Three-Dimensional Stress

C.J. Chuong
Y.C.Fung
Department of Applied Mechanics and
Engineering Science/Bioengineering,
University of California, San Diego,
La Jolla, Calif. 92093
Distribution in Arteries
A three-dimensional stress-strain relationship derived from a strain energy function
of the exponential form is proposed for the arterial wall. The material constants are
identified from experimental data on rabbit arteries subjected to inflation and
longitudinal stretch in the physiological range. The objectives are: 1) to show that
such a procedure is feasible and practical, and 2) to call attention to the very large
variations in stresses and strains across the vessel wall under the assumptions that
the tissue is incompressible and stress-free when all external load is removed.

1 Introduction
In attempting to gain a better understanding about cir-
culatory physiology we need to know the basic mechanical
properties of the arteries.
The most precise and compact way to express the
mechanical properties is to use constitutive equations. A huge
literature exists on the mechanical properties of arteries; see
bibliographies in Bergel [1], Fung [7], Patel and Vaishnav
[17]. Most papers seek to relate the average circumferential
and longitudinal stresses in the vessel wall with certain
characteristic strains (e.g., those at the midwall). A few
examine the three-dimensional distributions of the stresses
and strains in the arterial wall. In the latter category Simon, et
al. [20, 21] assumed that the blood vessel wall is transversely
isotropic and incompressible, and determined the material
constants for each fixed longitudinal stretch by using average
stress and strain to start a trial-and-error scheme until the
computed pressure-radius curve agreed with experimental
measurements. For a given vessel they found that different
longitudinal stretches lead to different sets of material
constants. Vaishnav, et al. [22, 23] assumed the material to be
incompressible, curvilinearly orthotropic, and characterized
by a strain energy function of the polynomial type. Doyle and
Dobrin [4, 5] determined material constants from average
circumferential stress and average stretch ratio relationship,
and assumed that the resulting stress-strain relation is valid
throughout the vessel. On substituting this relationship into
an integral form of equation of equilibrium, they determined
the relationship between the pressure and the external radius
by a trial-and-error method. They also found that different
longitudinal stretches lead to different material constants.
Vito [25] reported his microprocessor-based, biaxial testing
machine and his experiments on arterial segments. He
assumed material isotropy so that his strain energy is a
function of the strain invariants. He tested arterial segments
in the "strip biaxial" mode by varying longitudinal stretch. In
this type of strains the two invariants /, and I2 are ap-
proximately the same, and Vito assumed the strain energy
function to be a polynomial of It up to the 4th order. Most
other authors [1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 18, 21, 22] have found, however,
Contributed by the Bioengineering Division for publication in the JOURNAL
OF BIOMECHANICAL ENGINEERING. Manuscript received by the Bioengineering
Division, September 9, 1982; revised manuscript received March 23, 1983.
the isotropy hypothesis unacceptable in view of experimental
results.
In the present paper we propose a three-dimensional stress-
strain relationship based on a strain energy function of the
exponential type. Fung, et al. [9] have discussed the relative
merits between polynomial and exponential forms of strain
energy functions. We use experimental results obtained from
the authors of reference [9] to evaluate the material constants.
The numerical method is in principle similar to that given by
Vaishnav, et al. [23]. We shall show that the method is
practical, and that there is a large variation in stress and strain
across the vessel wall whose significance is discussed.
Compared with the previous works reviewed in the foregoing
we avoided the isotropy hypothesis of Vito [25], and the
transverse isotropy hypothesis of Simon, et al. [20, 21], and
we did not use the material constants derived from average
stresses and strains or the "thin-walled" shell hypothesis to
evaluate the three-dimensional features as Simon, et al. [20,
21] and Doyle and Dobrin [4, 5] did. We shall show that the
thin-walled shell hypothesis (that stresses are uniform in the
vessel wall if the wall is thin), is, in general, very wrong under
the assumptions of incompressibility, and zero residual stress
when all external loads are removed.
2 Material Identification
We assume the arterial wall material to be incompressible,
homogeneous, cylindrically orthotropic, and characterized by
a pseudo-strain energy function of the form
P0W=-eQ
(1)
where
Q = blE2e + b2E\ + biE2r+ 2b,E0Ez + 2b5EzEr + 2b6ErEe (2)
Wrepresents the pseudo-strain energy per unit mass, p0 is the
mass density of the vessel wall, so that p0 W is the strain
energy per unit volume in the undeformed configuration. The
constants c, bu b2, b3, b4, bs, b6 characterize the material.
E
e, Ez, Er are Green's strain components in the cir-
cumferential, longitudinal, and radial directions, respectively.
The condition of incompressibility requires that
(\+2Ee)(\+2Ez)(\+2Er)=\. (3)

