Dr Peeyush Patel

Unit

Objectives
After s tudying this U nit you will be
able to
• v i s u a l i s e the i m p o r ta nc e of
Che mis try in daily life;
• e xplain the term ‘chemotherapy’;
• describe the bas is of classification
of drug s ;
• e xplain drug-target interaction of
e nz yme s a n d receptors;
• e x p l a i n how v a r i o u s type s of
drug s func tion in the body;
• know about artificial sweetening
ag e nts a n d food preservatives;
• dis c us s the chemistry of cleansing
ag e nts .
16
Chemistry in
Everyday Life
From living perception to abstract thought, a n d from this to practice.
V.I. Lenin.
B y now, y ou have learnt the ba s i c p ri ncip le s of
chemistry an d also realised that it influences every
sphere of h u m a n life. The principles of chemistry have
been u s e d for the benefit of m a n k i n d . T h i n k of
cleanliness — the materials like soaps, detergents,
household bleaches, tooth pastes, etc. will come to your
mind. Look towards the beautiful clothes — immediately
chemicals of the synthetic fibres used for making clothes
a nd chemicals giving colours to them will come to your
mind. Food materials — again a n um be r of chemicals
about which you have learnt in the previous Unit will
appear i n your mind. Of course, s ic kne s s an d diseases
remind u s of medicines — again chemicals. Explosives,
fue ls , rocket propellents, b u i l d i n g a n d electronic
m at er ia ls , etc., are all c h e m i c a l s . C h e m i s t r y h a s
influenced our life so m u c h that we do not even realise
that we come across chemical s at every moment; that
we ourselves are beautiful chemical creations a n d all
our activities are controlled by chemicals. I n this Unit,
we shall learn the application of Chemi str y i n three
important a n d interesting areas, namely – medicines,
food materials a n d cleansing agents.

16.1Drugs D r u g s are chemicals of low molecu lar mass es (~100 – 500u). These
and their interact with macromolecular targets and produce a biological response.
When the biological response is therapeutic and useful, these
Classification chemicals are called m e d i c i n e s a n d are use d in diagnosis, prevention
a n d treatment of diseases. Most of the drugs used a s medicines are
potential poisons, if taken in doses higher than those recommended.
Use of chemicals for therapeutic effect is called c h e m o t h e r a p y .

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16.1.1 D r u g s c a n be classified mainly on criteria outlined a s follows:
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of ( a ) O n t h e b a s i s of p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l e ffe ct ( on l arge no. of org ans)
Drugs T h i s classification is based on pharmacological effect of the drugs. It
is useful for doctors because it provides them the whole range of
drug s available for the treatment of a particular type of problem. For
example, analgesics have pain killing effect, antiseptics kill or arrest
the growth of microorganisms.
( b ) O n t h e b a s i s of d r u g a c t i o n ( o n s p e c i f i c biochemical process)
It is based on the action of a drug on a particular biochemical process.
For example, all antihistamines inhibit the action of the compound,
his tamine which causes inflammation in the body. There are
various ways in w hich action of histamines c a n be blocked. Y ou
will learn about this in Sec tion 16.3.2.
( c ) O n t h e b a s i s of c h e m i c a l s t r u c t u r e
It is based on the chemical structure of the drug. Drugs classified in this
way share c omm on s t r uct ur al features a n d often have s im il ar
pharmacological activity. For example, sulphonamides have common
structural feature, given below.

S t r u c t ur a l features of s u l p h o n a m i d es
(d) O n t h e b a s i s of m o l e c u l a r t a r g e t s
Drug s usually interact with biomolecules s u ch as carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins and nucleic acids. These are called target molecules or
drug targets. D r u g s possessing some common structural features
may have the same mechanism of action on targets. The classification
based on molecular targets is the most useful classification for medicinal
chemists.
16.2 Drug-Target Macromolecules of biological origin perform various functions in the
body. For example, proteins which perform the role of biological catalysts
Interaction
i n the body are called e n z y m e s , those w h i c h are c r u c i a l to
communication system in the body are called receptors. Carrier proteins
carry polar molecules across the cell membrane. Nucleic acids have
coded genetic information for the cell. L i pi ds a n d carbohydrates are
structural parts of the cell membrane. We shall explain the drug-target
interaction with the examples of enzymes a n d receptors.
16.2.1 E n z y m e s ( a ) C a t a l y t i c a c t i o n of e n z y m e s
as Drug F o r u nd er st an di ng the interaction between a d ru g a n d a n enzyme,
Targets it i s important to k n o w how do enzymes ca talyse the reaction
(Section 5.2.4). I n their catalytic activity, enzymes perform two
maj or functions:
(i) The first function of an enzyme is to hold the substrate for a chemical
reaction. Active sites of enzymes hold the substrate molecule in a
suitable position, so that it can be attacked by the reagent effectively.

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 Substrates bind to the active site of the enzyme through a variety
of interactions s u c h as ionic bonding, hydrogen bonding, van der
Waals interaction or dipole-dipole interaction (Fig. 16.1).

