1S D ioe cee ene! Dee Ngue ctsay Osc OSC IB Revision Guides Published by OSC Publishing, Aristotle House, Aristotle Lane Oxford OX2 6TP, UK “1B Chemisty Ht Ist edition 2008 Copyright © 2008 Cameron Lumsden 978-1.904534-73.0 'No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the publishers, PHOTOCOPYING ANY PAGES FROM THIS PUBLICATION IS PROHIBITED. ‘The material in this Revision Guide has been developed independently of the International Baccalaureate Organisation OSC IB Revision Guides are available in most major 1B subject areas. Full details ofall our current tites, prices and sample pages as well as future releases are available on our website. How to order Orders can be made via the website, e-mail, fax, phone or mail; contact numbers and addresses below, osc Acistotle House, Aristotle Lane Oxford OX2 6TP, UK T: 444 (0) 1865 512202 F : 444 (0) 1865 512335 E : osc@osc-ib.com W. ose-ib.com About the author Cameron Lumsden attended Trent University in Canada where he received an Honour's degree in Chemistry. He started teaching IB Chemistry in 1997 at the American School in Abu Dhabi, and continued teaching it at the Kop School, Turkey; St. John's in Belgium and is naw at Munich international ‘Schoo! in Germany. He has been 2 moderator and examiner for IB Chemistry since 1999, Social responsibility The OSC team are extremely proud that our profits benefit the McCall MacBain Foundation, funding sucially benelicial activites i environment. 1 education, and the Title texture: Abstract scratches Printed by: WFM Print Solutions, Tonbridge, Kent Printed in ChinaInternational Baccalaureate Higher Level Chemistry Revision Guide and Workbook Cameron Lumsden For Claire & Sadie st Edition: Revised February 2014Acknowledgements “Thanks to Dr. Peter Morgan of Taipai American School, and Martin Bluemel of Taunton School in Somerset for their gracious assistance in proofreading this text The purpose of this book The purpose of this book is to highlight the types and styles of questions that are likely to appear on your IB Chemistry exam. There are Learning Check Questions designed to focus on a specific skill, and there are endl of chapter questions that mimic the type of questions that IB Chemistry exams contain. ‘This book also highlights spots where students can often go wrong, where they get “trapped” by a tricky question, and how they should present their answers. Who this book is for... ‘This book is intended for students who have already been through the course material with a teacher and other re- sources. No text book can replace the ability of a teacher to guide student understanding. How to use this book. ‘In many places in this text there is space for you to fill in information, but there is nota lot of blank space. You should kkeep a separate setof revision notes that are a hybrid of this book, your notes, your text ete. Other resources While studying it is important that you also have the following materials. ‘The Syllabus: You should use this as a check list, and understand what you know, and more importantly, what you don't know. ‘The Data Booklet To date, the data booklet has not been used heavily by IBO during the exams, but you should be familiar with whatis in i Past Papers: All teachers and IB Co-ordinators have access to past papers. Do as many as you can to get yourself familiar with the siyle and type of questions. Your own course notes. - Hopefully you have maintained an accurate record of the material that you have covered in your classes. You should compare the way your teacher presents information, the way your textbook presents informa- tion, and the way information is presented here. They should all be effectively the same! - However, perhaps one makes, more sense to you. Compare and learn! How to study ‘The best way to study for retention of information is to put yourself on a repeating cycle. During your course, you have to do the daily work that the teacher assigns, but if you can, you should also regularly. + Review what you did yesterday (last class) + Review what you did last week + Review what you did last month. A tall order, but very effective ifyou can find the tine - really you should make tinge - i's well invested as it will save you trying to “re-lsarn” everything. 1B HL Chemistry C.LumsdenExam Review Time ‘You no doubt have six exams that you need to study for, but probably not all of them have the same priority. ‘Whatever the subject, you are best trying to learn slowly and regularly. If you have purchased this book in the Spring, before your exams, you should make a plan to work on each unit ofthe course, You will probably need at least a week for each topic to. + make notes + learn definitions + make flash cards (great if you take a bus to schoo!) + practice specific problem types + do past paper questions Awarning! Cramming doesn't work. You either are not effective in learning material, you leatn it superficially, or you rrun out of time to generate real understanding. Slow and steady wins the race! The Exams you face. Paper x-1:00 hour: 45 Multiple Choice questions (4 choices). No penalty for guessing. NO CALCULATOR, NO DATABOOK Papera-anishours: Part A - Data based questions & short answer 40 points. Part B - Extended response - choice of 2 of 4 questions 25 points each. Calculator and Databook allowed. Paper 3-130 hours: You answer questions on the two option topics that you have studied. Short answer only. Paper 1 & 2 are written “back to back” on the afternoon of the given day. Meaning that you will be in the exam room for a possible 3:30 hours - by the time you get sented etc. Get comfortable! Paper 2 & 3 are allowed 5 minutes reading time. Use this time in Paper 2 te start considering the choice of which questions you will answer - Don't waste time pre-reading Part A - you have to do it anyway! Your Grade Paper: 2% Note: The "Core" While different papers are weighted Paper 2 36% ‘of the course - Paper different, it works out that each raw Paper 3 1&2 count for 56% of point on any given component is worth ee oe you final grade. about 0.5% of your final grade Typical Overall HL Grade Boundaries These vary from year to year but the following table gives you a rough idea, Grades are calculated based on your RAW score, not the 1-7 scale - 39/40 is better than 38/40 even though they are both ">" The "7" is for guidance only 1 2 3 4 5 6 A o-19% | 20%~34% [ a5%—s7% | aax-59% | 6o%-o9% | 70-79% | 60—100% C.Lumsden 1B HL Chemistry(g9zz) | (zz) ey | qq we | us zzz) | (o1z) | (o1z) | ee'eoz | 6t-zoz | ze'v0z | es'ooz | 26961 | GO'SEL | ZzZEL | 17:06) | IZ9BL | Sees | GEOR! | GL | LeREL | PEEL | LEZEL ay | qv | oa | ia | da | 1 | 8H | ey | aa | zr} sO] ea) A | BL | JH} PT | Pd | SD peel ee ae lee | ee | ee | ek eee ler, ee cee | eed | cel cs ever | ose | ozs | sxizr | even | zovu | oven | 28201 | ze-aor | rezor | zovor| ve8e | ves6 | t6z6 | zets | 600 | zove | use ax | 1 | ar} as | us| uw | po | 8v | pa | ua] ma | on |ow) aN] AZ | A | aS | at ee ey i) | co cor le re eee |, Oe oe | ce eal ee te | ee | ced ce wee | oes | ewes | cove | eves | x00 | zeso | vee | wes | coos | sees | vers | oozs | v605 | our | ovr | aoor | over ay | ag] as | sv |e] eo f uz | no] IN| oD] er }uW] sD] A | WL | os | 8] cw | ce | v | cc | z | ve | oc | o | ow | vz | o | oe | we | | wz | uz | oe | o wwee | arse | ooze | z60e sez veve | s6ze ww}Id] Ss }d Iv SIN | &N a | ao | a | o eh a | ou over | oer | sor | soz | wor woe | v0 BU |P Gy || ING ||) |) tet ad | IT sseu emneiou 6 |e |2zifoel]s » fe joquAs oor oe tov 3H HTABLE OF CONTENTS QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY .. ATOMIC STRUCTURE PERIODICITY... BONDING... ENERGETICS... KINETICS... EQUILIBRIUM .... ACIDS & BASES. OXIDATION & REDUCTION ORGANIC CHEMISTRY... MEASUREMENT & DATA PROCESSING ANSWERS....CHAPTER 1 | QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY IN THIS CHAPTER... 8 INTRODUCTION 8 Mote Concert 9 UNITS 9 MOLE — PARTICLE CONVERSIONS. 10 MoLar Mass 10. MoLe ~ Mass ConveRSIONS 11 BALANCING EQUATIONS 12 MOLE RELATIONSHIPS IN A CHEMICAL REACTION 13 MASS RELATIONSHIPS IN A CHEMICAL REACTION 14 LIMITING REACTANT 15 SOLUTIONS 16 MAKING SOLUTIONS AND DETERMINING SOLUTE MASS 16 KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY 16 PRESSURE 17 BoYte’s Law 17 PRESSURE Law 18 CHARLES’ Law 18 THE ComBINED Gas LAW 19 AvoGADRO’s Law 19 AVOGADRO’S Law OF COMBINING VOLUMES 20 IDEAL Gas Law 21 YIELD: THEORETICAL, EXPERIMENTAL AND PERCENTAGE 21 EMPIRICAL & MOLECULAR FORMULAE 22 CALCULATIONS FROM PERCENTAGE INFORMATION 23 CALCULATIONS FROM EMPIRICAL DATA 24 — COMPOUNDS CONTAINING OXYGEN 25° MOLECULAR FORMULA 26 SUMMARY QUESTIONS page 7Special Note on Units Special Note on Sig Figs. Example 1B HL Chemistry Introduction Jeremias Benjaim Richter (1762-1807) was the first to lay down the principles of stoichiometry. In 179 he wrote: “Die Stichyometrie (Stichyometria) ist die Wissenschaft die Quantitativen oder Massenverhalenisse zu messen, in welchen die chymischen Elemente gegen einander stehen “Stoichiometry is the science of measuring the quantitative proportions or mass ratios in which chemical elements stand to one another.” ‘Or more'simply put, everything in this unit isa simple ratio. As long.as you know one quantity. you can figure out the others by applying a ratio. Be clear and organized. You may have many numbers floating around on your page. It’s very help- fulif after solving a step ina problem, you write * n=s.s mol of H," or n(H,)=5.§ mol not just “SS” always include the units and the species, to remind yourself of what you have solved for. ‘Throughout this unit (and all others), you should be obeying the rules of significant figures. Significant Figures are covered in Chapter 1. Worked examples in this chapters show intermediate answers which are :ounded to the appro- priate number of significant figures, However, the calculator answer is retained for further steps You should retain the calculator value in your calculations, and only round the final answer. Mole Concept ‘Chemists work on a particle basis ~ one particle of this reacts with three particles of that to peaduce two particles of something else. It doesn't matter at the moment what those particles actually are — they could be atoms, diatomic molecules, larger molecules, ions, electrons, etc. The problem is that it takes an avful lot of particles to get an amount that can be manipulated on the “human scale" ~ as opposed to the “atomic scale”. So knowing what the atomic masses were in terms of protons, neutrons (and electrons), it was decided that we would use the same value of atomic mass and scale it up to the “gram-equivalent mass’. As long as all elements were scaled up the same amount, the relative mass would be the same Teturns out that the scale factor i rather large (because atoms are rather small!) ~ itis 6.02x10%, ‘One mole contains the same number of particles as 12.000 g of "C. 12,000 g of "°C contains 6.02x10" of carbon atoms. Now, you have to be careful of what types of particles you are talking about. 1.0 mal of H,O contains. (Notes) 6.02110" molecules of water alsa called "Avogadro's Number” 6.02220" oxygen atoms the same number of oxygen atoms .2xi0% atoms of hydrogen double the number of hydrogen atoms 1.8x10" total atoms triple the number of total atoms ‘C.LumsdenUnits Just to put moles into perspective - moles are the same as any other unit. Moles measure the “amount of substance’, which fundamentally means the number of particles - not the qualities of those particles, like mass or volume. Quantity Unit ‘Symbol Mass gram & Length meter, m Time second 5 Kalvin K ‘Temperature Degeees Celsius _| °C T= 352°C ‘Amount of substance ‘Mole ‘mol n= 3.5x10% mol Tigarenae STUnits Note: We use “n’ for number of moles. Mole — Particle Conversions ‘There are lots of different ways to remember this... The easiest is to remember the idea- it takes 6.02810” particles to make 1.0.mol ‘Number of Particles Remember: it doesn’t matter what mass the particles have ~ you are just converting the number it like converting single eggs to dozens of eggs and vice versa ~ this is easy, because the value for “dozen is always 12, umber of moles x 6.02x10" Determine the number of particles in the following amounts. @) 2.0 mol of neon +b) 0.125 mol of zoopers 6) 1S mol of widgets 4) 1.25410? mol of ions 8 (2.5 umolofelectrons* 1) 4.35 x10° mol of particles ) 53 mo of gld ams 1) 15x10? mol of things *u Determine the number of moles inthe following amounts. 9) 6.02 x10 b) 2.26 xl0# 6) 331 x10" ) 753 x10” ©) 346 x10" 1) 5.27 x10" 8) 2.56 x10" ) 1.05 x10" "Amount" always means moles Expression 1 Learning Check 1.2 Learning Check C.Lumsden IB HL ChemistryExample 1.3 Learning Check Expression Expression 14 Learning Check 1.5 Learning ‘Check IB HL Chemistry Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance, and is the “gram- equivalent mass” of the relative atomic mass on the periodic table, “The easiest way to think about this is that the mass numbers on the periodic table can be thought of as follows. 