SPINE Volume 30, Number 20, pp 2350 –2355
©2005, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc.
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli—The Father of Biomechanics
Malcolm H. Pope, DrMedSc, PhD
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli is often described as the fa-
ther of biomechanics. He was born in Naples in 1608. His
De Motu Animalium, published in 1680, extended to biol-
ogy the rigorous analytical methods developed by Galileo
in the field of mechanics. Borelli calculated the forces
required for equilibrium in various joints of the human
body well before Newton published The Laws of Motion.
Borelli was the first to understand that the levers of the
musculoskeletal system magnify motion rather than
force, so that muscles must produce much larger forces
than those resisting the motion. Borelli died in Rome on
December 31, 1679, but his impressive body of original
work helped inspire a great number of future scientists,
microscopists, and inventors. The highest honor be-
stowed by the American Society of Biomechanics is the
Giovanni Borelli Award. Spine 2005;30:2350 –2355
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli is often described as the father
of biomechanics (Figure 1). He was born in Naples, Jan-
uary 28, 1608. Borelli deliberately obscured his date and
place of birth to conceal his connection to his father’s
political difficulties, and his own connections with
Giovani Domenico Campanella, who was a political pa-
riah. (Giovani Domenico Campanella was born in Stilo,
Calabria in 1568. He entered the Dominican order and
took the name Tommaso, where he received training in
philosophy and theology. His questioned Dominican or-
thodoxy and was denounced to the Inquisition. He was
imprisoned for 27 years for trying to expel the Spanish
from Naples and Sicily. During these imprisonments, he
was tortured several times.2) Borelli was the firstborn son
of a Spanish infantryman, Miguel Alonso, and a local
Italian woman of Naples, Laura Porello.3 His original
name was Giovanni Francesco Antonio Alonso. He died
in Rome on December 31, 1679. It is possible that Tom-
maso Campanella taught him while Campanella was a
prisoner at the Castel Nuovo, Naples, where Borelli’s
father was stationed. He may have received medical
training at the University of Naples. After 1628, he be-
came a student of Castelli in Rome.
Borelli contributed both to the mathematical and
physical sciences (mainly astronomy and mechanics),
From the Liberty Safework Centre, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen,
United Kingdom.
Acknowledgment date: September 10, 2004. Acceptance date: January
11, 2005.
The manuscript submitted does not contain information about medical
device(s)/drug(s).
No funds were received in support of this work. No benefits in any
form have been or will be received from a commercial party related
directly or indirectly to the subject of this manuscript.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Malcolm H. Pope,
DrMedSc, PhD, Liberty Safework Centre, University of Aberdeen, For-
esterhill Road, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZB, United Kingdom; E-mail:
m.pope@biomed.abdn.ac.uk
2350
and the medical and the biologic sciences. His De Motu
Animalium, published in Rome in 1680, was an attempt
to extend to biology the rigorous analytical and geomet-
rical method developed by Galileo in the field of mechan-
ics.4 He became a student of Galileo’s former student,
Benedetto Castelli, founder of the science of hydraulics
in Rome. (Antonio Castelli [1577/8 –1643] was born in
Brescia, Italy. He took the name Benedetto on entering
the Benedictine order in 1595. On Galileo’s recommen-
dation, Castelli was appointed professor of mathematics
at the University of Pisa in 1613.)
Academic Career
It was Castelli who recommended Borelli to the Univer-
sity of Messina for the vacant chair of mathematics.
Borelli studied physics in Galileo’s class at Pisa. Borelli
taught mathematics at the University of Pisa and later at
the University of Messina. He was a member of the Ac-
cademia del Cimento (Academy of Experiments).
Founded in 1657 in Florence by the Medici brothers,
Prince Leopold and the Grand Duke Ferdinand II; the
Accademia lasted only until 1667. However, its publica-
tion Saggi di Naturali Esperienze Fatte nell Accademia
del Cimento was very influential. He took part in nearly
all the experiments performed by the Accademia despite
frequent clashes with Carlo Renaldini (1615–1679),
whom he called the “Simplicius” of the Cimento. The
Accademia marked the beginning of modern physics.