Fig. 16. 1
(a) Active site of a n
en z y m e (b) Su b s trate
(c)Su b strate h eld in
active site of the
en z y m e

(ii) The second function of a n enzyme is to provide functional groups

that will attack the substrate a n d carry out chemical reaction.
( b) D r u g - e n z y m e i n t e r a c t i o n
D r u g s inhibit any of the above mentioned activities of enzymes. These
c a n block the binding site of the enzyme a n d prevent the binding of
substrate, or c a n inhibit the catalytic activity of the enzyme. S u c h
d r u g s are called e n z y m e i nh ibi t or s .
D r u g s inhibit the attachment of substrate on active site of enzymes
in two different ways;
( i ) D r u g s compete with the natural substrate for their attachment
on the active sites of enzymes. S u c h drugs are called competitive
i n h i b i t o r s (Fig. 16.2).
Fig. 16. 2
Drug a n d substrate
competing for active
site

(ii) Some d r ug s do not bind to the

enzyme’s active site. These bind
to a different site of e n z y m e
whic h i s called al los te ri c s ite.
T h i s b i n d i n g of i n h ib it o r at
allosteric site (Fig.16.3) changes
the shape of the active site in
s u c h a way that substrate ca n -
not recognise it.
If the bond formed between
F i g . 1 6 . 3 : Non-competitive inhibitor c h a n ges the active a n enzyme a n d a n inhibitor is
site of en z y m e after binding at allosteric site. a s t r o n g c o v a l en t b o n d a n d
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 cannot be broken easily, then the enzyme is blocked permanently.
The body then degrades the enzyme-inhibitor complex an d
synthesises the new enzyme.

1 6 . 2 . 2 Receptors Receptors are proteins that are c r uc i a l to body’s c o m m u n i c a t i o n

as Drug process. Maj ority of these are embedded i n cell m e m b r a n e s (Fig .
Targets 16.4). Receptor proteins are embedded in the cell memb rane i n s u c h
a way that their sm a ll part p o ss e ss in g active site projects out of the
surface of the m e m b ra ne a n d opens on the outside region of the cell
m e m b r a n e (Fig . 16.4).

Fig. 16. 4
Receptor protein
em b ed d ed in the cell
m em b r ane, the
active site of the
receptor o p en s o n
the o u ts ide region of
the cell.

In the body, message between two neurons and that between neurons
to muscles is communicated through certain chemicals. These chemicals,
known as chemical messengers are received at the binding sites of receptor
proteins. To accommodate a messenger, shape of the receptor site changes.
This brings about the transfer of message into the cell. Thus, chemical
messenger gives message to the cell without entering the cell (Fig. 16.5).

F i g . 1 6 . 5 : (a) Receptor receiving chemical m es s enger

(b ) Sh a p e of the receptor c h a nged after attachment of m es senger
(c) Receptor regains structure after removal of chemical messenger.

There are a large number of different receptors in the body that

interact with different chemical messengers. These receptors show
selectivity for one chemical messenger over the other because their binding
sites have different shape, structure and amino acid composition.
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 D r u g s that bind to the receptor site and inhibit its natural function
are called a n tag on is ts . These are useful when blocking of message is
required. There are other types of dr ug s that mimic the natural
messenger by switching on the receptor, these are called a gonis ts .
These are useful when there is l a c k of natural chemical messenger.

16.3 Therapeutic Action of In this Section, we shall discuss the therapeutic action
Different Classes of Drugs of a few important classes of drugs.

16.3.1 Antacids Over production of acid in the stomach causes irritation and pain. In
severe cases, ulcers are developed in the stomac h. Until 1970, only
treatment for acidity was administration of antacids, s u c h a s sodium
hydrogencarbonate or a m i xt ur e of a l u m i n i u m a n d m a g n e s i u m
hydroxide. However, excessive hydrogencarbonate can make the stomach
alkaline and trigger the production of even more acid. Metal hydroxides
are better alternatives because of being insoluble, these do not increase
the p H above neutrality. These treatments control only symptoms, and
not the cause. Therefore, with these metal salts, the patients cannot be
treated easily. In advanced stages, ulcers become life threatening and its
only treatment is removal of the affected part of the stomach.

A maj or breakthrough in the treatment of hyperacidity came through

the discovery according to which a chemical, histamine, stimulates the
secretion of pepsin a n d hydrochloric acid in the stomach. The dru g
cimetidine (Tegamet), was designed to prevent the interaction of
histamine with the receptors present in the stomac h wall. T hi s resulted
in release of lesser amo unt of acid. The importance of the drug wa s
so m u c h that it remained the largest selling drug in the world until
another drug, ranitidine (Zantac), was discovered.

16.3.2 Histamine is a potent vasodilator. It ha s various functions. It contracts

Antihistamines the smooth mu scles in the bronchi and gut and relaxes other muscles,
s u c h a s those in the walls of fine blood vessels. Hi stamine is also
responsible for the nasal congestion associated with common cold an d
allergic response to pollen.
Synthetic drugs, b r o m p h e n i r am i n e (Dimetapp) a nd t er fenad ine
(Seldane), act a s antihistamines. They interfere with the natural action

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Antacids
ENO Magalu
NaHCO 3 Mg(OH) 2 + Al(OH) 3

Antihistamines
Cima Rani … Bro se Pro DiDi

Cimetidine (Tegamet)
Antacid
Ranitidine (Zantac)

Brompheniramine

Seldane (terfenadine )

Promethazine
Antallegric

Diphenylhydramine (Benadryl)

