compactivity effort (energy supplied = 2072 kJ/m3) a heavier
hammer and a greater drop height for the hammer are used. The key
dimensions for the Modified test are
 Proctor Test Chart

Max ϒd

𝛾𝑤𝑒𝑡
𝛾𝑑 =
(1 + 𝑤𝑐 )

OMC
Relative density
Relative density

ASTM test D-2049. For sand, this test involves a 0.1 ft3 mold. Sand is
poured loosely into the mold until the mold is filled without using any
compacting effort. The minimum dry unit weight (ϒd,min) is then
determined by dividing the net weight of the sand by the mold volume.
The maximum dry unit weight (ϒd,max) is determined by vibrating sand in
the mold for 8 minutes (at 60 Hz, amplitude 0.025 in). A surcharge of 2 psi
is added to the top of the sand. Soil is added to the mold until full. The
value of ϒd,max is determined at the end of the vibrating period.
The relative density of a soil can have a significant impact on its shear
strength, and therefore, on its bearing capacity
Example
Relative compaction
Example
 PERMEABILITY,
Hydraulic Conductivity & seepage
Hydraulic Conductivity
Permeability: Permeability is the measure of the soil’s ability to permit water to
flow through its pores or voids
Soils consists of solid particles with
interconnected voids where water can flow
from a point of high energy to a point of low
energy

water
Hydraulic Conductivity measurement

a- Constant Head

In the constant head test, the inlet head is

controlled to be constant at all times, thereby
making the head difference H between inlet and
outlet constant. Water is allowed to seep through
the soil column and collected at the outle
Hydraulic Conductivity
b-Falling head
Permeability
Exercise
Field Measurement of Permeability
1- Unconfined Aquifer
Field Measurement of Permeability
1- Unconfined Aquifer
Field Measurement of Permeability
2- Confined Aquifer
Field Measurement of Permeability
2- Confined Aquifer
Hydraulic Gradient

( hA  hB ) h
i 
L L
Example
A soil sample with a coefficient of permeability of 5 x 10^(-6) cm/s
will be subjected to a falling head test using the setup shown.
What is most nearly the face velocity of the water moving
through the apparatus?
(A) 2.5 x 10^6 cm/s
(B) 5.0 x 10^6 cm/s
(C) 8.0 x 10^6 cm/s
(D) 3.0 x 10^5 cm/s

To find the hydraulic gradient

i = Δh/ΔL =10cm/20cm =0.5
The face velocity is V= k.i = ( 5 x 10^6).(0.5) = 2.5 x 10^6 cm/s
The answer is (A).
Atterberg Limit Tests (ASTM D-4318)
The liquid limit test is performed with a special apparatus. A
soil sample is placed in a shallow container and the sample is
parted in half with a grooving tool. container is dropped a
distance of 0.4 in (10 mm) repeatedly until the sample has
rejoined for a length of 1=2 in (13 mm). The liquid limit is
defined as the water content at which the soil rejoins at exactly
25 blows. The test is repeated at different water contents, and
the water content corresponding to the liquid limit is found by
interpolation using a flow curve (a plot of water content versus
logarithm of number of blows, N).
The slope of this plot is called the flow index IF defined as

The water content corresponding to N = 25 is

interpolated from this plot. This is defined as
the water content at which the soil transitions
from a plastic state to liquid state (symbol: LL
plastic limit
The plastic limit test consists of rolling a soil sample into
a 1=8 in (3 mm) thread. The sample will crumble at that
diameter when it is at the plastic limit. The sample is
remolded to remove moisture and rolled into a thread
repeatedly until the plastic limit is reached. The water
content is determined for three such samples, and the
average value is the plastic limit

The plastic limit is defined as the water content at which

the soil crumbles when rolled into 1/8-in
 plasticity index
The difference between the liquid and plastic limits is known
as the plasticity index, PI. The plasticity index indicates the
range in moisture content over which the soil is in a plastic
condition. In this condition it can be deformed and still hold
together without crumbling. A large plasticity index (i.e.,
greater than 20) shows that considerable water can be added
before the soil becomes liquid
The shrinkage limit
The shrinkage limit, SL, is the water content at which further drying
out of the soil does not decrease the volume of the soil. Below the
shrinkage limit, air enters the voids and water content decreases
are not accompanied by decreases in volume
The difference between the plastic and shrinkage limits is
known as the shrinkage index, SI. The shrinkage index indicates
the range in moisture content over which the soil is in a semi-
solid condition
Example
Standard Penetration Test
The standard penetration test (SPT) is one of various standardized
tests to measure in situ compactness of soils a split-spoon sampler is
driven by a 140-lb hammer falling 30 in through three successive 6-in
penetrations. The outer diameter of the split spoon is 2 in and the
inner diameter is 1.5 in. The field-recorded result for the SPT consists
of three numbers—the number of blows required to drive the sampler
through 0–6 in, 6–12 in, and 12–18 in penetration or until normal
maximum resistance (refusal) is reached, using the standard hammer
and drop. Refusal is defined as a penetration of less than 6 in for 100
hammer blows
This test is still used because of it's
simplicity and low cost.

