Tefl - Module 6 - 10 + Conclusion

6.
1 Teaching Listening ( REVISE )

6.1.1. Key Points
When comparing the four language skills of listening, speaking, writing, and reading, listening is
by far the most neglected.
Listening is often viewed as the easiest of the four skills and, hence, requiring less practice. But
this is untrue.
The mechanics:
1. Listening must be integrated with the other three skills.

2. Early classroom work must be based on the sounds of the language. Clearly, this is more difficult for
Chinese and South Korean learners than, say, Spanish and Italian learners. So, some groups of learners
will need more attention in specific areas.
3. You need to ensure that the learners experience a wide range of listening situations.
4. A key objective will be to let the learners experience a wide range of styles, e.g. formal and informal.
5. The listening materials must also aim, as soon as possible, to allow the learners to respond to the
speaker so that listening is one part of an interactive programme of learning.
6. Re marking, much of this will be focussed on whether or not they grasped the information – more of a
yes/no type marking, with an explanation as to why the answer given is correct or incorrect.
Listening passages:
1. You need to ensure that the learners do not get over-tired and make mistakes.
2. Always select materials which are appropriate to the level of the learners and their culture.
3. Ensure appropriate length in line with learner levels.
4. Ensure appropriate speed in line with the level of the learners.
5. Your job is to provide your learners with tasks that target specific sub-skills – not just listening for
information but also targeting sub-skills such as listening to instructions, predicting, etc.
6.1.2. Helping Learners To Overcome Barriers To

Listening
The difficulties for a learner listening to a language in which they are not yet fluent are
substantial.
For example, when compared with a native speaker, L2 language learners may find that:
 they may not be able to distinguish particular sounds adequately

 they may be unfamiliar with commonly-used lexis
 the speaker may appear to speak very quickly
 the sentence construction may differ radically from their language
 they may be unable to distinguish the critical elements from the unimportant parts of the message
 unlike native speakers, they may be unable to predict the speaker’s message before it has been
completed
Authentic speech creates problems for the listener

Much of the authentic spoken language we listen to is spontaneous and informal. This
spontaneity presents problems for the language learner:
 Brevity of chunks: Speech is typically broken into shorter chunks. In conversation, for example,
people usually take turns to speak, in short turns of a few seconds each.
 Pronunciation: The pronunciation of words is often blended or slurred, and noticeably different from
the phonological representation of a given word in the dictionary.
 Lexis: The lexis is often colloquial. In spoken English, for example, you might use guy whereas in
writing you would use man.
 Grammar: Informal speech tends to be somewhat ungrammatical. Utterances do not usually divide
neatly into sentences; a grammatical structure may change in mid-utterance; unfinished clauses are
common.
 Noise: There will be a certain amount of noise or bits of the discourse that are unintelligible to the
listener. This may be because the words are not spoken clearly or are not known to the listener.
 Redundancy: The speaker typically says a good deal more than is strictly necessary for conveying the
message. Redundancy includes such things as repetition, paraphrasing, and the use of fillers such as I
mean … well … er.
 Non-repetition: The discourse will not be repeated verbatim. That is, in a typical face-to-face chat or
discussion, the listener may only have one chance to hear and understand everything that’s being said.
How can you help your learners to overcome some of these barriers?
Time to reflect
Re listening practice, what do you think you can do to overcome some of the above barriers when your
learners are listening to a recording or listening to you while you read a passage?
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.
1. At an early stage, you need to help your learners to familiarise themselves with the sounds of the
language. This will mainly come from you. So, forget about restricting your Teacher Talking
Time (TTT) in the early days. Ensure you talk a lot.
2. Choose material that is appropriate for the level of your learners and the culture and background that
they come from. It should not place any additional burdens on the learners.
3. Ensure that the speed of the speaker and the length of the material are appropriate for your learners.
This might take the form of three short lines of dialogue for elementary learners or as much as three or
four minutes of listening for more proficient learners.
4. In the early days, ensure the speaker’s voice is clear and is not heavily accented. For best results, you
should do the speaking or dictation onto a recorder. They will be getting used to your voice, and so
there’ll be no additional burden at the early stages of listening.
5. Before you introduce them to a specific listening activity, always:
 Ensure they know most of the words in the passage they will be listening to.
 Tell them about the situation/context, before they listen, e.g. a brief description of the Great
Wall. Ensure the context/situation is as relevant as possible.
 Identify any problematic words or grammatical instructions or expressions and explain these
before they listen. Of course, if you make up your own materials, you will avoid these issues.
 Ask them to predict what they might hear in this descriptive piece about the Great Wall (e.g.
when it was built, who built it, its size/length, how many people visit it, etc.) Arouse their
interest! If they have completed a similar descriptive activity previously about a different
topic, refer to that and discuss what they heard in the previous activity.
 Encourage them to think back as to what came out of the previous activity.
Again, to arouse their interest and focus their concentration, give them a challenge: After
listening, I wonder who will be able to tell me how old the Great Wall is and how many
people visit it each year.
6. Through time, let the learners experience a wide range of situations. This is so important because of
their need to interpret different situations correctly and to be able to respond appropriately.
7. Through time, let them experience a wide range of styles, from the very formal language used in a TV
interview to the far more informal language used between learners or close friends.
Also, introduce them to different accents. Somewhere, there’s likely to be other native-English
speakers, e.g. working in a hotel or hospital, backpackers, etc. Invite them in; they’ll be delighted to
help.
8. Through time, the listening materials should also aim to let the learners respond to the speaker so that
listening is one part of an interactive programme of learning. In other words, the learners will not
merely listen, but will also respond with answers, questions, actions, group discussion, form filling,
drawings, and so on.
9. In real life, people listen for many different reasons. In the classroom, your task is to try to provide the
learners with tasks that target specific sub-skills. This will not always involve simply listening for
information but may also include skills such as listening to instructions, listening for keywords, or
predicting.
6.1.3. Listening Sub-Skills