Dimetapp
 of h i st am in e by competing
with hi st am in e for b i n d in g
s it e s of receptor where
histamine exerts its effect.
Now the q ue s ti o n t ha t
a r i s e s i s , “Why do above
mentioned antihistamines not
affect the secretion of acid in
stomach?” The reason is that
antiallergic and antacid drugs
work on different receptors.
16.3.3 (a) T r a n q u i l i z e r s
Neurologically T ranq ui l i ze rs a nd anal ge si cs are neurologically active drugs. These
Active Drugs affect the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor.
Tranquilizers are a cla ss of chemical compounds used for the
treatment of stress, a nd mild or even severe mental diseas es.
These relieve anxiety, stress, irritability or excitement by inducing a
sense of well-being. They form a n essential component of sleeping
pills. There are various types of tranquilizers. They function by
different m e c h a n i s m s . F o r e x a m pl e , n o r a d r en a l i n e i s one of the
neurotransmitters that plays a role in mood ch anges. If the level of
noradrenaline is low for some reason, then the signal-sending activity
becomes low, a n d the person suffers from
d e p re s s i on . In such situations,
antidepressant drugs are required. These
d r ug s inhibit the enzymes which catalyse
the degradation of noradrenaline . If the
e n z ym e i s i n h ib it e d, t h i s i m p o r t a n t
neurotransmitter is slowly metabolised
a n d c a n activate its receptor for longer
periods of time, thus counteracting the effect
of depression. Iproniazid and phenelzine are
two s u c h drugs.
Some tranquilizers namely, chlordiazepoxide a n d meprobamate,
are relatively mild tranquilizers suitable for relieving tension. Equanil
is used in controlling depression a n d hypertension.

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Tranquilizers
PIC me NAL VVS
phenelzine
antidepressant
Iproniazid

chlordiazepoxide

meprobamate

Equanil

Nembutal, amytal,, luminal, veronal, barbiturates.

valium and serotonin

 Derivatives of barbituric acid viz., veronal, amytal, nembutal, luminal
a n d seconal constitute a n important c la s s of tranquilizers . These
derivatives are called barbiturates . Barbiturates are hypnotic, i.e.,
sleep producing agents. Some other substances used as tranquilizers
are valium a n d serotonin.

(b) Analgesics
A nal g es i cs reduce or abolish pain without c a us i ng impairment of
consciousness, mental confusion, incoordination or paralysis or some
other disturbances of nervous system. These are classified a s follows:
(i) Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics
(ii) Narcotic d r u g s
( i ) N o n - n a r c o t i c (no n -ad dic tive) a n a l g e s i c s : A sp ir in a nd
paracetamol belong to the class of non -narcotic analges ics.
Aspirin is the most familiar example. Aspirin inhibits the synthesis
of c h e mic al s k n o w n a s p r o sta gla nd in s wh i ch stimul ate
inflammation in the tissue and cause pain. These drugs are effective
in relieving skeletal pain s uc h as that due to arthritis. These drugs
have many other effects s u c h a s reducing fever (antipyretic) and
preventing platelet coagulation. Because of its anti blood clotting
action, aspirin finds use in prevention of heart attacks.
(ii) Narcot ic ana lge s ic s: Morphine and many of its homologues,
when administered in medicinal doses, relieve pain and produce
sleep. In poisonous doses, these produce stupor, coma, convulsions
and ultimately death. Morphine narcotics are sometimes referred to
as opiates, since they are obtained from the opium poppy.
These analgesics are chiefly used for the relief of postoperative
pain, cardiac pain and pains of terminal cancer, and in child birth.

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Non-narcotic analgesics
PAINN killer
Paracetamol

Aspirin

Ibuprofan

Neprogen

Novalgin

Narcotic analgesics

Heroin Co Morphine dedo

Heroin

Codeine

Morphine
16.3.4 Diseases in h u m a n beings a n d an im al s ma y be caused by a variety of
A n t i m i c rob ial s microorganisms s u c h a s bacteria, vi rus, fungi a nd other pathogens.
A n antimicrobial tends to destroy/prevent development or inhibit the
pathogenic action of microbes s u c h a s bacteria (antibacterial drugs),
fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antiviral agents), or other parasites
(antiparasitic drugs) selectively. Antibiotics, antiseptics and
disinfectants are antimicrobial drugs .
(a) A n t i b i o t i c s
Antibiotics are used a s drugs to treat infections because of their low
toxicity for h u m a n s and animals. Initially antibiotics were classified as
chemical substances produced by microorganisms (bacteria, fungi and
molds) that inhibit the growth or even destroy microorganisms. The
development of synthetic methods ha s helped in synthesising some of
the c o m p o u n d s that were originally discovered a s p ro du ct s of
m i c ro o rg a ni s m s . Also, some p ure ly synth eti c c o m p o u n d s have
antibacterial activity, a n d therefore, definition of antibiotic h a s been
modified. A n antibiotic now refers to a substance produced wholly or
partly by chemical synthesis, which in low concentrations inhibits the
growth or destroys microorganisms by intervening in their metabolic
processes.
The search for chemicals that would adversely affect invading bacteria
but not the host began in the nineteenth century. Paul Ehrli ch , a
German bacteriologist, conceived this idea. He investigated ars enic
based s tructures in order to produce less toxic substances for the
treatment of syphilis. He developed the medicine, ar sphenam ine ,
known as salvar san. Pau l E hr li c h got Nobel prize for Medicine in
1 9 0 8 for this discovery. It was the first effective treatment
discovered for syphilis. Although salvarsan is toxic to h u m a n beings,
its effect on the bacteria, spirochete, which causes syphilis is m u c h
greater than on h u m a n beings. At the same time, E h r li c h was
working on azodyes also. He noted that there is similarity in
structures of salvarsan and

T h e s tr u c tu r es of s a l v a r s a n , prontosil a z o d y e a n d s u l p h a p y r id i n e s h o w in g s tr u c tural
s im ila r ity .