268/Vol. 105, AUGUST 1983 Transactions of the ASME

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 This condition is imposed by defining a new function p0 W*
through a Lagrangian multiplier H:
PoW* = p0W+ ^ [ ( 1 +2E„)(1 +2Ez)(l +2Er)-l]
It is well known that H has the significance of a hydrostatic
pressure. The Kirchhoff stress components can be obtained
from
S -(\+2Ee)[biEe+b4Ez+b6Er]}eQ^
u=-£-Pow* 0,7=1,2,3)
If Xu X2, X3 denote the coordinates of a particle at the
stress-free state and xux2, x3 that at the deformed state, then
the Cauchy stresses can be obtained from
7
p dx; dx,
>J=-^r^FS^ (i,./, a, 0 = 1 , 2 , 3 )
p0 OXa 6X&
where dXj/dXa and dXj/dXp are components of deformation
gradient, and p, pg denote the densities of the material in the
deformed and undeformed configurations, respectively.
Summation convention is used in these expressions. Written
out in extenso, we have, typically
Sg = - | - Po W* = c[b,Ee + b4Ez + b6Er]eQ + -£—
OEg 1 + 2Eg
and
Tg = ca+2Eg)[blEg+b4Ez + b6Er]eQ+H
Tz=c(\+2Ez)[b4Ee+b2Ez + b5Er]eQ+H
77 = c(l + 2Er)[b6Eg +b5Ez+ b3Er]eQ + H
The only nontrivial equation of equilibrium is
On substituting (8) into (9) and then integrating it from r,, the
deformed external radius (see Fig. 1), to r, the hydrostatic
pressure / / a t any radial distance r can be solved as
H(r) = -c(l+2Er)[b6Ee
+ bsEz + b}Er]eQ-L(r)+K (10)
where
L(r) = \r c{(\+2Er)[b6Eg+biEz+b,Er]
-(l+2Eg)[blEe + b4Ez+b6Er]}eQ^- (11)
and K is an integration constant. The stresses rg, TZ, rr are
obtained by substituting (10), (11) into (8); 7> becomes -L(r)
+ K.K will be determined by boundary conditions.
The boundary conditions are as follows (see Fig. 1):
(a) On the external surface r = rx, the extravascular
pressure is assumed to be zero. Since a uniform hydrostatic
pressure can be imposed on an incompressible material
without any deformation, this hypothesis incurs no loss of
generality of the result. Application of this condition yields K
= 0.
(b) On the internal surface r = r2, an internal pressure p, is
imposed. This condition yields
Pi=Hr2) (12)
(c) On the ends of a blood vessel segment, an external force
Facts. From static equilibrium we have, with reference to Fig.
1, F + Pj wr2 equals the integral of TZ over the vessel wall
cross section. This yields the condition
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F+Piirrl=2irc[l ((1 +2Ez)[b4Ee + b2Ez + bsEr]
(4) - (1 + 2Er)[b6Ee + b5Ez + b3Er]} e^r dr
-2tXX rdr\ c{(l+2Er)[b6Ee + b5Ez+biEr]
J r2 Jrl
(13)
(5)
The second term on the right-hand side can be simplified by
reversing the order of integration, and is found to be
Trr22L(r2)-Trc\ ' r[(l +2Er)[b6E„ + b5Ez + b3Er]
Jr2
(6)
-(l+2Ee)[b1Ee + b4Ez+b6Er]}eQdr (14)
Use of equations (12) and (14) in (13) yields
F= 2-KCj^' re<2[(1 + 2Ez)(b4E0 + b2Ez + b5Er)
(7) - - (1 + 2Er) (b6Ee + b5Ez + b,Er)
1
--(l+2Ee)(b]Eg + b4Ez+b6Er)]dr (15)
(8) Equations (12) and (15) are two integral equations from
which we can determine the material constants with the
knowledge of ph F, ru r2 and Eg(r), Ez{r), Er(r), i.e.,
intraluminal pressure, longitudinal stretching force, external
radius, internal radius and distribution of strain components,
respectively. E0{r), Ez(r), Er(r) are known functions of r
because of the condition of incompressibility.
Experimental data from reference [9] are used to identify
the material constants. Raw data onph F, rx, and length / for
each step of loadings were obtained from the authors of
reference [9]. In each experiment, the internal pressure p,
and/or the logitudinal stretch were varied in ten incremental
steps. We have, therefore, 20 simultaneous integral equations
to be satisfied: 10 in the form of equation (12), 10 in the form
of equation (15). These 20 simultaneous equations were
solved by the Gaushaus method [16], a nonlinear least-squares
algorithm which minimizes the sum of squares of the dif-
ferences between experimental data and theoretical predic-
tions. The solutions c, bx, b2, bit b4, b5, b6 that minimize the
errors are the material constants we seek. Note that in these
experiments the stretch ratio \z is a constant independent of
r, the stretch ratio \e is equal to r/R where r and R are the
corresponding radial coordinates of a material particle in the
deformed and undeformed states, respectively, and the stretch
Fig. 1 Cross-sectional view of arterial wail indicating the spatial
distribution of stress components
AUGUST 1983, Vol. 105/269
 ratio \r is equal to (XzXe) ' because of the assumption of
incompressibihty. Thus, the strains
Ee=1-(\j-l), E7=^\\-\) £r=I(X?-l)
are known functions of r in the arterial wall.
An Alternative Strain Energy Function With Four Con-
stants. An alternative to equation (1) is the simpler form
p0W=^-exp(blE2e+b2E2z+2b4EeEz)
together with the condition of incompressibihty.
Kirchhof f stress tensor S,y is obtained through
S = (17)
» lik+pB<>
wherep is the hydrostatic pressure and Ey, By are the Green's
and Finger's strain tensors, respectively, (see p. 450, reference
[8]). Following an approach similar to the foregoing, we
obtain equations (12) and (15) with b3 = b5 = b6 = 0 when
(16) is used. Equation (16) is the same as that used by Fung, et
al. in [9]; but unlike [9], we shall now identify the constants by
three-dimensional boundary conditions instead of the "two-
(16) dimensional" average stress-average strain concept.
The strain energy function p0 W given in equations (1) and
The (2) is applicable to compressible materials. Incompressibihty
is imposed by the addition of a Lagrangian multiplier as in