Here are the critical listening sub-skills that you will help your learners to develop, depending on
their level.
1. General listening
General listening tasks can be provided for learners at any level. They can be quite brief for beginners
or considerably longer for more advanced learners. The text may be a short dialogue or a description,
and several general questions may arise from the text.
The questions will often be given to the learners after they have listened to the dialogue or the
passage.
2. Listening for specific information
Some listening practice tasks can also require the learners to listen out for particular pieces of
information, just as we do at the airport departure lounge or in the train station. In this case, the
learners must be aware of the task before they listen to the passage or the dialogue.
3. Listening for the message
With some listening tasks, the learners may listen for a complete message rather than for specific
pieces of information. The question, or questions, can be given to the learners either before or after the
listening task.
4. Following instructions
Following instructions, or directions, can provide an excellent form of listening practice. These
activities are commonly designed around charts, tables, diagrams, maps, drawings, and so on.
The learners may not be required to say anything immediately in response but may transfer
information received from you (or a recording) onto a table, map and so forth. In this way, they
demonstrate their understanding.
5. Predicting
The skill of predicting what might come/happen next can be effectively used to focus the listening
task and provide a clear guide to a learner’s level of understanding.
For example, you could read this out loud:
The group decided to walk to the top of the hill.
On reaching the top, they saw the haunted house.
The old, rusted gate creaked as they walked towards the door.
Suddenly, on reaching the door, they heard a noise coming from inside.
Then ask them to predict what happened next.
6. Listening for the gist
The learners listen to a text and try to formulate the main idea(s) of the text. A variation would be to
get the learners to listen to a text and then have them assign a title that best reflects the main idea or
theme.
7. Discerning attitude
Advanced learners will listen to a text and infer a speaker’s attitude or general tone, which can be
either implicit or explicit.
6.1.4. How To Structure An Effective Listening

Lesson
We haven’t covered your full lesson planning session in Module 7 yet, so we’re going to introduce you
further to the 5 Step Lesson Plan structure, softly, softly, during these skills sessions.
So, when we get to the full lesson planning session in Module 7, you will have a good grasp of the lesson
planning structure. It’s the same structure for listening, speaking, writing, and reading lessons. And
grammar lessons. So, that’s good!
Here’s how to plan your listening lessons:
Step 1: Opening
Engage your learners and capture their interest with a warmer, related to previous learning where
possible.
Can you remember what a warmer is?
Good!
Tell them what is about to take place and how it will happen, e.g. You will listen to a recording.
You are going to hear a family discussing their holiday plans.
Tell them about the importance of this activity and how it will help them.
Step 2: Introduction of new material
Address any potential misunderstandings.
Ensure that your learners continue to be engaged/interested.
Ensure you are taking everyone along, to the best of your and their ability.
Emphasise and reiterate your critical points made in Step 1, i.e. the importance of this new
learning and how it will help them.
Vary your approach to ensure you make information accessible to all your learners.
Ensure that your learners actively take in information, e.g. by asking well-structured questions,
asking them to demonstrate some point, asking them to give you their example, eliciting
information from them, using board work, using different types of realia including the learners
themselves.
Step 3: Guided practice
Continue to ensure your learners are engaged/interested.
Clearly state and model behavioural expectations, e.g. You are going to hear a family discussing
their holiday plans. After that, on this worksheet, you are going to list where each member of the
family would like to go.
Ensure that all your learners have multiple opportunities to practise.
Scaffold the practice exercises from easy to hard.
Monitor and correct learner performance.
Guided practice is often composed of a series of comprehension activities developing different
listening sub-skills, such as recognising sounds, words, phrases, cohesive devices; processing
authentic speech that has pauses or corrections; and inferring information.
In the Guided Practice Step, learners reproduce the targeted structure in a controlled activity to
focus on accuracy.
Step 4: Independent practice
Clearly state and model behavioural expectations.
Ensure appropriate tasks are set so that your learners can attempt to demonstrate independent
mastery of the objective, or progress towards this. This could be a pair discussing what they
heard or discussing their planned holiday.
Provide opportunities for extension (additional activity for those who finish early and have
completed the main activity successfully).
Independent Practice is often composed of you focussing on a specific element, such as lexis,
grammatical structure, register, or style, to ensure that learners have understood the content on
different levels and can apply comprehension to an element of language.
In the Independent Practice Step, learners use the new learning in a free and authentic
communicative situation, the focus of which is on developing learner fluency (as opposed to
accuracy).
Step 5: Closing
Allow your learners to summarise what they have learned.
Ask your learners to state the significance of what they have learned.
Provide all your learners with opportunities to demonstrate mastery of (or progress toward) the
objective, if any have not yet had sufficient opportunity to do so.
Set a homework activity if necessary. This will not necessarily be a listening activity. It could be
a short written piece related to /deriving from what they have listened to and heard. This will
give you another opportunity to assess their mastery.
6.1.5. Effective Listening Strategies, Exercises And

Activities
If your learners are going to be able to operate effectively, they need to be exposed to a wide
variety of different listening strategies and activities. Your goal is to make these listening events
interesting, productive, enjoyable, and fun (but not too much fun with adults).
Here are some of the most practical approaches:
1. Strategies
Questions And Answers

Very short exchanges can be used to provide elementary or lower intermediate learners with
practice in listening and understanding. The learners themselves can later practise exchanges like
this, preferably recorded.
Recording the learners is almost always enjoyed by learners even when they laughingly protest a
little at the beginning, saying they are shy about hearing their voice on the recording.
Short Dialogues
How the dialogue is recorded will affect its authenticity; traffic noise or café noise in the
background adds a further degree of authenticity.
Short Passages
Unlike dialogues, it’s not so easy to make the language authentic in a short passage; however, a
story with a touch of humour always appeals to learners. A wide range of factual questions could
be prepared together with one or two deductive questions.
Reordering Information
The learners are given several items on paper, written out in the wrong order: actions,
description, events, and so on. They are also given one or more specific tasks, and then they
listen to the text. The task(s) may involve categorising information, reordering actions in the
correct order, classifying events etc.
Information Transfer
Information transfer activities involve learners translating part of the spoken message into a new
format, such as a table, chart, picture, map, and so on. They may then use this new format to
carry out a further activity, such as working in pairs with a friend to solve a related problem.
Note that information transfer activities involve any transfer of any information in a text or
utterance to a new format. These include a listening passage to a table; a reading text to a
dialogue; a telephone conversation to a map and so on.
Using Humour To Develop Listening Skills