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H.W. Florey a n d
Alexander Fleming
s h a r e d the Nobel prize
for Medicine in 1945 for
their independent
contributions to the
development of
penicillin.
azodyes. The –As = As– linkage present in arsphenamine resembles
the –N = N – linkage present in azodyes in the sense that arsenic atom
is present in place of nitrogen. He also noted tissues getting coloured
by dyes selectively. Therefore, E h r l i c h began to s ea rc h for the
compounds which resemble in structure to azodyes and selectively
bind to bacteria. I n 1932, he succeeded in preparing the first effective
antibacterial agent, prontosil , which resembles in structure to the
compound, salvarsan. Soon it was discovered that in the body prontosil
is converted to a compound called sulphanilamide , which is the real
active compound. T h u s the su lp ha drugs were discovered. A large
range of sulphonamide analogues was synthesised. One of the most
effective is sulphapyridine.
D e sp it e the s u c c e s s of s u l f o n a m i d e s , the real revolution i n
antibacterial therapy began with the discovery of Alexander Fleming
i n 1 9 2 9 , of the antibacterial properties of a Penicillium f u ng u s .
Isolation and purification of active compound to accumulate sufficient
material for clinical trials took thirteen years.
Antibiotics have either cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory) effect
on microbes. A few examples of the two types of antibiotics are as follows:
B a c t e r i c i dal B a c t e ri ost ati c
Penicillin Erythromycin
Aminoglycosides Tetracycline
Ofloxacin Chloramphenicol
The range of bacteria or other microorganisms that are affected by a
certain antibiotic is expressed as its spectrum of action. Antibiotics which
kill or inhibit a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
are said to be broad spectrum antibiotics. Those effective mainly against
Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria are narrow s p e c t r u m
antibiotics . If effective against a single organism or disease, they are
referred to a s limited spe c trum antibiotics. Penicillin G h a s a narrow
spectrum. Ampicillin and Amoxycillin are synthetic modifications of
penicillins. These have broad spectrum. It is absolutely essential to test
the patients for sensitivity (allergy) to penicillin before it is administered.
In India, penicillin is manufactured at the Hindustan Antibiotics in Pimpri
and in private sector industry.
Chloramphenicol, isolated in 1 94 7, is a broad spectrum antibiotic.
It is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract a n d hence c a n
be given orally in case of typhoid, dysentery, acute fever, certain
form of u rin ary infections, meningitis an d pneumonia. Vancomycin
and ofloxacin are the other important broad spectrum antibiotics.
The antibiotic dysidazi rine i s supposed to be toxic towards certain
strains of cancer cells.
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 Bactericidal Bacteriostatic
SOAP ETC
Sulphonamide Erythromycin
Ofloxacin
Tetracycline
Aminoglycosides
Chloramphenicol
Penicillin G

Antibiotics which kill or inhibit a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative

bacteria are said to be broad spectrum antibiotics. Those effective mainly against Gram-
positive or Gram-negative bacteria are narrow s p ec t ru m antibiotics.

Broad spectrum antibiotics

Tetracycline
TV AC off
Vancomycin

Aminoglycosides

Chloramphenicol
Ofloxacin

Narrow spectrum antibiotics

Penicillin G

Ampicillin and Amoxycillin are synthetic modifications of penicillins.

These have broad spectrum.
 Total chiral carbons ?

Total functional groups ?

Total chiral carbons ?

 applied to the living tissues
applied to the inanimate objects
(b) A n t i s e p t i c s a n d d i s i n f e c t a n t s
Antiseptics an d disinfectants are also the chemicals which either kill
or prevent the growth of mic roorganisms.
A n ti se pt ic s are applied to the living tissues s u c h a s wounds, cuts,
u l c e r s a n d di s e as e d s k i n s u r f a c e s . E x a m p l e s are f u r a c i n e ,
s of ram i ci ne , etc. These are not ingested like antibiotics. Com monl y
used antiseptic, dettol is a mixture of ch lo ro xy le no l and terpineol .
Bithionol (the compound is also called bithional) is added to soaps to
i m p a r t an ti s ep ti c propertie s.
Iodine is a powerful antiseptic. Its
2 - 3 per cent solution in alcohol-
water m i x t u r e i s k n o w n a s
t i n c t u r e of iodine. It is applied
on wounds. Iodoform is also used
a s a n antiseptic for wounds. Bo r ic
acid in dilute aqueous solution is
weak antiseptic for eyes.
D i s i n f e c t a n t s are applied to inanimate objects s u c h a s floors,
drainage system, instruments, etc. S a m e subst ances c a n act a s a n
antiseptic a s well a s disinfectant by varying the concentration. Fo r
example, 0.2 per cent solution of phenol is a n antiseptic while its one
percent solution is disinfectant.
Chlorine in the concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 ppm in aqueous solution
a n d s u l p h u r dioxide in very low concentrations, are disinfectants.