Borelli was primarily a mathematician during the first
two decades of his career. In 1658, he published Eculidus
Restitutus. In 1637, he was awarded a Public Lecture-
ship in Mathematics at Messina. In 1642, the Senate of
Messina made him a member of the city nobility, pro-
vided him with considerable funding, and sent him on a
tour to hire teachers away from leading Italian universi-
ties. Between 1656 and 1667, at the behest of the Prince
Leopold de’ Medici, he became professor of mathematics
at Pisa. Between 1667 and 1672, he returned to Messina
and resumed his chair. After the anti-Spanish rebellion in
Messina in 1670, Borelli was forced to leave Sicily
in 1670. He moved first to Calabria and then to Rome. In
Rome, he petitioned Cassini, a member of the Académie,
for royal support, and he became a member of the Acad-
emy founded by Queen Christina of Sweden. He also
became the physician of Queen Christian. The Clerks
Regular of the Pious Schools (Piarists or Scolopians) also
supported him in 1677. Between 1677 and 1679, he
taught mathematics at the Scuole Pie, to novices of the
Order in Rome. Negotiations were underway for dedi-
cation of De Motu Animalium, in 1677, when all of
Borelli’s belongings were stolen. In 1679, he eventually

Figure 1. The painter Cavalier Ghezzi made this posthumous por-
trait of Borelli from an original sketch by Ciro Ferri. Ferri’s sketch
has not been discovered.1
dedicated De Motu Animalium to Queen Christina, who
had agreed to pay the printing costs.
Contributions to Diverse Fields
He was a prolific contributor to very diverse fields. He
was an important figure in the development of the cor-
puscular or mechanical philosophy, hydraulics, and me-
teorology. From 1647 to 1648, the senate of Messina
appointed him to study the epidemic fevers raging
through the population. He devised a treatment, al-
though it does not seem to have been widely applied.
Subsequently, he published a pamphlet entitled Delle
Cagioni de le Febbri Maligna (On the Causes of Malig-
nant Fevers) (Rome, 1649). He also performed an impor-
tant investigation of volcanoes. In Pisa, Borelli per-
formed extensive anatomic dissections. In 1665, he
established an observatory at the fortress of San Miniato
with some instruments of his own design. While in Flo-
rence, he edited books on hydraulics and worked for the
Grand Duke on lagoons near Pisa. Borelli proposed a
method of determining longitudes with a clock.
Borelli worked on a compendium of Apollonius’s 4
surviving books, which was published in Rome in 1679.
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli • Pope 2351
Figure 2. The physician and microscopist Marcello Malpighi, pro-
fessor of theoretical medicine at the University of Pisa.
He conducted a revision of Euclid’s Elements (published
in 1658 as Euclides Restitus). At the University of Pisa,
Borelli was heavily involved in the scientific programs
organized by Prince Leopold de’ Medici (1617–1675).
Borelli’s chief contribution during his stay in Tuscany
was his research in astronomy and on Jupiter’s moons,
described in the Theoricae Mediceorum Planetarum ex
Causis Physicis Deductae (Florence, 1666). Borelli pro-
posed the curvilinear motion of planets driven by 2
forces: a centrifugal force and an attraction to the sun.
Galileo had never accepted Kepler’s elliptical orbits, de-
riving circular ones instead. In a letter published in 1665
under the pseudonym Pier Maria Mutoli, Borelli was the
first to suggest that comets travel in a parabolic path. He
also predicted the orbits of Jupiter’s moons by consider-
ing the influence of both Jupiter and the sun.
Extremely inventive, Borelli is recognized by scuba
diving enthusiasts for his drawings of a closed circuit
“rebreather.” His illustrations depict a giant bag using
chemical components, which he suggested should allow
the air to be breathed again by a submerged diver. In
1667, Borelli left the Medici family and returned to
Messina. During the same year, he published De vi Per-
cussionis in Bologna, a compilation and expansion of his
research in physics undertaken at the Accademia del Ci-
mento. He is most known for De Motu Animalium (On
2352 Spine • Volume 30 • Number 20 • 2005
Animal Motion) but also is recognized for his micro-
scopic investigations of red blood cells and his accurate
observation of the regularity of stomatal movements in
plants.
Biomechanics
His masterpiece was De Motu Animalium (On Animal
Motion) (Rome, 1680 –1681). It was published posthu-
mously in 2 parts between 1680 and 1681.5 The book is
in 2 parts. The first part examines the external motions of
the musculoskeletal system in animals from a mechanical
viewpoint. The second part examines internal motions,
such as the physiology of muscles and circulation. It is a
book of mechanical analogies, a notable early example
of the use of illustrations to understand natural phenom-
ena. It had become evident to Borelli that the science of
mechanics needs to be applied to the study of human and
animal motion to understand the motor control of bio-
logic systems. He was the first to explain muscular move-
ment and other body functions according to the laws of
statics and dynamics.