Table 1 Numerical values of three-dimensional material constants determined for those experiments in Fung, et al. [9] -
rabbits normal carotid arteries with body weight = 2 Kg( = 20N)

Po ^ 6 ) = ^exP[blE2g+b2E2z+b}E2+2bAEgEz+2bsEzEr+2b6ErEg]

Expt. Protocol Eh F* F*
11
rr C
no. (104 N / m 2 )* bi b2 bi ft4 b5 be
71 p+L 0.4898 0.9357 -0.4120 2.6950 0.9925 0.4180 0.0089 0.0749 0.0295 0.0193
71:1 P 0.4898 0.9357 -0.4120 1.0860 0.7894 0.6274 0.0054 0.5058 0.0177 0.0151
71:2 P 0.4935 0.9389 -0.4126 0.7070 2.5160 0.8060 0.0052 0.0441 0.0181 0.0165
72 p+ L 0.4747 0.8690 -0.4063 2.6460 0.6734 0.1428 0.0079 0.5052 0.0193 0.0181
72:1 P 0.4747 0.8690 -0.4063 0.4740 3.9220 0.2049 0.0061 0.1825 0.0139 0.0137
72:2 P 0.4866 0.8735 -0.4078 2.3360 0.2223 0.4587 0.0052 0.5105 0.0132 0.0128
78 p+ L 0.4492 0.9432 -0.4088 2.1312 1.8623 0.5120 0.0043 0.4125 0.0145 0.0168
78:1 P 0.4492 0.9432 -0.4088 0.2389 3.5168 0.0161 0.0067 0.2747 0.0158 0.0155
78:2 P 0.4458 0.9447 -0.4085 1.4460 2.1875 0.4660 0.0002 0.1245 0.0137 0.0126
78:3 P 0.4659 0.9336 -0.4097 1.8620 1.4720 0.3244 0.0053 0.3390 0.0125 0.0129
81 p+L 0.6040 1.0423 -0.4266 1.8265 1.6253 0.8173 0.0046 0.3125 0.0456 0.0310
81:1 P 0.6040 1.0423 -0.4266 0.9327 0.6898 0.7406 0.0082 0.2986 0.0410 0.0348
81:2 P 0.5735 0.9752 -0.4211 1.6320 0.9630 0.5485 0.0087 0.2792 0.0309 0.0270
81:3 P 0.5766 1.0497 -0.4251 1.8684 1.5529 0.9293 0.0068 0.2369 0.0328 0.0274
82 p+L 0.5693 1.0168 -0.4229 4.6750 1.2157 0.1282 0.0035 0.7125 0.0316 0.0089
82:1 P 0.5693 1.0168 -0.4229 3.1920 0.2730 0.0097 0.0053 0.6109 0.0232 0.0145
82:2 P 0.5729 1.1799 -0.4306 1.6400 0.5485 0.0132 0.0062 0.2526 0.0402 0.0339
82:3 P 0.5469 1.2185 -0.4305 4.5530 0.9584 0.2099 0.0002 0.2231 0.0013 0.0009