2atom of oxygen = 16 atomic mass units (8p + 8 n) 6.o2x10” atoms of oxygen 6.00 g of oxygen atoms 1 mol of oxygen atoms = 16.00 g of oxygen atoms orice the last two are the same! “The numbers on the periodic table are for ONE MOLE or ONE ATOM, so everything is just a multiple of it. (50), vax Af sa 2648 gmol — = 82.969 mol" tas 225 22.069 etah = 96.t8 9 mol" +20 Bx w00gre" 192.009 mol AIKSO.), = a2. 9 otal HINT: Your calculator knows the order of operations, try doing it all on one line! Catulate the molar mass of the following formulas. (To two decimal places) 3) NaCl ) No,CO, ) NHNO, 4) CoO, ) CajPO,), fy MgS0,+7H,0 a) Fe0, hy (NHJ,PO, ) cH,cooH NOTE: in (9 the compound isa hydrate, and contains 7 moles of water for each mole of ionic sat. Mole — Mass C ‘To find the mass of a given number of moles, we simply need to multiply by how many moles we have, and we know the mass of one mole from the periodic table, imass = number of moles = molar mass] Jn zerms of units. ‘grams ‘grams = moles x mole Calculate the mass of the following 4) 1.50 mol of Lich 9 0.165 mol of CuCl, €) 5.00x10" mol of No,CO, 8) 0.750 mol of MgSO, 2500 mol of H,50, 4) 2.25 mol of COH), 4) 750x10* mol of AL, )8.75x10* mol of Pl 4) 3.75x10* mol of AgNO, Calculate the amount (number of moles) of the following 9) 100g of CuSO, 10.08 of Na,SO, ©) 6.25 ¢ of BaCl, 8) 25.75 g of Sn, }) 1.00 ¢ of No,8,0, 6) 10.0 g of Mgso, ) 0,550 g of NaOH ) 58.8 ¢ of ZnO ) 5.05 ¢ of Hgcl, C.Lumsden t | | | | \ i | | | |Balancing Equations ‘A chemical reaction ean never create or destroy matter (atoms) it can only rearrange them. “Therefore, we must have the same number of stoms of each type on each side of the equation. Balancing equations means that you multiply each (correct) formula by a coefficient so that you ‘obtain equal numbers of each type of atom on each side of the equation. Some people say there are rules for balancing equations, but they are more lke guidelines. The best guideline is Leave uncombined elements until the end ~ e.g, O,(g), H,(g), K(s), etc., because when you change Tip their coefficient, you don't mess up anything else! [Atthe moment, we don't want any fractions ~ so you may have double ll coefficients in order to clear the fraction. Later we might need to use fractions because our equation must obey a definition (usually in order to produce only one mole of product) ~ See Energetics - Heat of Combustion and Heat of Formation. Bolonce the following equations. 1.6 Learning @)_K+_H.0 > __H,*__KOH K+ HO > Hy +1 Check CuO +__NH, > _H, LO+_N,+_Co A+ Hcl _alcl, +o, 420+ _0,> _2n0¥__S0, ©) -NH,CI+_CafOH), > CaCl, + _NH, + _H,0 a BL_H,PO, +__NoOH > __No,PO, +_H,0 H+ 0, > _CO, + _H,0 HGH, +_0, > _c0,+_H0 3) _Kclo, > _Kcl+_0, j) GH,+_0, > C0, *_H,0 KN, +__H, > NH, D _NH,+_0, N+ ‘m)__No + _d, > __NoGi n)_fe* 0, > __Fe,0, ‘C.Lumsden 1B HL Chemistry.Mole Relationships in a Chemical Reaction A chemical reaction shows you the relative number of moles of all species in a chemical reaction. It likea recipe, Two parts hydrogen plus one part oxygen makes two parts water ~ It's just chat our “parts” are moles. 2H,(g) + O,(g) > 24,0 ee Onna ‘The coeficents in the balanced reaction give us the mole ratio of any two species, so, ifyou know the number H,, you can solve for O, Example “Flow many rioles of are required to react with Gaia mol of? Wa 2 284 ool One 2x * 6.284 mol 142 mel of O, {doesn't matter which two species you are concerned with, you always know one of them and the ratio will give you other one. Example “How many moles of each product are produced from 32 mol of nitric acid? 3Cu(s) + SHINO, (aq) > 3Cu(NO,), fag) +2NO() + 4H,0(0) WHO, x2 HO 2x WHO, 532 CkNO,),” 3” WHO, 32 WO4 sx =3 Camel of CALNO,), | sx* 2K22m0/ OF NO | gx wane mol of WO 82 mel of Cok NO,), neg mol of WO | yeu mol of 0 Note: Notice that it doesnt matter which is on the top of the fraction ~ you are going to cross ‘multiply anyway. You do need to keep things lined up though! - In the example, HINO, is always, lined up with 8 and 32, |. Ammonia, NHL, in produced by the Haber Process as follows 1.7 Learning Es 7 N,@) + 3H1(g) = 2NH@) How many moles ofthe following ae required to make 5.0 mol of ammonia? 2) nitrogen 1) hydrogen 2. Propane, CH, burns in oxygen according to C\H, +50, + 3CO, + 41,0 @) How many moles of oxygen are required to react with, 930 mol of GH,? i) 20.0 mol of CH,ii) 0.50 mol of CH,? 6) If 50.0 mol of 0, are available, what i the maximum amount of propane that con be burned? ©) How many moles of woter are produced in each question ino)? 3. The combustion of actone, a major component in petrol is represented by the following. 2C\H,, + 250,{g) > 16CO,(g) + 184,018) «) How mony moles of oxygen are required to react with 5.00 mol of octane? b) How many moles of octone must be burned to produce 7.2 mol of water? i) If 2.20 mol of carbon dioxide were produced from the reaction, how many moles of water are produced at the same time? 1) How ssany moles of actane must have been burned? IB HL Chemistry C.Lumsden.Mass Relationships in a Chemical Reaction Simple stoichiometry questions always follow the same three steps, and you have done them already, Yu just combine a mass - mole conversion ard then apply the ratio from the balanced fequation. The molar mass is always for ONE mole, De not apply the coefficient to the molar Common ‘mass, That would mean that the molar mass of hydrogen depends on what it was reacting with Mistake doesn't. The ratio of coefficients is used to convert from moles of one species into moles of another species. Consider the reaction of 24 g of hydrogen in each of the following reactions: 2H,(g) + 08) > 2H,0) 3H,(8) + N,(g) * 2NH,(g) WRONG - It's wrong to say that you have ag g +4 gemol* = 6 mol in the water reaction and 2g +6 g+mol* = 4 mol of hydrogen in the ammonia reaction. The males of hydrogen you have are independent of the reaction itis undergoing CORRECT - Because you have the same number of grams in both, you have the same number of moles in both — ie, 24 g+2 gemol! = 12 moles of hydrogen. “The ratio of the moles of hydrogen to oxygen or nitrogen is 2: or 3:1 respectively and is used to find out information about the other species in the reaction, inthis case, nitrogen or oxygen oF the products. Divide by the molar mass of what you have in grams (to get moles) Convert moles of X to moles of Y by applying the ratio from the balanced equation. ‘Multiply by the molar mass of ¥ to obtain the mass of Y. Wesimple: Divide, Ratio, Multiply. J, Ethanol can be used as a supplement in petro! to make “gasohol. Ethanol burns according to. C,H,OH + 30, > 2CO,(g) +3H,0(@) «) What mass of oxygen is required to react with 1200 g of ethanol? ) If 655 g of woteris produced, what moss of ethanol was burned? 