16.3.5
A n t i f e r t il i t y D r u g s
Antibiotic revolution has provided long and healthy life to people. The life
expectancy has almost doubled. The increased population has caused many
social problems in terms of food resources, environmental issu es,
employment, etc. To control these problems, population is required to be
controlled. This has lead to the concept of family planning. Antifertility
drugs are of use in this direction. Birth control pills essentially contain a
mixture of synthetic estrogen and progesterone derivatives. Both of these
compounds are hormones. It is known that progesterone suppresses
ovulation. Synthetic progesterone derivatives are more potent than
progesterone. Norethindrone is an
example of synthetic progesterone
derivative most widely used a s
antifertility drug. The estrogen
derivative which is used in combination
with progesterone derivative is
ethynylestradiol (novestrol).

Intext Questions
1. Sleeping pills are recommended by doctors to the patients suffering from
sleeplessness but it is not advisable to take its doses without consultation
with the doctor. Why ?
2. With reference to whic h classification h a s the statement, “ranitidine is an
antacid” been given?

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Antiseptics
BSF ITBP DTC
Biothionol (used to give antiseptic property to soap)

Soframicine
Furacine
iodoform

Tincture of iodine

Boric acid

Phenol (0.2 %)

Dettol ( made by Terpineol + chloroxylenol )

Disinfectants
Phenol (1 %)

Cl 2 at conc of 0.2 to 0.4 ppm

SO 2 at low conc

Antifertility Drugs
NO BABY NO
Novestrol (ethynylestradiol) Estrogen + Progestron

Norethindrone Progestron
16.4 Chemicals C h em ic al s are added to food for (i) their preservation, (ii) enhancing
in Food their appeal, a n d (iii) adding nutritive value in them. Main categories
of food additives are a s follows:
(i) Food colours
(ii) Flavours a n d sweeteners
( i ii ) F a t emulsifiers a n d stabilising agents
( iv ) F l o u r improvers - antistaling agents a n d bleaches
(v) Antioxidants
(vi) Preservatives
(vii) Nutritional supplements such as minerals, vitamins and amino acids.
Exce pt for chemicals of category (vii), none of the above additives
have nutritive value. These are added either to increase the shelf life of
stored food or for cosmetic purposes. I n this Section we will d i s c u s s
only sweeteners a n d food preservatives.
1 6 . 4 . 1 Artificial Natural sweeteners, e.g., sucrose add to calorie intake a nd therefore
Sweetening m an y people prefer to use artificial sweeteners. Ortho-sulphobenzimide,
Agents also called saccharin , is the first popular artificial sweetening agent. It
h a s been used a s a sweetening agent ever sin ce it was discovered i n
1 87 9. It is about 5 5 0 times a s sweet a s cane sugar. It is excreted from
the body in urine unchang ed. It appears to be entirely inert a nd
harm les s when taken. Its use is of great value to diabetic persons a nd
people who need to control intake of calories. Some other commonly
marketed artificial sweeteners are given in Table 16.1.
T a b l e 1 6 . 1 : A r t i f ic i al Sweeten ers
Artificial Structural formula S w e e t n e ss v a l ue i n
sweetener c o m p a r i so n t o c a n e suga r

A s p a rt am e 100
So ft d i n ks
Co l d d ri n ks
Un sta b l e a t co o ki n g temp

Saccharin 550
Usefu l fo r d i a b eti c p erso n

S u c ra lo se 600

Tri ch l o ro d eri v a ti v e o f su cro se

Sta b l e a t co o ki n g temp
Do esn ’t p ro vi d e ca l o ri es
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 Alitame 2000
Mo st sweetest

A s pa r ta me is the most su cc es s f ul a n d widely u se d artificial

sweetener. It is roughly 1 0 0 times a s sweet a s cane sugar. It is methyl
ester of dipeptide formed from aspartic ac id and phenylalanine. Use of
aspartame is limited to cold foods and soft dri nk s because it is unstable
at cooking temperature.
A l i t a me is high potency sweetener, although it is more stable than
aspartame, the control of sweetness of food is difficult while u s i n g it.
S u c r a l o s e is trichloro derivative of sucrose. Its appearance a n d
taste are like su g a r. It is stable at cooking temperature. It does not
provide calories.

16.4.2 Fo o d Food preservatives prevent spoilage of food due to prohibiting microbial

Preservatives growth. The most commonly used preservatives include table salt, sugar,
vegetable oils a n d sodium benzoate, C 6 H 5 C O O N a . S o d iu m benzoate is
used i n limited quantities a nd is metabolised in the body. S al ts of
sorbic acid a n d propanoic acid are also used a s preservatives.

Intext Question
16.3 Why do we require artificial sweetening agents ?

1 6 . 4 . 3 A n t i ox i d a nt s These are important a n d necessary food additives. These help in food

in Food preservation by retarding the action of oxygen on food. They act
t h r o u g h several c h e m i c a l m e c h a n i s m s . T he two m os t fa m il i ar
antioxidants are butylated hydroxy toluene (B H T) a n d butylated
hydroxy anisole (BHA). The addition of B H A to butter increases its
shelf life from months to years.
Sometimes B H T a n d B H A along with citric acid are added to
produce more effect. S u l p h u r dioxide a n d s u l p hi t e are u s e f u l
antioxidants for wine a nd beer, s uga r s y r up s an d cut, peeled or dried
fruits a n d vegetables.