*10 5 dyne/cm 2

Table 2 Numerical values of three-dimensional material constants determined for those experiments in Fung, et al. [9] •
rabbits normal carotid arteries with body weight = 2Kg( = 20N)

Po w<»- -exp[b1EJ+b2El+2b4EeEz]

Expt. C
no. Protocol Eh F* (104N/m2)* bi b2 b.
71 P+L 0.4898 0.9357 1.5720 1.4953 2.1208 0.0398
71:1 P 0.4898 0.9357 1.4450 2.7450 2.7840 0.0261
71:2 P 0.4935 0.9389 2.1670 2.4000 1.2240 0.02519
72 P+L 0.4747 0.8690 3.8205 0.4771 0.0621 0.4276
72:1 P 0.4747 0.8690 4.1240 0.5741 0.0571 0.3013
72:2 P 0.4866 0.8735 2.7160 0.2831 0.0979 0.1973
78 P+L 0.4492 0.9432 1.2780 1.1092 0.1041 0.1216
78:1 P 0.4492 0.9432 2.7652 1.6750 0.7864 0.0246
78:2 P 0.4458 0.9447 1.2850 1.1381 0.1017 0.1065
78:3 P 0.4659 0.9336 1.1460 1.1478 0.1343 0.0878
81 P+L 0.6040 1.0423 1.4291 1.4521 1.8683 0.0576
81:1 P 0.6040 1.0423 0.6678 1.7088 0.2096 0.2885
81:2 P 0.5735 0.9752 1.8730 0.6767 0.0472 0.3293
81:3 P 0.5766 1.0497 1.6510 0.4307 0.0112 0.3769
82 P+L 0.5693 1.0168 4.2524 0.2578 0.1254 0.0283
82:1 P 0.5693 1.0168 1.3850 0.5397 0.0824 0.1235
82:2 P 0.5729 1.1799 3.7210 0.1571 0.0824 0.4088
82:3 P 0.5469 1.2185 0.5607 1.1516 0.0174 0.1770