1.8 Learning Check 2. Ironl) oxide may be obtained from iron) sulfide by "roosting" the ore in oxygen. AFeS(6) + 70,() > 2e,0,(5) + 450,(@) What mass of iron tl) oxide can be obtoined by the roasting of 774g of the sulphide? 3. Siver is used for jewellery and tableware. Ie becomes tarnished when exposed to small amounts of HS. 4Ag(s) + 2H,S(e) + O,(6) > 2Ag,S6) + 2H,0(4) What mass of sver sulphide would form ftom the reaction of O15 g of silver? 4, The Ostwald process is how nitric acid is formed. The first step is the reaction of ammonia and oxygen in the presence ofo catalyst. The equation i. 4NH,(g) + 50,(@) 2 4NO,(g) + 6H,01@) 0) What mass of oxygen is required to completely react with (.22 kg of ammonia? 5} Whot mass of NO,(a) is produced at the same time? 5. The metal tungsten, whichis used in light bulbs can be obtoined by heating its oxide with hydrogen WO,(9) *3H,(@) > Wis) +3H,0() 4) What mass of tungsten can be obtained from 250.0 g of tungsten(V!) oxide? ') What mass of bydrogen is required for part a)? C.Lumsden 1B HL ChemistryExample Solution The New Step Continue as before 1B HL Chemistry Limiting Reactant ‘The dreaded question, but also a popular one with IB Examiners because they can get more con- cepts covered for less candidate time. [As far as you are concerned, it's the same as the previous question, but now you have been given two (or more) reactants and you need ta decide which one (there is always only one) wll give you the correct amount of product. Determine the number of moles of each reactant Determine the limiting reactant — is the new step Use the limiting reactant to find the moles of the product (just like before) Calculate the mass of the product. ~ just like before. So how do.we do the new step? ‘There are lots of ways, but remember the limiting reactant is determined to be the reactant which has the fewest number of moles in ferms of the molar ratio of reactants. (It’s the last bit that lots of students forget) ‘The easiest way to compare the number of moles of each reactant with respect to the molar ratio, required is to do.a quick check by forcing the ratio to be against r. In order to do this, divide the moles of each reactant by its Coefficient in the balanced equation, THIS IS A CHECK ONLY ~ YOU DO NOT USE THIS NUMBER FOR ANY CALCULATIONS. What mass of aluminium chloride can be produced by the reaction of 50.00 g of Al and 175.0 g of Cl? 2Al(s) + 3Cl,(g) > 2AICL(s) $0.00 5828 seszoug = igea mel (4 s#) 2698 9 ool” # 268268162 = 2.08 mol C4 s#) Now we know the moles of each reactant, but we need to find the lesser with respect to the ratio in the balanced equation so we do the following quick check. vas mel of A oa, 2.409 mol of Cl = onz74 Because the value for Cis the lesser, this sou limiting reactant, and Al is “in excess” (INXS) Alternately, we can see that we require three times as much chlorine as aluminium - do we have it?- NO, the amount of chlorine is less than what we need, therefore itis the limiting reactant Now we use the limiting reactant for everything, and all other amounts are relative tit. To answer the question finally. product _ AlCl, Vomiting reactant “C1, 2468 onal Bee 2x 2.468 ote! x = 164g mel of AICI, It doesn’t matter which way you have the fraction as long as all species are lined up. Now, finish the problem by finding the mass of 1.646 moles ef aluminium chloride. C.Lumsdenmass = number of melas » malar mass mene, 1 Maile mal % 193.38 9 oral” ore m8 9 of AIC, (4 sf) 1. Ethane burns in oxygen as follows 2C,H,(g) +70,(g) > 4CO,(g) + 6H,O(8) If 10.2 g of ethane and 44.6 g of oxygen are mixed and ignited. 4) determine the moles of ethane and oxygen. 1) determine the limiting reactant. «determine the mass of carbon dioxide produced, 19 Learning Check 2. Sodium phosphote can be prepared by the following. 3NaOH + H,PO, ~ Na,PO, + 34,0 1f 36.0 g of NaOH is reacted with 12.0 g of H,P0,. 1 Determine the fmiting reactant. 15) What mass of sodium phosphate should be produced? 3. 1000 g of each oxygen and butane(C,H,,). are combusted. ‘o) Write the balanced equation for the combustion reaction. ) Identify the amount of each reactant in moles. Identify the limiting reactant. 4) (dentify the mosses of both products formed. Solutions A solution contains a solute dissolved ina solvent, and the molar concentration is expressed as, moles of solute per cubic decimetre of solution (not solvent). [A solution is made by dissolving the required amount of solute in a minimum of solvent, and then adding what ever amount of solvent is required to reach the desired volume. ‘The molar concentration is called molarity. It may be written in two different ways. The funda- Definition ‘mental units “mol dm?” or simply “M” (Which i often underlined or bold). Eg, The student was using @ 0.25 moledm? solution = 0.25 M solution. number of moles ‘concentrations volume of solution c where C is the concentration in mol dm, n is the number of moles, and V is the volume in dm’, IB and most other organisations are moving towards using dim’ as the basic unit of volume, However the term "liter" is still popular in language and texts. One liter is defined as 1 dm C.Lumsden 'B HL ChemistryMaking solutions and determining solute mass ‘You need to be able to state how to make a certain volume and concentration of solution. Example What mass of NaHCO, is required to make 250 cm’ of «0.350 M solution? macy Solution 7°0.380 mal dm x 0.280 dat? n= 0.0898 mol of Wal/CO, regetired paca mass * 0.0898 mol » $4.01 9 sto" mess * F.98 9 NOYCOLS) ragelired Mix 3.38 9 of HexfCO,(S) is Some water and add water up to 250 em Determine the concentration of te following solution. ) 250 cm? containing 45.0 g of MgSO, 8) 0.100 dm? containing 10.0 g of Nat 500 cm containing 2.42 of Fe(NO,), 6) 25.0 cm conteining 0.210 g of NoHCO, 1.10 Learning ‘Check Determine the moss ofslute required ro make the fllowing solutions. @) 1.00 dm’ of 0.25 M KI 2) 250.0 em* of 0.1 M AgNO, ¢) 100.0 cm? of 0.25 M NaOH 4) 0.500 dr? of 040 M MgINO,), Kinetic Molecular Theory {The Kinetic Molecular Theory states that. 2) Particles are in constant motion and... 2} That motion depends upon the absolute temperature measured in Kelvin. | ‘Simply put, absolute zero means there is no particle motion ~ all translational, rotational and vibrational motion stops. So