Language learning is much less painful if the learners have something to smile about from time
to time, and a bit of fun can do this.
Dictation
Dictation went out of fashion in language teaching for a long time, but it can be a valuable form
of listening practice, and it has now returned in revised forms. The important thing is that the
dictation passage should typically be one which the learners have met already.
It would normally be inappropriate with English language learners to give them a dictation
passage that they have never met before. This would be more like a test, which is very different
from practice.
Jigsaw Listening
This involves learners listening to different parts of a passage or a conversation (or different
passages and different conversations) and then coming together in pairs to try to complete a
particular task. Each person has a different piece of information.
The task might involve, for example, completing another dialogue or filling in a table or drawing
a map. With a large class, the learners can first be divided into two groups so that they listen to
two different recordings.
Then they get together in pairs with one person from each group. It is possible to prepare such
materials yourself, but you will occasionally find that jigsaw listening and reading tasks are
provided in your coursebook.
2. Some listening exercises and activities
Choose passages, topics and exercises that are participative, interesting, and good fun.
Here are some suggestions:
Add on
One learner starts with I went to the market, and I bought some apples. The next learner adds to
this: I went to the market and I bought some apples and a spoon. This continues until the
sentence is unmanageably long, and the learners start to get a bit confused.
This could be a competitive game with teams, but it would be better as a co-operative activity.
It’s good fun, and you can change the model sentence to anything you like so that you can do this
again and again in future classes.
Pass the message
This activity can be used to emphasise the importance of listening. One learner thinks of a
‘message’ and writes it down. The learner then whispers this to another learner, swiftly, and so
on. The message can only be said once, but it must be spoken clearly.
Nevertheless, however clearly the message is spoken, it will almost always be distorted in some
way or other, which often produces a comical sentence. It can then be compared with the original
sentence.
Think of a verb
Each group writes a short passage of about 3-4 sentences. The verbs (excluding the verb to
be) are removed from the passage. One member of, say, group A, then reads out the passage and
the other groups suggest appropriate verbs to fit the space.
The final version of the newly constructed passage can then be read in full and is then compared
to the original passage. This will often provide a lot of laughs. It can be done again in future
classes by changing the verb to a noun or adverb, i.e. linked hopefully to whatever else they are
studying.
What’s the word?
You spell out words quickly, and the learners must shout out the word.
Hands up!
You write up 5-10 words relating to what the learners have been currently studying. You then
incorporate these words into a passage. You read out the passage. Learners put their hands up as
soon as they hear each of the words.
Missing word
You write up 5 words relating to what the learners have been currently studying. You read out a
short passage – incorporating 4 of the words. After the passage has been read out, learners
suggest the missing word.
That’s not right You speak out an incorrect sentence – nothing too difficult, e.g. An elephant
big is. Learners must decide what the correct version should be.
6.2 Teaching Speaking ( REVISE )
6.2.1. Key Points
Speaking is generally thought of as the first of the productive skills (the skills used for producing
some language item), with writing being the second. This is not in order of importance, of
course, but it is generally true that learners learn to say something before they learn to write it.
Speaking is different from listening and reading, as these are receptive skills.
Speaking is different from writing in that we generally (though not always) seek to write in a
clear and grammatically accurate manner.
In contrast, when we are speaking, we generally (though not always) break all sorts of language
rules and produce hesitations and fragments of sentences that would usually be unacceptable in
written language.
This is why many language learners find it so difficult to understand native speakers. The
learners may have practised English by listening to smoothly spoken, accurate BBC or CNN
News speech separated into complete sentences.
It may be a shock to arrive in an English-speaking country and find that there are so many
different accents, with speakers who frequently make grammar mistakes and do not speak in neat
little sentences.
One of your aims must be to try to ensure not only that your learners can produce accurately
spoken English when necessary, but also that they can understand the sometimes-disjointed
spoken English used by native-English speakers.
6.2.2. Key Features Of Spoken English

Of the four skills, speaking seems intuitively the most important; after all, people who know a
language are referred to as ‘speakers’ of that language, as if speaking encompassed all other
kinds of ‘knowing’.
Interestingly, outside the classroom, it issaid that listening is used twice as often as speaking.
Speaking is a fully interactive process of constructing meaning. It involves producing and
receiving and processing information.
Its form and meaning depend on the purpose of those speaking, the context in which it happens,
the physical environment, the participants, and their collective experiences,
It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving.
Speaking requires that learners know how to produce specific points of language such as
grammar, pronunciation, or lexis, all of which comprise a linguistic competence.
Speaking also requires that learners understand how, when, why, where and in what ways to
produce language, all of which comprise a sociolinguistic competence.
Speech has its own structures, conventions, and skills, different from that of written language.
A good speaker, then, synthesises this array of skills and knowledge to succeed in each speech
act.
When presenting speaking tasks, you should inform your learners about the language function
that needs to be produced and the context(s) in which it usually occurs.
In a speaking lesson, be careful not to add in other new material such as lots of lexis or
grammatical structures.
Remember this: Fluency is speaking at a normal speed without hesitation, repetition, or selfcorrection,
and with cohesion and coherence. Accuracy is speaking, utilising correct forms of grammar, lexis, and
pronunciation.
You will be guiding your learners to attain fluency more than accuracy.
You can develop your learners’ speaking skills by regularly focussing on particular aspects of
speaking, such as fluency, pronunciation, grammatical accuracy, and body language.
The primary emphasis of conversation as a skill, however, is to teach learners how to express, or
produce, language.
6.2.3. Stimulating Learner Speaking

When planning an effective, productive, communicative speaking activity, you should ask the
following questions:
 Is it practical? Consider how easy the activity is to set up and manage. For example, does it need any
materials? Do the learners need time to prepare?
 Is it purposeful? Do the learners have a purpose for doing the activity? Is there an outcome?
If there is no purpose or outcome, why are they doing this?
 Is it productive? How much speaking will it generate?

 Is it adaptable? How versatile is the activity type? For example, can I adapt it for a higher or lower
level?
 In essence, does it give them a reason to talk?
Activities do not need to be complicated and need not be time-consuming to plan and develop.
Here is a practical example to demonstrate this:
Activity procedure:
1. In groups of three, each of you please write six sentences about your typical daily routine. Three
sentences should be correct, and three should be false.
2. Take turns reading aloud one sentence each to your partners.
3. Can you guess which of your classmates’ sentences are true or false? Explain why you think the
answer is true or false. If you are not sure, you can ask them questions.
This short exercise is practical and easy to manage. It has purposes of sentence construction,
questioning, giving responses, querying, and explaining. It is productive; it will generate lots of
discussion and fun. It could be used for any level.
Also, it would have taken you only 20 minutes or so to consider and plan this in your lesson
planning session.
6.2.4. Recognising A ‘Good’ Speaker

How will you know if you are guiding your learners to be ‘good’ speakers?
A speaker’s skills and speech habits impact the success of any spoken exchange. Speakers must
try to anticipate and then produce the expected patterns of specific conversational situations.
Time to reflect
How will you recognise a ‘good’ speaker?
Try and do this without looking at the next Section.
Well done!
Here’s what you need to look out for:
A ‘good’ speaker can:
 Select the correct lexis that is understandable and appropriate for the audience, the topic being
discussed, and the context in which the speaking occurs.
 Produce the correct sounds, intonation, stress patterns and rhythmic structures.
 Use grammar structures accurately.
 Manage elements such as turn-taking, rephrasing, providing feedback, or redirecting. For example, a
learner involved in the exchange with, for example, a station ticket seller, must know the usual pattern
that such an interaction follows and access that knowledge as the discussion progresses.
 Seek, rephrase, or emphasise words to clarify the situation if the ticket seller does not understand, and
use appropriate facial expressions to indicate, for example, satisfaction, confusion, etc.
 Assess characteristics of the participant(s), including shared knowledge or points of reference, status
and power relations of participants, interest levels, or differences in perspectives.
 Apply strategies to enhance comprehensibility, such as emphasising keywords, rephrasing, or
checking for listener comprehension.
 Use gestures and body language.
 Pay attention to the success of the interaction and adjust components of speech such as lexis, rate of
speech, and complexity of grammar structures to maximise comprehension and involvement.
6.2.5. How To Structure An Effective Speaking