*105 dyne/cm2

270 / Vol. 105, AUGUST 1983 Transactions of the ASME

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 equation (4). The strain energy function given in equation (16)
is applicable to a material compressible in two-dimensions
(i.e., one whose area is variable); but for a three-dimensional
state of strain it is meaningful only if the incompressibility
condition is imposed.
3 Results
Material Constants. The material constants of the con-
stitutive equations proposed, (1) and (16), are identified from
those experiments reported in Fung, et al. [9] for carotid
arteries from five rabbits with body weight = 2 Kg (~ 20 N).
Table 1 gives the numerical values of c, bu b2, b3, b4, bit and
b6 for equation (1). Table 2 lists the values of c, b\, b2, and b4
for equation (16). Dispersion of the values of the material
constants is seen in both Table 1 and Table 2. If comparison is
made with Table 1 of reference [9], it is seen that the stability
of the numerical values of material constants with respect to
different experiments is reduced if we adopt a three-
dimensional formulation, either based on equation (1) or on
equation (16).
Whereas the numerical approach can still be improved, the
main purpose of the present paper is to demonstrate the
nonuniform distribution of strain and stress in the arterial
wall, while the number of simplifying hypotheses is
minimized. In the following the stress and strain will be
discussed on the basis of the three-dimensional formulation
with strain energy function given in equation (1) and
numerical values of the material constants for the carotid
artery of the rabbit listed in Table 1 for Experiment No. 71.
Spatial Distribution of Strain Components. Figure 2 shows
the spatial distribution of the principal stretch components X9
and Xr for internal pressures/?, = 60, 120, 160 mm Hg (~ 8,
16, 21.3 kPa, respectively), and stretch ratios Xz = 1.542,
1.691, 1.696. Note that even for/?,- = 60 mm Hg (8 kPa), \0 is
large and varies from 1.339 at external surface to 1.820 at
internal surface. This may be compared with most of the
existing works in which the circumferential strain is treated as
approximately uniform and the variation of the strain in the
wall is overlooked. Such a simplifying assumption may entail
an error of 25-30 percent in the circumferential strain at the
inner wall of rabbit arteries in the physiological pressure
range.
Note also the rather small values of \ in the wall, i.e., a
large compressive strain in the radial direction. This is due, of
course, to the stretching of the wall in the circumferential and
longitudinal directions under incompressibility condition.
Spatial Distribution of Stress Components. Figures 3(o, b,
c) show the stress distributions for/?, = 60, 120, and 160 mm
Hg (— 8, 16, and 21.3 kPa), respectively. The corresponding
longitudinal stretches ranging from 1.542 ~ 1.696 as shown
on the graphs are the measured data and are within the
physiological range. The circumferential, longitudinal, and
radial stresses, 7>, TZ, and rr, respectively, are plotted against
the undeformed radial coordinate. The corresponding
deformed coordinate can be obtained from the kinematic
relationship r = \R, where r denotes deformed coordinate
and R is that of the undeformed.
Average stress components <re>, <TZ> are also shown
for comparison. For the longitudinal stress TZ the maximum
value at the inner wall can be more than twice larger than the
average one. For the circumferential stress T9 the ratio be-
tween the value at the inner wall and that of the average
becomes quite large at higher pressures: being 3.7 when/?, =
60 mm Hg (~ 8 kPa) and \z = 1.542, 6.5 whenp, = 120 mm
H g ( ~ 16kPa)andX z = 1.691, and 8.2 when/?, = 160 mm
Hg ( — 21.3 kPa) and \z = 1.696. On the other hand, at the
outer wall, the actual values of rg and TZ are always lower
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—
A*
3
- /
SSSsjs^ / , 2
- 1
outer wall
1
"" ^-3
—*c
0.71 1.10
a UNDEFORMED RADIAL COORD, (mm)
Fig. 2 Spatial distribution of principal stretch ratios X„, \r at 1) p,- =
60 mm Hg (~ 8 kPa), Az = 1.542; 2) p, = 120 mm Hg ( - 1 6 kPa), Xz =
1.691; and 3) p, = 160 mm Hg (-21.3 kPa), Xz = 1.696.
than the corresponding average values. Comparing the stress
distribution with the strain distribution, we see that the
nonuniformity of the strains in the wall is much amplified by
the exponential constitutive relationship to result in a
tremendous nonuniformity in stresses in the wall. This
nonuniformity is especially evident in the circumferential
stress T0. Note the very large circumferential stress con-
centration at the inner wall at a blood pressure of 120 mm Hg
(~ 16 kPa) and above. Also note the large circumferential
strain there. The nonuniformity in strain and stress is seen to
increase as the loading parameters (/?, and \z) are increased.
It is interesting to look at the radial stress rr also. It is seen
that the internal pressure applied to the inner wall is at-
tenuated rapidly in the wall. The resulting average radial
stress is far smaller than the -/?,72 assumed in most
publications [20, 22].
The Ratio of the Inner Wall Radius to the Wall Thickness,
r2/h. One of the parameters that deserves attention is the
r2/h ratio. For Xz = 1.5 the variation of r2/h ratio vs. in-
ternal pressure is shown on Figure 4. In the initial undeformed
configuration, r2/h = 1.8, but this ratio becomes 9.5 when
the pressure is increased to 120 mm Hg (— 16 kPa) and 10
when the pressure is 1 6 0 m m H g ( ~ 21.3 kPa).
It is often said that when the ratio r2/h is 10 or larger the
stress distribution across the wall thickness can be ap-
proximated by the average stress with an error of less than 10
percent. Indeed, for an axisymmetricaily loaded cylinder of
Hookean material subjected to infinitesimal deformation, this
is true according to Lame's solution (1852), in which case the
stress distribution is independent of the elastic constants.
However, for an artery which is composed of a nonlinear
material in which stress increases exponentially with in-
creasing strain, and which is subjected to finite deformation
with stretch ratios \ , \e lying in the range of 1.0 to 2.0, and
\ in the range of 0.3 to 0.7, there is a drastic change in r2/h
ratio as the internal pressure is increased, and a large stress
concentration of T0 and TZ at the inner wall results. The
average stresses cannot represent the local stresses at
all: there could be a difference of almost an order of
magnitude. Thus, in the low pressure range, if the dimensions
of r2 and h are comparable, we need the "thick-walled"
solution in order to determine the nonuniform strain and
stress distributions. In the high pressure loading range when
AUGUST 1983, Vol. 105/271
 T
18 - »
s~ T