you cant go below absolute 2ero, because once motion is stopped, it cant be more stopped! ‘Temperature is therefore a measure of kinetic energy or motion of particles. Greater temperature means that the particles have greater kinetic energy ‘The absolute temperature scale is measured in Kelvin. Zero Kelvin means zero kinetic energy. Pres: Definition Pressure - the force of the particles’ collisions on the container walls Pressure can be measured in many different ways, all of which have some historical basis. However, the two common pressure units in 1B Chemistry are kilopascals (KPa) and atmospheres farm), IB HL Chemistry C.Lumsdent Boyle’s Law Boyle's Law is the relationship between volume and pressure. Pressure and volume are inversely proportional. As the volume decreases, the particles are forced closer together and so, the hhumber of collisions increases, and thus pressure increases. Pressure Pressure Volume ‘Toume You can say that pressure and volume or you could say that the presure is versely proportional, proportional tothe inverse of volume Figure 12: Pressure and Volume graphical relationships. PV=constant (PV ension =EONSANE=(PV) gion? Boyles! Law Py Py=ey] Expression Pressure Law mnship between pressure and temperature. As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the particles increases, therefore they are collid- ing with the sides of the container with greater frequency and force. Both of these factors cause the pressure to increase. Pressure OK Temperature Figure iyr Pressure and temperature relationship If fhe particles have zero kinetic energy at zero Kelvin, then they can't collide with the container walls C.Lumsden IB HL ChemistryExpression Exam Trap Example 1B HL Chemistry Charles’ Law Charles’ Law is the relationship between volume and temperature. As temperature increases, so does the kinetic energy ofthe particles. This causes them to collide more with each other, and therefore spread out. Volume « Temperature Ver Volume Volume 25°C 100°C ‘Temperature 273°C «OC Temp Figure 14: Volume end Temperature graphical relationships Generally, volume is proportional to temperature, however, zero volume can only exist at zero KELVIN, not ze:o Celsius. - see Ideal Gases. Watch out for changes involving a doubling or tripling of Celsius degrees, the proportionality only works for the absclute (Kelvin) scale. The Combined Gas Law If we put Boyle's Chatles’ and the pressure law together we get, How will the volume of an ideal gas change when the pressure is quadrupled and the absolute temperature is tripled? Thre news volume, V, will be %, of the eriginal volume, V, C.Lumsden’Avogadro’s Law Up until now, we have been concerned only with a fixed amount (or mass) of gas. Now We con- sider how changing the number of moles (amount) of gas affects its volume. Avogadro's Law isthe telstionship between numberof particles and volume Bavogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of gas (under equal conditions) must contain an equal number of moles of gas. ‘Or put another way, volume is proportional to the number of moles at constant pressure, or pres- sure is proportional to the number of moles at constant volume. Avogadro’s Law of Combining Volumes popular type of multiple-choice question on Paper 1. Avogadro's Law simply means that you can treat moles and volume or moles and pressure as pro: portional if all other factors remain constant. Consider the Haber Process for the production of ammonia. Classic Ny) + 3H,(@) = 2NH(g) Question What volume of ammonia will be produced by the reaction of 4 dis of N, and 9 di! of H.? Consides this asa limiting reactant question. The molar ratio of N, to H, is 131s 9 dnw three times greater than 4 dm? - NO! We need 12 moles of H,.. We only have 9, so H, i the limiting reactant, and we always use the limiting reactant to figure out the amount of product. 2 ee = det Standard Molar Volume Standard molar volume isthe volume of one mole of any gasat standard temperature and pres- sure for 2 gas -1 atm and 273 K (o°C), LO mol of any gas occupies 22.4 dm’ @ Standard Conditions (STP) Do not confuse with the value for RTP - “room” temperature and pressure, which is 25°C, not 0°C, so the volume is bigger - 24.0 dem Also, don't confuse with "Standard Conditions” for Energetics - which use 25°C for“Stardard. ‘Temperature - They/re not that standard after all. Whenever you have been given information about gases, check to see if they are at Standard con- ditions (1 atm & 273K) - fits, then you don't need to use PV=nRT, you can simply the standard molar volume of V=22.4 drvmol*! “Asample of o.oq1a g of a gas has a volume of 35.4 env at 1 atm and 273K, what is the molar Example ass of the gas? 5 9.0380 dor 7 = 0.00188 mo! wo 20829 2.0088 mol M, 2 261 9 mol” C.Lumsden IB HL ChemistryIdeal Gas Law ‘An ideal gas is a gas that does not have any. 3. molecular volume nor any 2. inter-particle forces + so that the volume ofa gas can + sothat the gas never con- goto zero denses to a liquid + (ignore volume of particles) + ignore IMEs) Most gases behave as [deal Gases because the volume of the gas is usually so much bigger than volume of the actual molecules that itis negligible, and they are at temperatures far above the boiling/condensation points that the IMF are insigaificant. Gases exhibit “non-ideal” behaviour when they are under high pressures, and low temperatures. ‘The ideal gas law relationship is: PY = ane Exam You must make sute that you pay attention to unis Trap Most student lata that the value for R; the ideal gas constants 8314, but many forget to include the units of Pacdmmol"K°. There are other values of R that relate to other units of pressure i and volume. | ‘Common ‘The most common mistake is to not pay attention to the units in the question. Lots of times, ex | Mistake ams give information in similar units lke Pa not kPa, and if you dont convert your answer is off bya factor of 1000, which can lead to some strange answers, Classic Calculate the molar mass ofa volatile liquid / gas. Question You are given the mass ofa gas, the volume and conditions, and must find the molar mass. As ‘molar mass is only the mass per mole, you have all the information you need. Mass is given and you can rearrange PV=nRT to find number of moles, n Example “An wikerown gas of mass 0.635 g occupies a volume of 351 on? at 35°C and 1x10" Pa. Calculate the molar mass of the gas. Don't forget to convert ‘quantities to the correct units! 