Lesson
Can you remember the lesson structure we used for a listening lesson? It will be good if you can –
because it’s precisely the same structure for planning a speaking lesson!
Your speaking lessons should follow the same 5 Step Lesson Plan format we demonstrated in the
Listening Section.
Step 1: Opening
possible.
Can you remember what a warmer is?
Good!
Tell them what is about to take place and how it will happen, e.g. You will learn some words to
help you give directions to a visitor who is lost. You’ll help him find his way to, for example, a
shop or the train station or the police station
Tell them about the importance of this activity and how they can help the visitor and other
people.
Vary your teaching approach to ensure the information is accessible to all your learners.
asking them to demonstrate some point, asking them to give you their examples, eliciting
themselves.
Clearly state and model behavioural expectations, e.g. I’m going to give you a copy of this little
map. You’ll see that I’ve marked in red where you and the visitor meet and where the visitor
needs to go, to reach the train station. Think about the instructions you have just learned. Then
write them down in order on the worksheet.
focus on accuracy.
mastery of the objective, or progress towards this. This could be a pair giving each other
instructions to get to different places on the map.
accuracy).
Step 5: Closing
Set a homework activity if necessary. This will give you another opportunity to assess their
mastery.
Here are the practical points you need to know when teaching speaking:
1. Arrange your learners in pairs or small groups
By ensuring learners work directly with other learners, the amount of learner talk increases,
while the concerns of learners who are unwilling to speak in front of the full class decrease.
With group work, it’s unlikely you can monitor all learner speech. So, not all utterances will be
correct, and some learners may occasionally drift into using their mother tongue.
However, the amount of time available for useful oral practice is still likely to be far more than
the amount a learner would have in the full class approach.
2. Base the activity on clear and accessible language
Try to ensure that the level of language needed for a successful discussion/dialogue is lower than
the language they need when studying the language intensively. When practising speaking, it’s
vital that the learners can readily recall and produce the necessary language to enable them to
speak as fluently as possible.
Teach or review or recycle essential lexis before the activity starts.
3. Ensure the topic and task stimulate interest
The more stimulating the topic and task is, the more motivated participants will be. Problem-
solving, interviews, and role-playing are effective activities to stimulate interest.
4. Give adequate instructions or guidance in setting up the activity
If the activity is based on group discussion, tell your learners that everyone in the group must
contribute to the discussion. Appoint a chairperson in each group to regulate participation.
5. Keep learners speaking the target language
The chairperson in a group discussion can also remind the group participants that they must aim
to use the target language. He could then report later to you as to how well the group managed to
keep to it.
Being aware that someone is monitoring lapses into their native language encourages participants
to be more careful.
However, if you circulate all the time, reminding learners to stick to the target language and
modelling language use yourself, this will likely reduce any lapses into their native language.
6. Ensure your learners talk a lot
Ensure your learners are talking as much as possible during the period allotted for the activity.
Maximising Student Talking Time (STT) is the central goal of any class, but even more so
during a speaking activity.
7. Ensure learner participation is even
Ensure a minority of talkative participants does not dominate classroom discussion. All learners
must get a chance to speak, and contributions should be evenly distributed as much as possible.
Adjust the pairs/groups, as necessary.
6.2.6. Effective Speaking Strategies, Exercises And

Activities
variety of different speaking strategies and activities. Your goal is to make these interesting,
productive, enjoyable, and fun (but not too much fun with young adults and adults).
1. Strategies
Help your learners with speaking strategies, using strategies like minimal responses, recognising
scripts, and clarification and comprehension responses, which they can use to help themselves
expand their knowledge of the language and their confidence in using it.
1. Using Minimal Responses

Some beginner learners lack the confidence to speak. One way you can encourage learners to
begin to engage is to help them build up a stock of minimal responses.
Minimal responses are predictable phrases that conversation participants use to indicate
understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is saying; for
example: Oh, I see. Is that so? That’s good. Oh, sorry. I didn’t catch that.
These minimal responses enable a learner to concentrate on what the other participant is saying,
without having to plan a reply simultaneously.
2. Recognising Scripts
Many communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges. For
example, greetings, compliments, apologies, invitations, and other functions that are influenced
by social and cultural norms often follow patterns or scripts. For example:
Can I help you?
Yes, please.
It’s the same with exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making a
purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker’s turn and the one that follows it
can often be anticipated.
Help your learners to develop their speaking ability by making them aware of the scripts for
different situations, so that they can predict what they will hear and what they will likely need to
say in response.
3. Using Clarification And Comprehension Responses

Some learners are often too shy or embarrassed to say anything when they do not understand the
other speaker or when they realise that a conversation partner has not grasped what they have
said.
Encourage them to speak by assuring them that misunderstanding and the need for clarification
can occur in any interaction, no matter the participant’s language level. Importantly, you can also
teach your learners strategies and phrases to use for clarification and comprehension checks. For
example:
For clarification check:
 Do you mean …?
 Could you clarify that, please?
 Can you elaborate on that, please?
 Could you be more explicit, please?
 Could you explain what you mean by …?
 Could you give me an example, please?
For comprehension check:
 Sorry, I don’t understand.

 Sorry, I don’t know what you mean.
 Sorry, I’m not sure I’m following you.
 Sorry, I’ve missed your point.
 Sorry, I don’t see what you’re getting at.
By encouraging learners to use clarification and comprehension phrases in class and by

responding positively when they do, you can create an authentic practice environment within the
classroom.
As they develop control of various clarification and comprehension strategies, learners will gain
confidence in their ability to manage the different communication situations that they may
encounter outside the classroom.
2. Some Speaking Activities

Your aim is to get them to talk.
The classroom, of course, is an artificial environment for practising a language. Some learners
may find it a slightly scary place because they are continually being asked to say things in the
target language.
They may have little confidence in being able to speak correctly and fear being laughed at.
Ensure that your learners are happy and relaxed in the classroom and are willing to practise
speaking. A lot depends on the activities and tasks that you ask the learners to do and the way
you structure the practice. There are several points to remember:
 Don’t make the tasks too complicated or difficult.