5. Cleansing I n this Section, we will learn about detergents. Two types of detergents
are used a s cleansing agents. These are soaps and synthetic
Agents detergents. These improve c leansing properties of water. These help in
removal of fats which bind other materials to the fabric or s k i n .
1. Soaps

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 S o a p s are the detergents used since long. S o a ps used for cleaning
purpose are sodium or potassium salts of long c ha in fatty acids, e.g.,
stearic, oleic a n d palmitic acids. S oa p s containing sodium salts are
formed by heating fat (i.e., glyceryl ester of fatty acid) with aqueous
sodium hydroxide solution. T h i s reaction is known a s s a p o n if ication .
I n this reaction, esters of fatty acids are hydrolysed a n d the soap
obtained remains in colloidal form. It is precipitated from the solution
by adding sodium chloride. The solution left after removing the soap
contains glycerol, which c a n be recovered by fractional distillation.
On ly s o d iu m and potassium soap s are soluble in water and are us ed
for cleaning purposes. Generally potassium soaps are soft to the s k i n
t han s od ium soaps . These c an be prepared by u s i n g potas sium
hydroxide solution in place of sodium hydroxide .
T y p e s of s o a p s
Basically all soaps are made by boiling fats or oils with suitable
soluble hydroxide. Variations are made by using different raw materials.
Toilet so aps are prepared by u s i ng better grades of fats a n d oils
a n d care is taken to remove excess alkali. Colour a n d perfumes are
added to m a k e these more attractive.
S o ap s that float in water are made by beating tiny air bubbles
before their hardening . Transparent soaps are made by dissolving the
s oap in ethanol a n d then evaporating the excess solvent.
I n medicated soa ps, substances of medicinal value are added. In
some soaps, deodorants are added. Shaving soaps contain glycerol to
prevent rapid drying. A g u m called, rosin is added while m ak in g them.
It forms sodium rosinate which lathers well. L aundr y soa p s contain
fillers like sodium rosinate, sodium silicate, borax and sodium carbonate.
S o ap ch ip s are made by ru n ni n g a thin sheet of melted soap onto
a cool cylinder a n d scraping off the soaps in sm all broken pieces. Soap
granules are dried miniature soap bubbles. Soap powders an d scouring
soaps contain some soap, a scouring agent (abrasive) s u c h a s powdered
pumice or finely divided sand, a n d builders like sodium carbonate a n d
trisodium phosphate . Builder s m a k e the soaps act more rapidly. The
cleansing action of soap h a s been discussed in Unit 5.
W hy do soaps not w ork i n h a r d water?
H a rd water contains calcium an d magn esium ions. These ions form
ins oluble calcium a n d magn es ium soaps respectively when sodium
or potas s ium s oaps are dissolved in h a r d water.

These insoluble soaps separate a s s c u m in water a n d are useless

a s cleansing agent. I n fact these are hinderance to good washing,
because the precipitate adheres onto the fibre of the cloth a s g u m m y
m a s s . H a ir washed with h a rd water looks dull because of this sticky
precipitate. Dye does not absorb evenly on cloth washed with soap
u s i n g h a r d water, because of this g u m m y m a s s .

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2. Syn th etic Synthetic detergents are cleansing agents which have all the properties
Deter gen ts of soaps, but which actually do not contain a n y soap. These c a n be
us ed both in soft a n d hard water a s they give foam even in hard water.
Some of the detergents give foam even in ice cold water.
Synthetic detergents are mainly classified into three categories:
( i )A n i on ic detergents (ii) C at io n ic detergents a n d (iii) N o n - i o nic
detergents
(i) Anio nic Detergents: A ni o ni c detergents are s o d i um s al t s of
s u l p h on a t e d long c h a i n al co hol s or h y dr o c a r b on s . A l k y l
hydrogensulphates formed by treating long ch ai n alcohols with
concentrated s u l p h u r i c acid are neutralised with alkal i to form
anion ic detergents. S i m i l a rl y al ky l benzene s u lp ho na te s are
obtained by neutralising alkyl benzene sulphonic acids with alkali.

H 2 SO 4 NaOH(aq) +
C H 3 (CH 2 )1 1 C H 3 (CH 2 )1 1 S O 3H C H 3 (CH 2 )1 1 S O 3 Na

Dodecylbenzene Dodecylbenzenesulphonic acid Sodium dodecylbenzenesulphonate

In anionic detergents, the anionic part of the molecule is involved

in the cleansing action. S o d i u m salts of alkylbenzenesulphonates
are a n important c l a s s of anionic detergents.
They are mostly used for household work. Anionic detergents
are also used in toothpastes.
(ii) Catio nic Detergents: C a t i o n i c detergents are q u a r t e r na r y
a mm on iu m salts of amines with acetates, chlorides or bromides
a s anions. Cationic part
pos se ss a long hydrocarbon +
CH3
chain a n d a positive charge on
nitrogen atom. Hence, these are C H 3(CH 2)15 N C H 3 Br
called c a t io n ic detergent s.
Cetyltrimethylammonium CH3
bromide is a popular cationic
Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide
detergent and is used in hair
conditioners.
Cationic detergents have germicidal properties and are expensive,
therefore, these are of limited use.
(iii) Non-ionic Detergents: Non-ionic detergents do not contain any ion
i n their constitution. One s u c h detergent is formed when stearic
acid reacts with polyethyleneglycol.

L iquid d ish wa shi ng detergents are non-ionic type. Mechanism of

cleansing action of this type of detergents is the same a s that of
soaps. These also remove grease a n d oil by micelle formation.