25°C = 298K .ooxiot Pa = 100 kPa Ga bPa-dor mel” 2 0.0Hs aol stem? = 03st dims Remember to use common sense - the molar mass of any volatile gas is likely going to be between 20 and 200 gemol 1B HL Chemistry C.LumsdenYield: Theoretical, Experimental and Percentage “The theoretical yield is simply the answer to a stoichiometry question ~ it's how much product you are supposed to get at the end of your experiment “The experimental yield is what you actually do get. In most cases the experimental yield is less than the theoretical yiek’, but not always. Reasons for low yield Reasons for high yield Toss during transfer insufficient drying equilibrium / reaction did not go to completion. {gain of oxygen (oxidation) side reactions side reactions Percentage yield is the ratio of experimental to theoretical expressed as a percent, Experimental Yield Yield = ee Theoretical Yield 100% 1, Astudent determines that the theoretical yield of her preparation of aspirin should produce 4.3 g of product. After drying and weighing her product, she obtained 3.8 g What wos her percent yield? 2. Sodium thasuiphate may be produced by Boling solid sulphur, (9a a solution of sdium nite, 'No,S0,(aq), eccording tothe reaction $,(9 + 8Na,SO,(aq) > 8Na,5,0,(a9) Ifa student starts with 15.50 g of sulphur end an excess of No,SO, determine the theoretical yield of produc. if ony 62.5 g of producti calecte, determine the percent yl Empirical & Molecular Formulae ‘A forrmula is simply the molar ratio of elements in a compound. Water has 2 moles of hydrogen for every mole of oxygen. This ratio is fixed for a given compound. If you have a compound of 2 moles of hydrogen for 2 moles of oxygen, you don't have water; you have hydrogen peroxide ~a ‘compound with properties different from water As Jong as we know the ratio ofthe elements in any units, we can convert to moles and we can determine the formula. Lots of time these questions show up on Paper 1, and that's a good thing. Because you cant have a calculator, you must be given information in simple multiples ofthe relative mass. What i the empirical formula fa compound that contains a6 oFsodium. 6a goPsulphurand 48 g of oxygen? I you look at the periadiec table, yout natica thie the molir masses dra 2% 22, dnd Ve respectively, Therefore you outst Ante 2 o1ales of Sodieimy 2 moles or sudphutr and males of oxygen. Na S,0,! Which of the following compounds has the greatest empirical mass? aH, WOH. OCH, act Soletion (olathe ampirival Formulae are CH); Cy C9, and CH, respectively Definition LI Learning Check Example ample ‘C.Lumsden IB HL Chemistryns from percentage information Problem ‘Assume 100 g of compound ~ therefore is become grams solving steps Convert grams to moles by dividing by the molar mass Divide by the smallest value to get whole number rat Example ‘Compound Qis analysed and found to contain 85.6% carbon and 14.4% hydrogen. Determine the empirical formula of Proce Carbon Tega Information 55.68 carbon Pr ‘Aswan 100 ae os Divide by M, ss6gs 20% g12 of | wagt tore W.26 mol Ce aoe ia Ft 14-26 © FI = 1.999 t vata : 5 } The Formula of compotind 813 therefore CH, 1 Be Careful Sometimes formulae do not have a ratio against one, for example, Fe,O,. Ifyou do the previous calculations, and you find that at the end, you have a formula of 12.5, then you will have to double all subscripts to attain a whole number ratio of 23. Try the following. 1.12 Learning. ° ee o ‘Check ae = : 1. Compound X is anciysed and found to contain 82.63% carbon and 17.37% hydrogen. Determine the empirical formula of X 2. If compound ¥ contains 8992% carbon and 10.08% hydrogen. What is the empirical formula of ‘compound ¥? 3. What isthe empirical formula of « compound containing 92.24% carbon and 7.78% hydrogen? 1B HL Chemistry C.Lumsdeneee ame a Calculations from Empirical Data Instead of being given the ratio of elements in terms of a percentage, we may be given masses ‘of combustion products. We can.convert to moles from the molar masses of the combustion products. Because carbon dioxide contains ene mole of carbon for every mole of CO,, that will be cas: We must remember that water contains 2 moles of hydrogen for every mole of water, so we rust double the number moles of water to determine the number of moles of hydrogen. Determine the number of moles of carbon from carbon dioxide. Problem solving steps. Determine the number of moles of hydrogen from water (multiply by 2). Force the ratio against x by dividing by the smallest number of moles. Clear any fractions if necessary. ‘Asample ofa hydrocarbon with a mass of 2.37 4 was burned tn excess O, to produce 718 g of Example CO, and 3.67 g of H,O. What is the empirical formula ofthe hydrocarbon? ‘Thought Process Carbon solution Hydrogen solution 28g 347 9 Determine moles of combustion P00," Toe Pao Ogre! i507 gral products: CO, & HO Peo, * O43 mel iyp * 0-204 mol ‘moles of elements ouible for hydrogen) 2» 9.204 mol 0.163 mo! 2g divide by smallest 0.143 met» 0.13 | 0.408 mol + 0.163 = Eee cleat faction (£2) 2 s The empirical Pormutla is therefare CH, 1.2.75 g of « compound containing only carbon and hydrogen were combusted. The combustion products ‘were 8.05 g of CO, and 4.94 g of H,0. Determine the empirical formula of the compound. 1.13 Learning Check 2..0.875 g of « hydrocarbon were burned in excess oxygen and produced 2.74 g of CO, and 1.12 g of water. What isthe formula of the hydrocarbon? 3.A hydrocarbon sample of mass 1.15 gis completely combusted to form 3.44 g of carbon dioxide and 1.88 g of water. Determine the empirical formula of the sample. C.Lumsden IB HL ChemistryCompounds containing oxygen {fyou have been given percentage information, then you can watk as before but now you have three elements to deal with, However if you are given empirical data, it's not 50 easy. The problem is that you have to deter mine the number of moles of oxygen in the compound, but that the presence of oxygen gas fot ‘combustion is confounding because the oxygen present in the two products has come from two sources. CHO, + 0,(g) > CO,(g) + H,0%¢) ‘The solution, therefore is to ignore the amount of oxygen in the products and calculate the amount of oxygen in the fuel (reactant) by subtracting what we do know ~ the carbon and the hydrogen — fromthe starting mass. Let's use the combustion of ethanol, C,H,0, asa known example. Example A sample of 2.35 g of compound containing C. H and O, is combusted in an excess of oxygen to produce 4.49 g of CO, and 275 g of H,O. Determine the formula of the compound. Thought Process [carbonsolation | hydrogen solution | oxygen solution Determinemolesof | p,, «#9 | ,,,,- 225 _| combustion products |“ aaagerol”™ |" g.07 gor" CO, & HO reo, = 0102 ol | yng = 0183 oro! ‘moles of elements x 0157 mal (double for H) e102 mel Py = 0-305 mol ‘Mas of element From =a ' 402 x 12.08 1geOA08.01 eee compound wax nor |mroroeior |e 20% Subtractfor oxygen, | “o™'22 9 aman? mgroe moles oflemente | 4 adore a above 2970 12416:00 fe * 0-102 sof ot0-0508 mo! eae 0.0508 Bote oe divide bysmatiest | S.ocos 0205 melo 0808 oS sod Thole ratio F z ‘ Therefore the formula las expacted) is C410. 