 Prepare the learners properly so that they know what to do.
 Let them work in pairs or groups rather than having to perform in front of the class.
Here are some practical ideas:

A little-known fact
Ask learners to share their name, age, and one little known fact about themselves. This little-
known fact, e.g. I have a pet snake, can become a regular conversational element in future
interactions with partners in the classroom. That is, it gives the learner a reason to talk and
respond: I got it for my birthday. It loves eating mice. It is three feet long. No, it doesn’t bite.
The hot seat
A volunteer sits on a chair with her back facing the board. Then write a word on the board (for
beginners, tell them the word category or theme – this is likely to be lexis they are presently
studying). Then learners try to prompt the hot-seat learner into guessing what the word is by
describing it.
Interviews
Ask learners to get into pairs. Give them a short list of things they might ask about, e.g. favourite
sports, favourite food. Each person then interviews his or her partner for a set time while paired
up. When the group reconvenes, each person introduces their interviewee’s favourites to the rest
of the group.
A few of my favourite things
Whatever you’re talking about, ask your learners to share their top three favourite things relating
to the topic at hand. If you have time, turn it around: what are their three least favourite things?
And ask them why.
Describing a drawing/map
Learner A has a picture that she must describe to her partner B, who will then draw a picture
based on A’s instructions. This picture can be one that learner A has been given, or it could be
one that she has previously drawn.
Learner A then must describe the drawing to learner B. B is not allowed to look at the drawing.
She can ask questions to be clear about what to draw. Then they can reverse the roles. It is an
exciting and challenging activity, and the learners enjoy it.
Twenty questions
The learners work in groups, and one of them thinks of a well-known character (and writes it on
a piece of paper). The others must guess who the character is. They can ask questions such as Is
it a man? Is he a sportsman? Is he alive? Does he play basketball? And so on.
They cannot ask questions such as: Is she a sportswoman or a politician? These are two separate
questions. They can only ask a total of 20 questions; once they get the idea, a total of 10
questions may be enough.
Time for a change
Ask your learners to close their eyes while you change five things about yourself. For example,
you could take off one shoe, take off your watch, put on different glasses, put on your sweater,
and take off your ring.
Then ask them to pose questions to figure out the changes you have made. Learners could
ask: Did you take off a shoe? Did you take off your ring? This activity is good fun and, engages
learners, and gets them to think.
Find a classmate who In this exercise, learners stand up, circulate about the room, and ask
questions of other learners to find people who can do different activities, e.g. football, painting,
etc. Learners then report their findings back to class.
6.3 Teaching Writing ( REVISE )
6.3.1. Key Points
Your job is to ensure that the writing tasks you set your learners are appropriate in terms of level
and content and that your learners have adequate time to prepare.
If you manage this successfully, your learners should enjoy their written work, and provide you
with some satisfyingly well-written pieces of work.
Those learners that have a very different script in their first language, such as learners from
Arabic countries, will need help in this area.
Many people associate writing with writing compositions. However, we write for many different
reasons, in different ways.
One of your critical tasks will be to ensure that your learners understand the difference between
formal and informal writing styles and can use both appropriately.
We always write for a purpose, so ensure there is a real purpose in what you ask them to write.
To help learners adopt an appropriate tone, ensure they have a clear idea of the audience they are
writing for.
Remember this: In several educational cultures, the learners’ needs centre on learning the
language, rather than using known language creatively. Your learners are likely to need English
skills for practical reasons (study, examinations, career, travel) and will want their course to train
them to these ends.
For these learners, accuracy, fluency and the use of an appropriate register are far more critical than
imaginative pieces of writing.
6.3.2. The Mechanics Of Writing

Some of your learners may be unclear about what constitutes a sentence and paragraph and may
need practice in writing well-structured sentences.
They may ask for guidance about how many words they can write in one sentence.
It is quite likely that many of your learners will be unsure about paragraphing. Help your learners
to understand that a paragraph is a unit of meaning that addresses one particular issue. It is not a
unit of length.
Punctuation may be a problem for many learners – capital letters, full stops, and other structures.
Spelling can be challenging – encourage each learner to have a spelling book, point out words
that are often misspelt, give random tests and provide them with some basic spelling rules.
Remember – writing is one of the four language skills and, wherever possible, the skills should
be integrated in a way that helps them to reinforce each other.
Writing is the best way for the learners to reinforce language that has been practised in other
ways. The act of writing what they have already been listening to and saying and reading helps to
fix new patterns into your learners’ minds.
Writing is not a process that can be rushed. It takes time and thought, and appropriate
preparation; the type of preparation will depend on the task but should involve reading or oral
work or listening and discussion before the writing takes place.
6.3.3. Punctuation And Spelling Issues When

Writing
1. Punctuation
Punctuation may be a problem for many learners. We have already noted that many learners may
be unfamiliar with the use of capital letters and full stops. Also, they may need practice in other
areas. For example:
 The use of capital letters: for people’s names, places names, titles and so on
 Direct speech: “I am starving,” said Sebastián.
 Question marks: “Where is my bicycle?” asked Chen.
 Short forms: isn’t it can’t we shan’t we it’s
 Possessive forms: Hu’s pen the teachers’ desks its
 Colons and semicolons: : ;
 Commas: , Learners frequently have problems with commas.
Monitor the work of your learners and try to ensure that you cover any areas where they have
weaknesses. Provide them with custom-built practice exercises that address the problems that
they have.
Show them how punctuation contributes to meaning:
Examples:
A lot of the time, travellers worry about their luggage. Now delete the comma after the fifth
word to change the meaning of this sentence.
She is inspired by cooking her family and her dog. Put a comma after cooking to remove her
cannibalistic tendencies!
Look out: man-eating apes! Remove the dash to see what he’s having for dinner.
You will be required to work twenty four hour shifts. Putting dashes in different places leads to
other meanings: You will be required to work twenty-four-hour shifts.
2. Spelling
This is a bit of a challenge, even for native-English speakers, but it will be helpful to provide
your learners with some basic guidelines that will help them.
Encourage the learners to keep a personal notebook of their spelling errors, arranged
alphabetically. This is very important.
Point out words that the learners should learn, as they come across them in the language course.
Give the class occasional spelling activities.
Provide the learners with some basic spelling patterns:
 i comes before e except after c (ceiling, receive)