106 dyne /cm

16 AVG <Tg>

AVG. <7 -z>

14- 1 T=(TB*Tl*y/3

o 8 \
a. A
o O
6- \

outer wall
X

inner wall
|t-
4 -
\\ \

^i^^
5
h?
2
R(mm)
i
0.71 1. 0 R(mm)
CO i
Q_

O
-1 -
-2
Fig. 3(a) Spatial distirbution of Cauchy stress components T„ T Z , -,\
the mean stresses < T6 >, < rz > averaged throughout the wall; and the
Fig. 3(c) Same as 3(a), for the case p, = 160 mm Hg (~ 21.3 kPa), A,
mean stress (negative of pressure) T = (T0 + TZ + Tr)/3 in the vessel
1.696
wall, for the case p f = 60 mm Hg (~ 8 kPa), Xz = 1.542, based on the
coefficients of Expt. 71 listed in Table 1
12

AVG. < " / - , , >

AVG. <TZ>
f=±(Tg+TI+Tr)

40 .160 180 mm Hg
12 16 20 KPa
INTERNAL PRESSURE
Fig. 4 Variation of r2/f) versus increasing internal pressure at a fixed
R(mm) longitudinal stretch ratio of Xz = 1.50

Fung [7]), but the detailed structure of the wall as a composite

material is not yet known quantitatively, and a mathematical
modeling would not be profitable at this time.
Fig. 3(b) Same as Fig. 3(a), forthe casep, = 120 mm Hg ( - 1 6 kPa), Az
= 1 .691 Question About the Incompressibility Assumption. The
incompressibility assumption is used in this paper as is in most
r2/h> 10 the much higher gradients of strain and stress can other papers. Carew, et al.'s [2] experiments are often quoted
only be exhibited with the aid of an exact thick-walled as justification for this assumption. They immersed arterial
theory. segments in water enclosed in a cylinder and showed that the
Nevertheless, the formulas <T0> = p2r2/h and <TZ> = total volume of the tissue and water in the cylinder did not
(Fz + p2w\)/-w(r\ -r\) still yields correctly the average change with increasing pressure and longitudinal stretch.
stresses because these formulas stem from the condition of Whether the water in the arterial wall moved out into the
static equilibrium irrespective of large deformation. surrounding fluid or not is undetectable in their method. If
water does move out of the vessel, then the volume of the
4 Discussion tissue is most likely not constant, and equation (3) is not valid.
This is equivalent to the question: could the blood vessel
Questions about the Homogeneity Assumption. One may wall be treated as a one-phase material? Should we treat water
question how strong are the effects of the assumptions of and other solid components in the arterial wall as two phases
homogeneity and/or incompressibility. The arterial structure in a porous material? To answer this question, let us point out
is layered. A softer inner layer will relieve the stress con- that several authors have shown that water moves across the
centration at the inner wall. Compressibility, similarly, may vessel wall in the presence of a pressure gradient. Vargas, et
offer some relief to stress concentration. The wall is com- al. [24] performed experiments on the hydraulic conductivity
posed of elastin, collagen, smooth muscles, and ground of rabbit aorta. Their results show that the hydraulic con-
substances, see Rhodin [19]. The mechanical properties of the ductivity is = 4 x 10 ~8 cm3/(cm2-s-cm H 2 0) for the whole
individual components are known to some extent, (see, e.g., intact vessel wall. For the endothelium and outer layer