1. 4.35 ¢ofa compound containing carbon, oxygen and hydrogen were combusted and the 1.14 Learning products were 638 ofcarbon diosoide and 2.61 g of water, What was the empivical formula Check —_of the compound? [An acolo of mass 2.9 vas completely combusted in a excess ofexygen. The products were found to be .78 g0f CO, and 315 ofH,O. Determine the emprica formula ofthe compound 3 One gram ofa carboxylic acid ts analysed by combustion and the reaction produced 2.06 @0) COs and ati8 g of H.O, What is the empirical formula of the acid? IB HL Chemistry C.Lumsden :‘The empirical formula represents the simplest ratio of elements. Usually molecules are more complex. “The molecular formula is an integer multiple of the empicical formula. Below are two examples. ‘ | Molecular Formula I | for CH, and CH,O empicical formulae. | Empirical Formula | CH, cH,O 1 | cH | Ho, |x CH, HO, | 3x Possible Molecular Formulae Cy | CHO, | 4x CH. | CHO, | 5 CH, | CH,0, [ex ‘Table 1s: Relationship between empirical and molecular formulae ‘The empirical formula is different from the general formula for organic compounds. Be Carefull Youare often asked to determine the molecular formula once you have determined the empirical formula (or the information is given). You only need one more piece of information - the molat (or molecular) mass. ‘The key isto fir the mass of the empirical unit, The molar mass must be a whole number multi- ple of the empirical mass. Empirical Mass Possible Molecular Formulae masses CH, =56 4x18) Hy = 60 (6x18) CH, = 74 (6x18) ‘Table 1.6: Empirical Mass Relationships C.Lumsden 1B HL Chemistryry Questions 1. 250 cm? of a solution of unknown concentration of sodium chloride. & 20.00 cm? sample is reacted with excess siver nitrate causing o white precipitate. When washed and dred, the precipitate hod a mass of 0.430 g @) Write the bolanced equation including state symbols. ) Determine the moles of precipitate, and hence the moles of sodium chloride in 20 cm* «) Determine the concentration ofthe solution. J) What mass of sodium chloride was used to make the original solution? 2. Caleium carbide, CaC,s) reacts with water to praduce o flammable hydrocarbon gos, and calcium hydroxide. 0.0405 g ofthe gos has 0 volume of 38.85 cm ct 22.00°C ond 98.00 kPo. Upan combustion the some amount of gos produces 0.137 g of CO, and 0.0280 g of H,0. 9) Determine the empirical formula of the gos. +b) Determine the number of moles and hence the molar mass ofthe gs. ‘d Determine the moleculr formule, ' <4) Write a bolonced equation forthe reaction of calcium corbide with water. 3. Asprirn is made by the reaction of salicylic acid, C,H,0, ond ethanoic anhydride, C\M,0, according to the reection CHO, +C,H.0, > C,H,O, + CH,COOH 16.00 g of sally acid ond 5.00 g of ethanoic anhydride re reacted. 6) Determine the moles of each reactant. 1) Determine the limiting reactont. 6 Determine the mass af product that should be produce. 4) Ifa student ony recovers 650g of ospiin,colculate the theoreticl yield 4. Hexane, C,H, is 0 combustible hydrocarbon, Consider the combustion of o mixture of 4.50 g of hexane dnd 11.25 g of oxygen. 0) Write the bolanced equation for the reaction b) Determine the moles of each reactant Determine the limiting reactant. 4) Determine the mass of each, carbon dioxide and woter produced, €) Determine the mass of excess reactant | | 5. Ametalsuiphote has the formula MSO, 10.99 g ofthe compound was dissolved in water to make 500 cm’ of solution, A 25.00 cm? somple was removed and reacted with on excess of BoCl,a9) o produce {9 precipitate of Bu50 (9), which, when dried had a mass of 1.167 g. 40) Determine the numberof moles of BoSO,(9) precipitated ») Determine the concentration ofthe MSO, solution. 6) Determine the sumber of moles of MSO, in the orginal solution, | 4) Determine the molar mass of M,SO, 4 Determine the identity of M- i i IB HL Chemistry C.Lumsdenole poureayoune 902g0-0 = yl jousupeegy 18% = y yspuuayp Bano, ae syun aun uo spuadap anpea ay, quessu0) se worInjOs jo aUInjoA pure uoresquasu0;, Jo amyeraduray, pur amssarg ‘UMA, (0) eran ur ammeradaay armosqy = (5 Joueaupeegy Pre) yueIsUED SED [89pI = a { o00t = «up 4 | pie au anoge jnjore2 2g)CHAPTER 2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE bo bo bo 1 2 ba ss Ba ba 4 Bs B7 be 3 2 lIN THIS CHAPTER... SUBATOMIC PARTICLES THE NUCLEAR ATOM & ISOTOPES ISOTOPE NOTATION THE Mass SPECTROMETER RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS CALCULATING RELATIVE AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS CALCULATING NATURAL ABUNDANCE THE ELECTRONIC ATOM - Basic STRUCTURE EVIDENCE FOR STRUCTURE — THE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM EXPLAINING THE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM THE ELECTRONIC ATOM II ORBITAL DIAGRAMS & HUND’S RULE EXCEPTIONS TO THE FILLING PATTERN IN THE D-BLOCK. SUCCESSIVE IONIZATION ENERGIES — EVIDENCE FOR SHELLS. SUMMARY QUESTIONS: page 29Get the point! IB HL Chemistry Subatomic Parti Atoms are made up of 3 subatomic particles - know their properties. Particle | Relative Mass _| Relative Charge | Location Proton r u Nucleus Neutron [1 @ (neutral) Nucleas Electron | 5x10" a Orbiting nucleus Figure 2.1: Subatomic Particles ‘The protons and neutrons give the nucleus and hence the atoms their mass, while the electron orbits give the atoms theie volume, The number of protons is unique for @ given element, or if you like, the way we identify efements is by the number of protons. The number of neutrons can be different, which gives rise to different isotopes:The number of electrons can change during the course ofa chemical regction as atoms gain or lose electrons to form different ions or exidation states. The Nuclear Atom & Isotopes Isotopes art (here are two ways to say the same thing..) ‘atoms with the same number of protons with a different number of neutrons. atoms of the same element with different masses. ‘you must say that isotopes are atoms, “Thinking: There isnt one or “real” or “true” atom and the others are isotopes. There may be one isotope that is more abundant — there isa greater percentage of that one compared to others, ‘Most elements have multiple naturally occuring isotopes, but not all. Fluorine, for instance has only one naturally occurring isotope ~ Flaorine-s9, Whereas, chlorine has two, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 Asa teacher I always like to ask questions about isotopes that have a different mass from the mass found on the periodic table ~ I always catch atleast one student saying: “I think this ques: tion is wrong” Isotopes differ from each other due to the change in mass (only). Isotopes may have slightly different physical properties - *H,O has a boiling point of 101.4°C. Diffusion is also a common, property that changes because the heavier isotopes will move more siowly.