 when a vowel is short, the consonant is doubled (hop/hopping, pin/pinning,)
 when the vowel is long, the consonant is single (hope/hoping, pine/pining)
Focus the learners’ attention on -ible and –able patterns because these produce common errors,
e.g. horrable, readible. (Incorrect)
Point out words that are commonly incorrectly spelt.
Point out commonly confused words, e.g. off/of, hanged/hung, advise/advice, meter/metre,
their/there/they’re, desert/dessert, affect/effect, accept/except, weather/whether,
gorilla/guerrilla.
Don’t forget that there are some differences between British and American spelling:
e.g. colour/colour, humour/humor, practice/practise.
6.3.4. Different Types Of Writing
There are so many reasons why we write.
Your learners may need to write a formal piece such as a business letter, an essay, a dissertation,
a poem, a story, a legal document, a job application and CV, a report, a speech, a letter to a
newspaper, a newspaper article …
Alternatively, they may need to write an informal piece: a letter to a friend or relatives, notes,
reminders, shopping lists, emails …
We write for many different reasons, in different ways.
One of your tasks will be to ensure that your learners understand the difference between formal
and informal writing styles and can use both appropriately.
When we write, we always have an idea of the audience that we are writing for. It might be a
grandmother, a bank manager, our book club, the local Greenpeace group, the plumber, and so
on.
Even if we are writing a letter to a national newspaper in response to an article, we will still have
an idea in our minds of the person (the editor; the writer of the article) or the people (other
readers of this newspaper) that we are addressing.
Similarly, it is helpful for the learners if they too have a clear idea of the audience that they are
writing for. This helps them to adopt an appropriate tone.
On occasions, you can make the writing directly personalised so that the learners write about
themselves, or perhaps write about how they would respond in an imaginary situation.
You should introduce the following types of writing to your learners, depending on the
proficiency level.
Time to reflect
What types of writing do you think you should introduce to your learners, depending on the proficiency
level?
Well done!
1. Imitative writing: Appropriate for lower levels, imitative writing is when learners ‘imitate’ written
forms by writing alphabet letters, words, and short sentences. Dictation can also be included in this
stage. In dictation, you read a short text, and then reread it, breaking the text down into small chunks
that your learners will write as heard.
2. Self-writing: Self-writing has only the learner as her audience. Note-taking and journal entries are
examples of self-writing.
3. Display writing: The learner is showing or putting on display her writing for others. Short answer
responses, essays, and reports are examples of display writing.
4. Authentic writing: Authentic writing has a specific audience in mind and encompasses a wide range
of texts, from the academic, such as opinion pieces, to the personal, such as diaries, letters, postcards,
notes.
5. Creative writing: This is worth mentioning again. While creative writing is an essential part of any
English course for a native-English learner at school in an English-speaking country, it is far less
important for learners learning a second language.
This is not to say that such work should never be a part of an EFL course, but in the vast majority
of EFL courses the learners’ needs the on learning the language rather than creatively using
known language.
6.3.5. Writing Approaches And Processes

There are two general approaches to writing: process writing and product writing.
1. Process writing is an approach entailing several stages and requiring the development of a
variety of learner skills to produce a final piece, be it a simple sentence, a group of sentences, an
announcement, directions, a business letter, or a complete essay.
Key features:
 text/visual is simply a resource

 ideas as the beginning point
 more than one draft
 more global, focus on purpose, theme, text type, i.e., the reader is emphasised
 collaborative
 emphasis on creative process
2. Product writing is a more traditional approach, in which learners are encouraged to mirror a
model text. This is usually presented and analysed at an early stage.
Key features:
 imitation of model text

 the organisation of ideas more important than ideas themselves
 maybe just one draft
 features highlighted including controlled practice of those features
 individual
 emphasis on end product
More than likely, you will be teaching writing as a process.

Let’s explore the typical writing process.
The Writing Process
The writing process has three critical stages:
1. Pre-writing: This is the stage when the learner generates his ideas. These ideas can be
generated via a variety of ways, such as: reflecting; brainstorming; listing or making a timeline;
clustering, which is where one word stimulates free association; discussion or reading; and
automatic, or free, writing.
2. Draft: This is the stage in which the learner composes the first draft, focussing on getting some
ideas down on paper without worrying too much about spelling or grammar, and shaping his text
into a coherent form ready for self-critique or review by others.
Learners can then read their drafts to their pair or small group partners. They support and
encourage each other with useful comments and questions.
They can discuss the purpose of the writing, what the writer learned or hopes his partners will
learn, and what the reader likes best or has trouble with.
3. Revision: This is the stage when all feedback is complete and considered, and another version
is generated. There may be more than one revision until everything seems clear.
Then, editing can focus on spelling, grammar, punctuation, transition words (first, next), and
signal words (for example, Another reason is …) to ensure cohesion of ideas.
An editing checklist can help them to focus on specific points. They should use each other and
you as resources, in addition to their dictionary and grammar references.
Then they have their final piece of writing.
Depending on the class time available for writing, and the needs of the learners, there may be
some variations:
 For example, pre-writing activities such as brainstorming can be done orally or in writing, individually
or as a whole class.
 Learners might prepare their first draft in class or as homework, depending on how much time they
have outside class.
 You could have a short meeting with individual learners to discuss their writing and ask questions to
clarify ideas.
 As issues arise, you might spend class time working on specific points, such as how to develop an
effective topic sentence, with the entire class.
Writing is not a process that can be rushed. It takes time and thought, and appropriate
preparation; the type and amount of preparation will depend on the task.
6.3.6. Macro And Micro Skills A Learner Must

Develop To Be An
Effective Writer
There are many kinds of skills a learner will need to develop to produce effective writing.
Macro Skills
Some skills are at the macro level, such as writing activities that focus on content and
organisation.
Examples of activities that focus on macro skills would be: ordering paragraphs or sentences
coherently; determining the main idea or topic sentences; and creating cohesion using transition
words.
Writing is all about having a message and communicating it successfully to other people. To do
this, learners need to have developed macro skills sufficient to form ideas, to organise them well,
and to express them in a style suitable to the reader.
Micro Skills
Writing skills at the micro-level are related to promoting accuracy or using the correct written
form.
Such micro-skills include: learning how to spell and punctuate correctly; employing standard
layouts and formats; selecting lexis appropriate for the kind of writing; and employing correct
grammar and structure.
At the micro-level, learners practise specific written forms at the level of word or sentence; these
exercises are more controlled and focus on accuracy. Some examples of such micro-level writing
activities would be:
 Substitution exercises
 Sentence completion expressing meaning while using different grammatical forms
 Sentence extensions
 Spelling or punctuation exercises
 Information-gap exercises
 Reordering exercises
6.3.7. How To Structure An Effective Writing

Lesson
Can you remember the lesson structure we used for listening and speaking lessons? It will be good if you
can – because it’s precisely the same structure for planning a writing lesson!
Step 1: Opening
possible.
Tell them what is about to take place and how it will happen, e.g. You will learn some words or
chunks of words to help you describe your friend. That’s exciting, isn’t it?
Tell them about the importance of this new learning and how it will help them.
Use different approaches to ensure the information is accessible to all your learners.
themselves.
Clearly state and model behavioural expectations, e.g. So, you’ve learned some useful words and
chunks of words to help you describe your friend. On this worksheet, I’ve drawn some Sections
and put a heading in each Section. For example, the first Section is headed up ‘My friend’s
name and where he/she lives’. I want you to complete each Section with one or two sentences –
no more.
focus on accuracy.
mastery of the objective, or progress towards this. This could be a discussion in pairs where each
learner reads out their description to their partner and the partner thinks about anything that’s
missing or could be changed. Then vice-versa.
accuracy).
Step 5: Closing
mastery.
Writing lessons should follow the same 5-step format we have demonstrated in the Listening and
Speaking Sections above.
Here are the practical points you need to consider:
As with any activity you select or design for use in class, you should consider these types of
questions:
 Is there a communicative purpose to the task?