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 separately, the corresponding values are 8.6 and 7.3 x 10~8
cm3/(cm2-s-cm H 2 0), respectively. The "specific hydraulic
conductivity" of the outer layer is obtained by multiplying
with the thickness and it comes out to be 1.55 x 10 - 9 cm2/(s-
c m H 2 0 ) o r l . 6 x 10 - n cmV(dyne-s) if the thickness is 0.02
cm. Harrison and Massaro [10] obtained a value of 7.0 x
10 " 13 cmV(dyne-s) for swine thoracic aorta. Yamartino, et
al. [28] obtained 2.2 x 10 - I 3 cmV(dyne-s) for rabbit aorta in
cylindrical geometry. Wilens and McCluskey [26, 27] reported
a flux of 15.6 and 12.2 /xl/(cm2-hr) for human common iliac
and external iliac arteries. If 0.6 mm is used for the thickness
(Learoyd and Taylor [13]), the corresponding specific
hydraulic conductivities would be 1.59 x 10 "12 and 1.24 X
10" l2 cm4/(dyne-s), respectively.
Now, in a one-phase material, pressure is the negative of
the mean stress. In Fig. 3 a nonvanishing gradient of pressure
is seen in the arterial wall, (df/clr ^ 0). Hence, if water
responds to pressure it should move in the arterial wall.
Furthermore, at the inner and outer surfaces of the vessel wall
the radial stress is continuous, but the circumferential and
longitudinal stresses are not; therefore the mean stress is
discontinuous. If water responds to the mean stress then water
movement in or out of the vessel at the surfaces of the arterial
wall can be expected since the data quoted in the preceding
paragraph show that the surfaces are permeable. The alter-
native is to consider the arterial wall as a two-phase material,
in which the stresses in water and solids can be different. Lew
and Fung [14] studied the theoretical problem in some detail.
As a two-phase material with permeable walls the hypothesis
of incompressibility is untenable, because the movement of
water changes the volume. Water uptake or desorption by
cells is also affected by stress condition. This will also change
the tissue volume.
The importance of the question may be seen in another
way. Since the predominant circumferential stress is tensile,
the mean pressure (negative of the mean stress) is the lowest at
the inner wall, far lower than the fluid pressure in the vessel
lumen (p,). This low mean pressure at the inner wall will
enhance fluid movement from the blood stream into the vessel
wall. The tissue elements should swell more in that region. As
a result, the tensile stress will be reduced (if the total cir-
cumference at the inner wall remains the same) and the
thickness of the vessel wall will be increased.
Research on fluid movement in the arterial wall has been
motivated by atherogenesis theories [3, 12, 24, 26, 27]. In the
current literature on this subject, the stress distribution in the
vessel wall is treated in a very crude manner, even though its
importance is recognized. The analysis presented above, and
the examples shown, should be relevant to the atherogenesis
research in correcting a very commonly used
hypothesis: that the pressure gradient in the vessel wall is
equal to the transmural pressure divided by the wall thickness.
Our results show that this hypothesis can be very much in
error.
It is urgent that a quantitative "compressibility" ex-
periment be done with the objective to assess the two-phase
feature of the blood vessel wall.
The Stress-Free Condition. The analysis presented in the
foregoing, as well as those in all the references cited, is based
on the assumption that the vessel wall is stress-free when all
the external load is removed. This is, indeed, a questionable
hypothesis, particularly in view of the fact that biological
tissue can grow or resorb in response to stresses. Residual
stress could exist in the unloaded state. The residual stress
may reduce the stress concentration at inner wall of the vessel
under internal pressure. An experimental investigation into
this question is in progress in our laboratory. The present
paper, indeed, will focus attention onto this hypothesis,
because by removing simplifying assumptions as much as
Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
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possible, and satisfying all boundary conditions in detail, and
using identified material constants from experimental data of
the specific artery under investigation, the final result reveals
truly what is implied by the remaining hypothesis. The
alarming stress concentration revealed here provides a strong
motivation for research into the validity of the remaining
hypotheses.
5 Conclusion
A three-dimensional stress-strain relationship is determined
from a strain energy function of the exponential type for the
arterial wall from data obtained under inflation and
longitudinal stretch experiments. The distribution of the
stresses and strains in the vessel wall is found to be very
nonuniform. For the rabbit carotid arteries subjected to
higher transmural pressures the circumferential stress at the
inner wall can be 7 or 8 times larger than the average stress. A
similar concentration exists for the longitudinal stress. The
radial stress is found to attenuate rapidly in the wall. The
pressure gradient in the wall (i.e., the negative value of the
gradient of the mean stress) can be computed, and is certainly
not equal to the transmural pressure divided by the wall