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 Main problem that appears in the use of detergents is that if their
hydrocarbon chain is highly branched, then bacteria cannot degrade
this easily. Slow degradation of detergents leads to their accumulation.
Effluents containing s u c h detergents reach the rivers, ponds, etc.
These persist in water even after sewage treatment and cause foaming
in rivers, ponds and streams and their water gets polluted.
These days the branc hing of the hydrocarbon ch ain is controlled
and kept to the minimum. Unbranched chains can be biodegraded
more easily a n d hence pollution is prevented.

Intext Questions
1 6 . 4 Write the c hemic al equation for preparing sodium soap from glyceryl
oleate a n d glyceryl palmitate. S t ruc tu ra l formulae of these compound s
are given below.
(i) (C 1 5 H 3 1 COO) 3 C 3 H 5 – Glyceryl palmitate
(ii) (C 1 7 H 3 2 COO) 3 C 3 H 5 – Glyceryl oleate
1 6 . 5 Following type of non-ionic detergents are present in liquid detergents,
emul si fyi ng agents a n d wetting agents. L a bel the hydrop hili c a n d
hydrophobic parts i n the molecule. Identify the functional group(s)
present in the molecule.

C h e m is tr y is es sentially the s tudy of mate rials a nd the development of new

Summary
materials for the betterment of h u m an ity. A drug is a c he mical agent, w hic h
affects h u m a n m e tabolis m and provides cure from ailment. If take n in doses
higher than recommended, these may have poisonous effect. Us e of c hemicals
for the rape utic effect is c alle d c h e m o t h e r a p y . D r u g s u s u a l l y interac t w ith
biological m acr omole cule s s u c h as carbohydrate s, proteins, lipids an d nuc le ic
ac ids . Thes e are called ta rg et m o l ec ul es . D r u g s are designed to interact with
specific targets so that these have the least c hanc e of affecting other targets.
T h is m in im is e s the side effects and localises the action of the drug . D r u g c he mistry
c e ntre s ar ou nd arr e s ting m ic r obes /de s troying mic robe s , preventing the body
from var ious infectious dise ases , releasing m en tal stress, etc. T h u s , d r u g s like
analge sics , antibiotics, antiseptics, disinfectants , antac ids and tranquiliz ers are
us e d for specific p urp ose. To c he c k the population explosion, antifertility drug s
have also become pr om ine nt in our life.
Food additive s s u c h a s p r e s e r v a t i v e s , s w e e t e n i n g a g e n t s , f l a v o u r s ,
a nt i o xi da n t s , edi bl e c o l o u rs and n u t r i t i o n a l s up p l em e nt s are added to the
food to m ake it attractive, palatable and add nutritive value. Preservatives are
added to the food to prevent spoilage due to micr ob ial growth. Artificial sweeteners
are use d by those who need to c he c k the calorie intake or are diabetic and want
to avoid taking s uc r os e.
These days , det erg ent s are m u c h in vogue and get preference over soaps
be c ause they w or k even in har d water. Synthe tic detergents are classified into
three m a i n c ategor ies , nam e ly : a n i o n i c , c a t i o n i c a nd n o n - i o n i c , a n d e ac h
category ha s its specific us e s . Detergents with straight c h ain of hydrocarbons
are preferred over br anc he d c h a in as the latter are no n-b i o deg ra da bl e a n d
c ons eque ntly c aus e e n v i r o n m e n t a l po l l ut i o n.

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 Exercise Dr Peeyush Patel

Q. NEET - 2019
Among the following the Narrow spectrum Antibiotic is :
(1) Ampicillin (2) Amoxycillin
(3) Chloramphenicol (4) Penicillin-G
Ans.(4)

Q. AIIMS - 2018
Which of the following statement is incorrect :
(1) Serotonin is a tranquilizer
(2) Novestrol is an anti fertility drugs
(3) Chloremphenicol is narrow spectrum antibiotic drug
(4) Competitive inhibitor binds with enzyme.
Ans.(3)

Q. NEET - 2016
Amoxycilline is :
(1) Broad spectrum Antibiotic
(2) Bacteriostatic
(3) Synthetic modification of penicillin
(4) (1) & (3) both
Ans.(4)

Q. Which of the following is not true about chloramphenicol ?

(1) It inhibits the growth of only grampositive bacteria.
(2) It is a broad spectrum antibiotic.
(3) It is not bactericidal.
(4) It is bacteriostatic.
Ans.(1)

Q. AIIMS - 2018
Assertion : Cimatidine is an antacid.
Reason : Antacid increases secretion of HCl from gestric cell.
Ans.(3)
Assertion is true but reason is false.
Q. AIPMT - 2014
Artificial sweetner which is stable under cold condition only is :
(1) Saccharine (2) Sucralose
(3) Aspartame (4) Alitame
Ans.(3)

Q. AIPMT - 2015
Nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxides have same properties in common, which
property is shown by one of these compounds but not by the other :
(1) It is a reducing agent
(2) Soluble in water
(3) Is used as a food preservative
(4) Forms 'acid rain'.
Ans.(3)

Q. AIIMS - 2017
Assertion : Calcium salt of fatty acids can be used as soap.
Reason : They are water soluble.
Ans.(4)
both Assertion and Reason are false.