 Will learners find the activity motivating, stimulating, and engaging?
 Is the activity of an appropriate level for your learners; that is, will they find it too
easy/difficult/childish/too abstract?
 Will the learners produce whole texts? The more complete a text is, the more challenging a task it is.
 Is the writing in the activity relevant to learners’ needs? For example, having your young learners
write an employment query letter would not be pertinent to their needs.
 Is the task authentic? That is, is it a text they might produce in real life?
 How much preliminary teaching would I need to do in preparation for the activity?
 Who, or what audience, would the writing in the activity be intended for?
 What level(s) would I be able to use this activity for?
 Will the writing activity need more than one lesson to complete it?
Here are some common types of writing activities. Think about how you would apply the above
criteria to these activities.
Gap-fill: The learners choose the best answer to complete sentences.
Reproducing a model: Learners study a model text and then write their text based on the model.
For example, learners read a complaint letter and answer questions about the layout of the letter
and the content of each paragraph. Afterwards, learners write their own complaint letter.
Interactive writing: Learners interact in writing. For example, they write, and respond to, emails
to each other.
Composition: Learners write a composition (essay) in which they discuss, for example, the
achievements of a famous person.
Dialogue writing: Learners write a dialogue that includes pre-selected items. For example, they
must include six words that you give them.
When planning, ask yourself: Does the task I have set meet the following appropriate and
essential criteria? These are:
1. Communicative: Is it a communicative task? Note that a writing task is communicative if it requires

writers to communicate meanings to affect the thoughts or behaviours of their reader(s). The
production of sentences or texts to practise specific grammatical or textual features, although perfectly
justifiable as a form of practice, is unlikely to be communicative.
2. Integration: Does the task form a complete ‘message’ either on its own or as part of a series of
messages. The more complete a text is, the more challenging a task it is.
3. Authentic: Is it a real-life task? Remember! A task can be ‘life-like’ even if it’s not something that
learners themselves expect to do in real life, such as write a poem.
4. Readership: Is it aimed at an audience or not?
5. Level: Is the task geared at the ‘right’ level?
Keep in mind that each criterion is not of more or less value than any of the others. However, if
you check your task against this list and the result is a number of No answers, then it probably
does not provide sufficient preparation for the skill of writing.
6.3.8. Effective Writing Strategies, Exercises And
Activities
variety of different writing strategies and activities. Your goal is to make these practical,
1. Strategies
Research would seem to show that many learners do not employ many strategies when writing in
L2. The reasons are not clear. Anyhow, here are some strategies that some learners do use.
These will be useful for you so that you can introduce them to learners who have few or no
strategies to improve their writing:
 Rewriting spelling patterns to embed the word structure in their mind

 Copying pieces of text
 Writing numerous sentences with the structures they have recently studied
 Practise by translating a piece of writing in their L1 into English (and sometimes using a translator
tool to check it)
 Note-taking to increase their practice in writing
 Seeking amusing punctuation examples, where the punctuation changes the meaning, so that they can
grasp the differences that punctuation can make
 Writing word connections and phrases down for later use
 Consulting textbooks and dictionaries
 Summarising a larger piece of text
 Highlighting little chunks of language that they can later use in writing
In addition to making learners aware of these and other strategies, what can you do to drive them
on to perform better in their writing? You could:
 Let learners know that you value proficient writing. This may inspire them
 Regularly assign short writing pieces in your classes and for homework – not just filling in the blanks
 Draw up some writing guidelines. Learners welcome such handouts
 Remind learners that you had some difficulties when you were learning to write in a foreign language
– but you stuck at it
 Allow learners the opportunities to talk about their writing. Take five or ten minutes of class time for
learners to read their writing to each other in small groups or pairs. Learners need to hear what their
peers have written
 Emphasise to your learners that proficient writing skills are essential, both to their satisfactory
completion of the activity and to their future careers
 Provide adult learners with an anecdote about the implications of substandard writing or the value of
proficient writing. For example, you may talk about a job candidate who missed selection due to his
poor writing
 Read aloud quality writing done by a former learner and encourage learners to listen to its flow
 Encourage learners to notice grammar and punctuation they see in textbooks and other books and
articles
 Provide learners with poorly structured sentences from assignments of prior years. Ask the learners to
improve the sentences, and then discuss the improvements as a class
2. Some writing activities

Here are some solid, practical suggestions:
1. Copying text (for beginners)

2. Grouping: For example, learners are given three headings, say classroom, my kitchen, a fruit
shop, and a separate list of words, containing, say, teacher, fridge, tap, banana, etc.
They need to write the words under the right heading. You could also expand this to have a heading
with a question mark, where they write silly words from your list that do not fit under the other three
headings, e.g. a blue elephant, a square football, etc.
3. Substitution tables: When the learners use substitution tables, they take one item from each box to
create and write a new sentence. With a correctly prepared substitution table, if the learners select one
item from each box, they will always write a grammatically correct sentence.
old black coat. hat.
man
The poor is carrying buying a brown walking
woman
tall blue stick
4. Matching tables: This requires the learners to think very carefully before they match items and then
write a sentence. The result will be incorrect in terms of grammar or meaning unless the learners
select very carefully. This is not just copying. It requires thinking about meaning and accuracy.
her children day.

boy girl elderly
visits visit his grandparents every week.
The children young
their friend month.
5. Gap-filling: Gap-filling exercises involve the learners completing sentences using appropriate words,
often filling the gaps with the correct lexis or tense.
Examples:
In this exercise, the learners will use the verb base to form the correct tense.
 Thomas …… swimming in the clear, blue sea every morning. (enjoy)

 Maria …… in the shop today. (work)
6. Tables and charts: These can be used very effectively in writing exercises. The work can be designed
around the learners themselves to provide a more personal task.
For example, learners are asked to survey/interview 5 other learners and list information in a table
with the headings: name, sisters, brothers, hobby, and pets. The learners can then produce sentences
about the other five orally and then write them.
7. Reordering words/sentences and re-writing them correctly: Young learners could be given a
sentence where a word is in the wrong place, and they need to re-write the sentence so that it makes
sense. For example, I like to the guitar play.
Teenagers and adults, when they are ready, could attempt the re-ordering of sentences. We used this
example previously for a different purpose. This is intentional. It demonstrates that the same text can
be used for different learning purposes. You don’t always have to construct brand-new material. For
example:
They decided to walk to the top of the hill.
Suddenly, on reaching the door, they heard a noise coming from inside.
The old, rusted gate creaked as they walked towards the door.
On reaching the top, they saw the haunted house.