thickness, as assumed by most authors in the current
literature. Since the pressure gradient is the driving force for
fluid movement in the arterial wall, and thus plays a central
role in the current theories of atherogenesis, a more precise
analysis of three-dimensional stress distribution in arteries is
important. The high stress concentration illustrated in the
present analysis draws attention to the assumptions of
material incompressibility and zero residual stresses when all
the external loads are removed. The purpose of the present
paper is to document as precisely as possible the consequences
of these hypotheses by doing the calculations accurately using
the exponential stress-strain relationship and three-
dimensional boundary conditions. Further work on com-
pressibility and residual stress can then refer to the results
presented here for comparison.
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by NIH Grant HL-26647, HL-
07089, and NSF Grant CME 79-10560.
References
1 Bergel, D. H., "The Properties of Blood Vessels," Biomechanics: Its
Foundations and Objectives, eds., Y. C. Fung, N. Perrone, and M. Aniiker,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1972, pp. 105-140.
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Arterial Wall," Circulation Research, Vol. 23, pp. 61-68.
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wall of the Rabbit Common Carotid Artery Perfused in Situ," Atherosclerosis,
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Physiology, Vol. 237(5), 1979, pp. H620-H631.
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Aortic Tissue Due to a Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient," Atherosclerosis, Vol.
24, 1976, pp. 363-367.
11 Hayashi, J., Sato, M., Handa, H., and Moritake, K., "Biomechanical
Study of the Constitutive Laws of Vascular Walls," Exper. Mech., Vol. 14,
1974, pp.440-444.
12 Kenyon, D. E., "A Mathematical Model of Water Flux Through Aortic
Tissue," Bull, of Math. Biology, Vol. 41, 1979, pp. 79-90.
AUGUST 1983, Vol. 105/273
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Calendar of Events
1983
August 7-12
IX International Congress of Biomechanics, University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Contact:
ISB Congress Secretariat
Department of Kinesiology
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
August 15-17
Fourth International Conference on Mathematical Modeling,
Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule, Zurich (Honggerber
Campus), Zurich, Switzerland
Contact:
Professor X. J. R. Avula
School of Engineering
University of Missouri-Rolla
Rolla, MO 65401
Telephone: (314) 341-4581
August 22-24
20th Annual Meeting Society of Engineering Science, Inc.,
University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
Contact:
Prof. M. Toya
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19711
Telephone: (302) 738-2246
274/Vol. 105, AUGUST 1983
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21 Simon, B. R., Kobayashi, A. S., Strandness, D. E., and Wiederhielm,
C. A., "Large Deformation Analysis of the Arterial Cross Section," Journal of
Basic Engineering, Vol. 93,1971, pp. 138-146.
22 Vaishnav, R. N., Young, J. T., Janicki, J. S., and Patel, D. J.,
"Nonlinear Anisotropic Elastic Properties of the Canine Aorta," Biophysical
Journal, Vol. 12, 1972, pp. 1008-1027.
23 Vaishnav, R. N., Young, J. T., and Patel, D. J., "Distribution of Stresses
and Strain-Energy Density Through the Wall Thickness in Canine Aortic
Segment," Circulation Research, Vol. 32, 1973, pp. 577-583.
24 Vargas, C. B., Vargas, F. F., Pribyl, J. G., and Blackshear, P. L.,
"Hydraulic Conductivity of the Endothelial and Outer Layers of the Rabbit
Aorta," American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 236(1), 1979, pp. H53-H60.
25 Vito, R. P., "The Mechanical Properties of Soft Tissues—1: A
Mechanical System for Bi-Axial Testing," J. Biomechanics, Vol. 13, pp.
947-950; II: The Elastic Response of Arterial Segments," Journal of
Biomechanics, Vol. 13, 1980, pp. 951-957.
26 Wilens, S. L., and McCIuskey, R. T., "The Comparative Filtration
Properties of Excised Arteries and Veins," American Journal of Medical
Science, Vol. 224,1952, pp. 540-547.
27 Wilens, S. L„ and McCIuskey, R. T., "The Permeability of Excised
Arteries and Other Tissues to Serum Lipid,1" Circulation Research, Vol. 2,
1954, pp.175-182.
28 Yamartino, E., Bratzler, R., Colton, C , and Smith, K., "Hydraulic
Permeability of Arterial Tissue," Circulation, Vols. 49 and 50, Suppl. Ill,
1974, p. 273.
August 26-27
Second Southern Biomedical Engineering Conference, The El
Tropicana Hotel on the River, San Antonio, Texas
Contact:
Dr. C.William Hall
Southwest Research Institute
P . O . Box Drawer 28510
San Antonio, TX 78284
Telephone: (512)684-5111
September 5-7
International Symposium on Physiological Fluid Dynamics,
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, India
Contact:
Dr. Megha Singh
Organizing Secretary, ISPFD
Biomedical Engineering Division
Indian Institute of Technology
Madras—600 036, India
September 12-14
36th Annual Conference on Engineering in Medicine and
Biology, Hyatt Regency Columbus, Columbus, Ohio
Contact:
Patricia I. Horner
4405 East-West Highway, Ste. 210
Bethesda, MD 20814
Telephone: (301) 657-4142
(Continued on p. 299)
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