Q. NEET - 2020
Which of the following is a cationic detergent :
(1) Sodium dodecylbenzene sulphonate
(2) Sodium lauryl sulphate
(3) Sodium stearate
(4) Cetyl tri methyl amononium bromide.
Ans.(4)
Q. AIPMT - 2015
Bithional is generally added to the soaps as an additive to function as a/an :
(1) Dryer (2) Buffering agent
(3) Antiseptic (4) Softner
Ans.(3)

Q. AIPMT - 2013
Antiseptic and disintectants either kill or prevent growth of microorganism.
Identify which of the following statement is not true :
(1) Disinfectants harm the living tissues.
(2) A 0.2% solution of phenol is an antiseptic while 1% solution act as a disinfactant.
(3) Chlorine and iodine are used as strong disinfectants.
(4) Dilute solution of boric acid and hydrogen peroxide are strong antiseptic.
Ans.(4)

Q. AIIMS - 2018
Find out the incorrect statement :
(1) Iodine is antiseptic
(2) Chilisalt peter is rich-source of iodine
(3) Histamine is a potent vasodilator
(4) Chlorodiazepoxide is mild transquilizer suitable for reliving tention.
Ans.(2)

Q. NEET - 2017
Mixture of chloroxylenol and terpineol act as :
(1) Antiseptic (2) Antipyretic
(3) Antibiotic (4) Analgesic
Ans.(1)

Q. NEET-I 2016
Which of the following is an Analgesic.
(1) Novalgin (2) Penicillin
(3) Streptomycin (4) Chloromycetin
Ans.(1)

Q. AIIMS – 2017
Assertion : Aspirin is used to reduced the chance of Heart attack.
Reason : Aspirin increase the rate of prostaglandin synthesis.
Ans. Assertion true but reason false.
Q. AIPMT - 2015
Bithional is generally added to the soaps as an additive to function as a/an :
(1) Dryer (2) Buffering agent
(3) Antiseptic (4) Softner

Ans. (3)

Q. NEET - 2019
Among the following the Narrow spectrum Antibiotic is :
(1) Ampicillin (2) Amoxycillin
(3) Chloramphenicol (4) Penicillin-G

Ans.(4)

Q. AIIMS - 2018
Which of the following statement is incorrect :
(1) Serotonin is a tranquilizer
(2) Novestrol is an anti fertility drugs
(3) Chloremphenicol is narrow spectrum antibiotic drug
(4) Competitive inhibitor binds with enzyme.
Ans.(3)
 Exercises

1. W hy do we need to c las sify drug s in different w ays ?

2. E x p l a i n the term, target molecules or drug targets a s us e d in me dicinal
c h e m i s t r y.
3. N am e the m ac romolecules that are c hos e n a s dr ug targets.
4. W hy s hould not me dicines be take n without c on s u ltin g doctors ?
5. Define the term chemotherapy.
6. W hic h forces are involved in holding the drug s to the active site of enzymes ?
7. W hile a n t a c i d s a n d an tialle r g ic d r u g s inte rfe re w ith the f u n c t i on of
his tam ine s , w hy do these not interfere with the func tion of e ac h other ?
8. L ow level of nor adrenaline is the c aus e of depression. W hat type of drug s
are needed to c ur e th is problem ? N ame two drug s .
9. W hat is m e ant b y the term ‘broad s pe c trum antibiotics’ ? E x p l a in .
10. How do antis eptics differ from disinfectants ? Give one example of e ac h.
11. W h y ar e c im e tidin e a n d r a n i t id in e be tte r a n t a c i d s t h a n s o d i u m
hydrogencarbonate or mag ne s ium or a l u m i ni um hydroxide ?
12. N a m e a s u b s t a n c e w h i c h c a n be u s e d a s a n antis e ptic a s well a s
dis infe c tant.
13. W hat are the m a i n c ons tituents of dettol ?
14. W hat is tincture of iodine ? W hat is its us e ?
15. W hat are food preservatives ?
16. W hy is us e of as partame limited to cold foods and d r i n k s ?
17. W hat are artificial sweetening agents ? Give two e xamples .
18. N am e the sweetening agent us e d in the preparation of sweets for a diabetic
patie nt.
19. W hat problem ar is es in u s i n g alitame a s artificial sweetener ?
20. H ow are s ynthetic detergents better than s oaps ?
21. E x p l a i n the following te rms with s uitable e xamples
(i) c ationic detergents
(ii) anionic detergents a n d
(iii) non -ionic detergents.
22. W hat are biode g radable a n d non -biodeg radable detergents ? Give one
example of e ac h.
23. W hy do s oaps not w ork in hard water ?
24. C a n you us e s oaps and s ynthetic detergents to c h e c k the hardne s s of
water ?
25. E x p l a i n the c le ans ing action of s oap s .

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26. If water c ontains dissolved c alc ium hydrogencarbonate, out of s oaps and
s ynthetic detergents w hic h one will you us e for c le aning clothes ?
27. L abe l the hydr ophilic and hydrophobic parts in the following c ompounds .

(i)

(ii)
(iii)

Ans w ers t o S o m e I n t e x t Q u e s t i o ns
1. Most of the drug s take n in doses higher than recommended may c aus e
har m ful effect an d ac t a s poison. Therefore, a doctor s hould alw ays be
c ons ulte d before taking medicine.
2. T hi s statement refers to the c lass ification ac cording to pharmacolog ic al
effect of the d ru g be caus e an y dr ug w hic h will be us e d to counteract the
effect of e xc e ss ac id in the s tom ac h will be called antac id.
16.5

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