At Pisa, a colleague, the physician and microscopist
Marcello Malpighi (Figure 2) (Professor of theoretical
Figure 3. Plate showing Borelli’s
analysis of different species
compared to man.
medicine at the University of Pisa), introduced him to the
study of anatomy. Apparently, the 2 men had a close
relationship, as Malpighi recalls:5 “What progress I have
made in philosophising stems from Borelli. On the other
hand, dissecting living animals at his home and observ-
ing their parts, I worked hard to satisfy his keen curios-
ity.” It is unclear whether Borelli was a trained physician,
and, perhaps, he needed to work with Malpighi to ensure
that his mechanical calculations made biologic sense. Al-
though Borelli’s knowledge of mechanics was restricted
to the principle of levers and triangle of forces, he was
able to generate an accurate and comprehensive account
of muscle action.3 The 2 conducted numerous anatomic
dissections. Malpighi became the greatest of the early
microscopists and the father of embryology. He, Borelli,
and Descartes were key figures in establishing the iatro-
physical approach to medicine, which held that mechan-
ics rather than chemistry was the key to understanding
the functioning of the human body. After a disagreement
between Malpighi and Borelli, Borelli left Pisa and re-
turned to Messina.
In his work De Motu Animalium, Borelli was the first
to understand that the levers of the musculoskeletal sys-
 Giovanni Alfonso Borelli • Pope 2353

Figure 4. Plate showing Borelli’s

analysis of different joints in man.
1, Conjunction of 2 levers (long
bones), IFS and HDR, at pivot
point C. 2, How elastic bands
(muscles) attached externally to
the levers (at D and F) and to the
pivot (B) might bring the levers
closer to each other. 3, The elas-
tic bands attached externally to
the levers so that they can be
“expanded.” 4, A twin-lever sys-
tem, in which the levers are of
unequal length. 5 and 6, The
muscle and bone configurations
in 2 human beings carrying dif-
ferent loads. 7 and 8, Studies of
pulley arrangements. 9 and 10,
Actions of muscles that enable a
human being to hold a weight
with an extended arm.

tem magnify motion rather than force, so that muscles
must produce much larger forces than those resisting the
motion (Figure 3). This was contrary to the thinking of
the time (Figures 4 and 5). With an understanding of
static equilibrium, Borelli calculated the forces required
for equilibrium in various joints of the human body well
before Newton published The Laws of Motion.
He also determined the position of the human center
of gravity, calculated and measured inspired and died air
volumes, and showed that inspiration is muscle driven
and expiration is a result of tissue elasticity. His work
included muscle analysis and a mathematical illustration
of movements, such as running and jumping. Borelli also
attempted to clarify the reason for muscle fatigue, ex-
plain organ secretion, and hypothesize on the concept of
pain.
One of the revolutionary mechanical features of the
body noted by Borelli was that the muscles act with short
lever arms so that the intervening joint transmits a force
that is a magnitude higher than the weight of the load.
Borelli overturned older concepts of muscle action,
which stated that long lever arms allowed weak muscles
to move heavy objects.2 Borelli noted that “Galen also
states that a tendon is like a lever. He thinks that, conse-
quently, a small force of the animal faculty can pull and
move heavy weights. This general opinion seems to be so
likely that, to my knowledge, nor surprisingly, it has
been questioned by nobody. Who indeed would be stu-
pid enough to look for a machine to move a very light
weight with a great force, i.e., use a machine or contriv-
ance not to save forces but rather to spend forces? This
seems strange and against common sense, I agree, but I
Figure 5. Comparison between the lever arm concept of
Archimedes and Borelli. A, Archimedes showed that the lever arm
for force was bigger than the arm used for resistance. It took little
force to move a large resistance. B, Borelli showed the spine as
he set it up, used a lever arm shorter than the resistance arm, and
the body actually used more force than the force because of the
weight of the object lifted or moved.
2354 Spine • Volume 30 • Number 20 • 2005
can convincingly demonstrate that this is what happens
and, given permission, that the upholders of the opposite
opinion have been mistaken.”