{sotopes have the same ‘chemical properties because the chemical properties are determined by the nuclear charge and. electronic structure, not the mass. \sotope Notation A Where Zi the number of protons and A is the number of protons plus neu- tuons. At the moment, we will deal with neutral atoms, so electrons=protons Zz Lumsdeni Tees + 2.1 Learning Isotope | Atomic | Atomic Check eet | Mamta) | Number 2) | roens | Newtcons | Electrons [3a 23 u fi 12 a 1H 1H aH 8 7 Sai Ol The Mass Spectrometer “The mass spectrometer is a device that separates particles based on their mass. In order for the pasticles to move through the device, they must be positively charged ions. 9 @cceleration Mi) vaporization oO ionization Figure 22: Schematic of a Mass Spectrometer 2) Vaporization — heat to turn the substance into a gas 2) lonization — by bombardment of high-energy electrons to knock out an electron forming a positive ion 3) Acceleration ~ by an electric eld 4) Deflection ~ by « magnetic field 5) Detection ~ of fons, ut no need to lesen how this is done. Know the order of tne stages and the process by which they occu Get the point! C.Lumsden IB HL ChemistryExample Solution 2.2 Learning Check IB HL Chemistry “The product of the mass spectrometer isthe mass spectrum, which shows the «lative abundance of the isotopes. 003% B 75.76% cl sta Ag 8 g 8 8.10% a 3 a 2] s99r% = 424% 2 e e ze 9 10 11 12 mie L 35 36 7 38 Me 106 107 108 109 m/e Figure2.g: Mass Spectrum examples Relative Atomic Mass Carbon-12, which has 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons is defined as having a relative atomic ‘mass of exactly 2.000. One “atomic mass unit” amu or u)is defined as x/12 of this mass. All other isotopes are measured compared to this value. The average Relative Atomic mass (A,) is the weighted average for all isotopes of a given element based upon their relative percent abundance. Iftwo isotopes are present in equal amounts, then the average atomic mass is going to be the simple average. Ifone isotope is present in a greater proportion, it counts more to the average, ‘The average relative atomic mass is what you read off ofthe periodic table. Calculating Relative Average Atomic Mass You need to multiply each atomic mass by its relative abundance and add the numbers up! Giilorine exists as two naturally occurring isotopes; C-as and Chaz If the Chas has an abun- dance of 75.76% and the remainder is Cl-37, determine the relative atomic mass of chlorine, MasSirany X Hoabudance + MASS java, x Yeabundance J 100 = GSXTE.TON) + (37 «24.24% 100% A= 35.48 1. Siver has 2 naturally occuring stable isotopes, inthe following ratios: "Ag: 51.84% and "Ag: 48.6% Determine the relative atomic mass of silver. 2. Mognesium has three naturally occurring isotopes, in the folowing abundances: “Mg: 79.0%, Mg: 10.0%, *Mg: 11.0%. Calculate the relative atomic mass of magnesium. 3. Boron exists 05 19.97% "B and 80.03% "B. Determine the A, C.LumsdenCalculating natural abundance isn't really a chemistry question, it a math question. Let's take a common example - chlorine. Ghilorine exists as two isotopes -*Cland Cl. If the average atomic mass is 35.45, calculate the Example percentage calculation for each isotope. Led the faction of Cl-a9 ba x Solution Then the Preation of Claas will ba (1x) age + ast) aay Hasse = 35-5 mos ‘Therefore "Cl has 26% abundances, and “CI has the rast — 35% 1. Tholium consiss of thellum-203 and thllum-205. Using the value from the periodic table, determine 2.3 Learning the relative abundonce ofeach isotope ang 2, Lithium consists of Li and *L. Coleulate the percent ratio of the isatopes. 43. Gollum is made up of Ga and "Ga. Determine the isotopic rato using the average velue from the periodic table. C.Lumsden IB HL ChemistryIB HL Chemistry The Electronic Atom - B: Now that you have studied the nucleus with the two “nucleons” ~ protons and neutrons, we look at the structure of the atom in terms of electrons. Electrons are arranged in shells or orbits or ayers. All of chemistry is governed by electrostatic attraction: that is, + and ~ charges. Evidence for Structure — the Hydrogen spectrum A continuous spectrum contains all the wavelengths / frequencies / colour or ENERGIES of electromagnetic radiation, (Not just light.) Low Ene.gy <<< igh Energy Figure 2.4: A Continuous Spectrum Aline spectrum contains only certain / specific / discrete wavelengths / frequencies / colours or ENERGIES of electromagnetic radiation. ‘When we observe hydrogen in a discharge tube, we see a line spectrum, not a continuous spectrum, —— Low Energy High Energy Figures: The Hydrogen Emission Line Spectrum Explaining the Hydrogen Spectrum In hydrogen atoms the electron is in its ground state when the single electron is as close to the nucleus as possible — the fist shell, ‘The electron can be given extra energy by a fast moving electron in the discharge tube, and this, ‘causes it to be promoted to higher energy level Due to attraction to the nucleus, the electron “falls” back down. The difference in energy levels (shells) is the same amount of energy as the energies seen in the line spectrum Because the electron can only be in certain places (shells) we only see certain colours. Ifthe elec tron were allowed to be anywhere, we would see the continuous spectrum! Stage 1-Ground State_| Stage a- Excited State [ Stage 3 - Ground State (Orbiting electron isin | Electron is knocked up | Electron returns to the ground state, near- | toa higher energy state_| the ground state and estto the nucleus, due | by collision ofa fast | releases extra energy in [toattraction moving electron the form of light. Figure 2.6: Electronic T C.Lumsden