The N-value has been correlated with

many other mechanical properties,
including shear modulus, unconfined
compressive strength, angle of internal
friction, and relative density. The
correlations work best with
cohesionless soils
cone penetration test (CPT)

As the cone is pushed into the ground, the soil responds

with differing degrees of resistance. This resistance is
recorded using force sensors in the tip. At the same time
as the sensors are recording resistance at the cone tip,
sensors in the friction sleeve are recording sleeve friction
along a 100mm length. Some cones also have a pore
water transducer, which records water pressure in the
soil. These readings can be used to determine ground
water responses as the cone is pushed through the soils.
A cone penetration test typically takes between 30
minutes and three hours. As the cone goes into the
ground, measurements are constantly sent back to the
rig and recorded on computer.
 cone penetration test (CPT)
This data gives a profile of the subsoil layers, often called a
‘trace’. Examples are shown to the right.

What do the test results tell us?

Cone penetration test results are used by geotechnical

engineering specialists to understand the soil properties (the
relative density of the soil and the soil behaviour type, both of
which are calculated from the cone penetration test cone tip
resistance and sleeve friction) and how the ground is likely to
behave under different levels of earthquake shaking
This information can help in the design of foundations and
ground improvements
Consolidation tests((also known as confined
compression tests, consolidometer tests and
oedometer tests)
start with a disc of soil (usually clay) confined by a metal ring.
The faces of the disc are covered with porous plates. The disc
sandwich is loaded and submerged in water. Static loads are
applied in increments, and the vertical displacement is
measured with time for each load increment. The testing time
is very long, usually 24 hr per load increment, since seepage
through clay soils is very slow when the displacement rate
levels off, the final void ratio is determined for that increment.
The load versus the void ratio for all increments is plotted
together as an e-log p curve

For each load increment, the change in

height of the specimen can be converted
to an equivalent change in the void ratio,
using
Consolidation curve
The line segment m-r is known as the virgin compression line or
virgin consolidation line. In this region, the clay is considered to
be normally consolidated, which means that the present load
has never been exceeded.

Line m- 𝑚ư is a rebound curve. Line m0 -r is known as a

reloading curve. Such curves result when a normally
consolidated clay is unloaded and then reloaded. Since it has
carried a higher load in the past, the soil is considered to be
overconsolidated or preloaded in the rebound-reload region

Notice that point 𝑚ư can only be reached by loading the soil to a

pressure of p0 1 and then removing the pressure. Although the
pressure of the clay at p0 2 is essentially the same as at the
start of the test, the void ratio has been reduced.
overconsolidation ratio

The overconsolidation ratio, OCR, is defined by p0 o is the present or in

situ overburden pressure; p0 max is the maximum past pressure or
preconsolidation pressure. An overconsolidation ratio of 1 means that
the soil is normally consolidated; an overconsolidation ratio greater
than 1 means that the soil is overconsolidated
The shape of the e-log p curve will depend on the
degree of remolding or disturbance, as shown A
highly disturbed soil will show a gradual transition
between overconsolidated and normally
consolidated behavior
Preconsolidation pressure
UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

In an unconfined compressive strength test, a cylinder of cohesive soil is

loaded axially to compressive failure. Unlike in the triaxial test, there is no
radial stress applied before the shearing phase of testing. This test can
only be performed on soils that can stand without confinement, usually
clays. The unconfined compressive strength test is equivalent to a UU-test
(Q-test) in which the chamber pressure is zero

The unconfined compressive strength is calculated

using Eq. The undrained shear strength is calculated
as one half of the unconfined compressive strength
 SENSITIVITY
Clay will become softer as it is worked, and clay soils can turn into viscous liquids
during construction. This tendency, known as sensitivity, is determined by measuring
the ultimate strength of two samples, one that is undisturbed before testing and the
other that has been fully disturbed, usually by mechanically remolding the soil.
Although sensitivity is normally determined as the ratio of unconfined compression
strengths, the two strength values compared could be from any two identical tests.
Table 35.14 gives the four classes of sensitivity.
Drained condition
occurs when there is no change in pore water pressure due to external loading
In a drained condition, the pore water can drain out of the soil easily, causing
volumetric strains in the soil.
Undrained condition
occurs when the pore wateris unable to drain out of the soil. In an undrained
condition, the rate of loading is much quicker than the rate at which the pore
wateris able to drain out of the soil. As a result, most of the external loading is
taken bythe pore water, resulting in an increase in the porewater pressure. The
tendency of soil to change volume is suppressed during undrained loading.
 The consistency of a clay
The consistency of a clay means the water content relative to the
Atterberg limits. This is represented by the liquidity index A
liquidity index between 0 and 1 indicates that the water content is
between the plastic limit and the liquid limit; a liquidity index
greater than one indicates that the water content is above the
liquid limit
 Water content test
1050 C to 1100 C
16 to 24 hours
 SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

Determine the in situ density of natural or compacted soils using

sand pouring cylinders.(dry density or bulk density )
 Specific gravity of soil particles using pycnometer
Determine the specific gravity of soil fraction passing 4.75 mm
I.S sieve by density bottle.