Spine Biomechanics
Borelli showed an incredible understanding of spine bi-
omechanics. He proposed that the discs must perform
some load sharing because his calculations revealed an
inability of the spinal musculature alone to support
heavy weights. He proposed that the intervertebral discs
were viscoelastic, and both cushioned the bones and
acted like springs. He made detailed calculations describ-
ing the forces on individual vertebrae when a load was
carried on the neck (Figure 6).2 “If the spine of a steve-
dore is bent and supports a load of 120 lb carried on the
neck, the force exerted by Nature in the intervertebral
discs and in the extensor muscles of the spine is equal to
25,585 lb. The force exerted by the muscles alone is not
less than 6404 lb. Therefore, the sum of the muscular
forces GH which control the fifth lumbar vertebra and a
third of the resistance of the intervertebral disc is equal to
826 lb. The muscular forces are equal to 413 lb and the
forces exerted by the disc are equal to 1239 lb.” These
figures, produced by Borelli over 300 years ago, agree
quite well with modern experimental calculations of spi-
nal load sharing. One of the greatest mechanical features
noted of the body, as was shown by his analysis, was that
the muscles act with short lever arms so the joint trans-
mits a force that is a magnitude higher than the weight of
Figure 6. A and B, Borelli’s anal-
ysis of a stevedore with a weight
carried at the neck.
the load. Borelli overturned older concepts of muscle
action, which were that long lever arms allowed weak
muscles to move heavy objects.
Equilibrium of Rotation
Borelli wrote, “Galen also states that a tendon (muscle
working on joint) is like a lever. He thinks that, conse-
quently, a small force of the animal faculty (muscle ef-
fort) can pull and move heavy weights. This general
opinion and surprisingly, to my knowledge, has been
questioned by nobody. Who indeed would be stupid
enough to look for a machine to move a very light weight
with a great force i.e., use a machine or contrivance not
to save forces but rather to spend forces? This seems
strange and against commons sense, I agree, but I can
convincingly demonstrate that this is what happens and
given, permission, that the upholders of the opposite
opinion have been mistaken.”
Borelli’s Analysis
Borelli showed a stevedore with a weight carried at the
neck that each vertebral joint (individual lever system) in
the lower back used an effective effort arm (created by the
position of the muscle relative to the disc or fulcrum) that
was shorter than the effective resistance arm (created by
the position of the weight relative to the disc or fulcrum).
This lever system requires more effort than the weight of
resistance, which ran against common thought. Why use
an ineffective lever system, was essentially the thought
that Borelli leaves us with.

The Legacy
Borelli is frequently given the title “father of biomechan-
ics.” Most notably, he was one of the founders of “iat-
romechanics,” or the application of mechanics to physi-
ology. This field is the forerunner of what we now call
biomechanics.
Borelli died in Rome on December 31, 1679, but his
impressive body of original work helped inspire a great
number of future scientists, microscopists, and inven-
tors. The highest honor bestowed by the American Soci-
ety of Biomechanics is the Giovanni Borelli Award,
which is given annually to an investigator who has con-
ducted exemplary research in biomechanics.
Summary
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli is described as the father of
biomechanics. He had a distinguished academic career.
He held the chair of mathematics at the University of
Messina. He later became professor of mathematics at
Pisa before returning to Messina. He was a prolific His
magnum opus was De Motu Animalium (On Animal
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli • Pope 2355
Motion) (Rome, 1680 –1681). It was published posthu-
mously in 2 parts between 1680 and 1681. In De Motu
Animalium, Borelli was the first to understand that the
levers of the musculoskeletal system magnify motion
rather than force, so that muscles must produce much
larger forces than those resisting the motion. The highest
honor of the American Society of Biomechanics is the
Giovanni Borelli Award, which is given annually to an
investigator who has conducted exemplary research in
biomechanics.
References
1. Middleton WEK. A little-known portrait of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. Med
Hist 1974;18:94 –5.
2. Schmitt CB. Campanella, Tommaso. In: Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 15. 68 –70.
3. Borelli GA. On the Movement of Animals. Berlin, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1989.
[Maquet is the translator.]
4. Blackwell RJ. A Defence of Galileo, the Mathematician from Florence by
Thomas Campanella. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press; 1994.
[Blackwell is the translator.]
5. Adelmann HB. Marcello Malpighi and the Evolution of Embryology. Ithaca,
NY: Cornell Press; 1966.