8. Sentence completion: The learners may be provided with alternatives to choose from, or they may be
required to decide how to complete the sentences for themselves. For example:
I wonder if:
they arrived tomorrow
they will arrive tomorrow
they have arrived tomorrow
Transformations: This involves the learners in altering an existing passage according to specific
instructions, e.g. changing it from positive to negative or present to past, etc.
9. Dictation: Ensure learners are already familiar with the text, perhaps from previous readings. If you
use a recording, ensure it is clear. Don’t be afraid to try recordings where the speaker has an accent, so
long as the words spoken are clear. Accents are a vital part of the real world.
10. Short essays based on pictures: For younger learners, you should try to use an explicit,
uncomplicated picture, e.g. a cat chasing a mouse. For older learners, though, there could be several
pictures from which the learners deduce what has happened. For example:
 Picture 1: Schoolboy misses the bus to school
 Picture 2: Arrives late; school clock shows the time
 Picture 3: Teacher appears to be giving him a row
 Picture 4: Back home, parent holds up a newspaper with the title page saying: Buses late
today.
 Picture 5: Boy takes the newspaper into school and shows it to the teacher
 Picture 6: Teacher looks apologetic
11. Dialogues: Learners could be given half of the dialogue and can use their own words to complete the
conversation:
A: What’s your favourite food?
B:
A: I don’t like them. I like pears.
B.
A. I’ve never liked apples because they’re sometimes sour.
B.
12. Letters: Informal mostly for younger learners; older learners may be ready for a slightly more formal
letter. Where possible, ask your Head of Department if you can pop these in the school’s mail basket,
with the school providing the stamps, so you don’t have to pay the postage. Alternatively, ask if it’s
possible to take the class to the post office if it’s not too far. If this all works out, get them to write a
suitable letter to their parents/caregivers. They will be thrilled and inspired when the
parents/caregivers thank them for their wonderful written letter.
13. Writing predictions: For young learners, predicting what might happen next in a story will usually be
done orally. With older learners, this could be done in writing. At various times in a story, you could
stop and ask them to write their prediction of what happens next. You could also use a suitable video
for predicting, stopping it at relevant parts and asking them to write their prediction as to what
happens next.
14. Projects: These are suitable for older learners. In groups, they could perhaps collate and write down
information from short interviews and surveys in the school; for example, they could interview some
teachers about what they like doing in their spare time. You would then guide them on how to collate
and group the information under headings, showing what the most and least popular likes are. To
make this even more interesting, you could ask your learners to try and predict and write down what
the top 3 likes might be before they carry out the survey. The person whose prediction is closest could
be given a small prize. Or, in groups, they could design a holiday leaflet/mini-brochure.
6.4 Teaching Reading ( REVISE )

6.4.1. Key Reading Points
Reading is a vitally important skill because it has the potential to open up a new world of
individual learning for the learners, distinct from the classroom.
It is a multifaceted activity involving several different skills, and it needs to be addressed in
several different ways; skilled teachers will ensure that they both challenge and interest their
learners.
Remember! The focus of all reading in an EFL class is the acquisition, understanding and
manipulation of their new language, and not creative ideas and interpretation of creative ideas.
Intensive reading is used to describe activities that involve the learners in analysing the text in
detail, interacting with the text and, of course, practising their new language via a range of
written and oral activities/exercises.
Extensive reading relates to opportunities provided to learners to read widely, using the books in
their class library collection, as well as the school library. This is often a neglected activity in
many schools and colleges.
When asked about the provision of reading opportunities for their learners, teachers often point
to the reading that the learners do in class, but what they are generally referring to is intensive
reading activities, often using comprehension passages. There is often little extensive reading.
Some teachers often complain that they are unable to provide for the learners’ extensive reading
needs because of the demands of the curriculum.
However, your job is to ensure as far as you can that your learners become independent readers
who can both understand and enjoy the pleasures of reading. This takes time, and it takes
resources, but it can be done.
Of course, it’s not always that easy. Learners’ attitudes to reading range widely from avid
interest and excitement (young learners) to total indifference (some older learners).
Make the reading enjoyable – choose or create passages, topics and exercises that are interesting
and topical, and which will result in fun. Don’t stick to the past-its-sell-by-date structure of
them reading a tedious passage and answering dull multiple-choice questions. Think
engaging, topical and humorous whenever you can.
A purpose
Just as with writing, we always read for a purpose, so ensure there is a real purpose in what they
are asked to read.
Sometimes our reason for reading is specific, such as when we read a holiday brochure or a
business report, or the next chapter of an exciting novel. In the same way, it is beneficial for the
learners if they too can be given a reason for reading just as they should be given a reason for
writing.
It is important not to merely adopt a fixed pattern of text + comprehension questions, even if this is the
dominant pattern in your textbook. How boring that sounds!
Using this example, you will see that there can be a much better approach:
1. Ask the learners about their town/city (or the one they go to regularly).
2. Ask them too about any problems or difficulties they have experienced (e.g. too much traffic, too
much litter).
3. Next, give them a letter from a person writing to the local government offices to complain about some
problems she experienced when visiting the town/city.
4. After they have read the letter, give them a copy of the local government website page or brochure
saying how wonderful a place it is for visitors.
5. Let them compare the two and identify the differences.
6. Get them to write a letter of explanation/apology from the local authority office.
A set of tasks like this that integrates the four language skills and which provides a solid basis for
reading will generate much more enthusiasm from your learners.
Use your skill and imagination!
Why some learners find reading difficult
We could discuss this for weeks without concluding. This is an ongoing discussion amongst
theorists, educationalists, and others.
Here are some practical ideas which are grounded in experience:
Linguistic challenges are not solely responsible for the difficulties. Reading in a foreign language
is tough.
Some may find difficulties with the lexis, grammar, and structure of the English language.
Reading also involves understanding the link/connection between sentences (coherence). These
sentences are connected by grammar and lexis where, for example, the ship in one sentence is
replaced by she in the next, e.g. The ship sails on Sunday. She should arrive there in two weeks.
But readers also need knowledge of the world for coherence: Alejandro was surprised that his
new classmate, Tom, was so good at football. Then he heard that Tom’s brother is signed up
with Real Madrid. The second sentence now gives us a possible reason why Tom is so good at
football, without it saying so.
But we can only figure this out if we know that sporting attributes often, but not always, run in
families.
The length can be daunting for some learners – lack of attention may be at the root of it. So,
don’t attempt too much at one go.
Some learners fail to see the value of extensive reading. Previous or present cultural differences
between the home and school (e.g. regarding educational values and expectations) may be the
cause. Alternatively, it could be the home literacy background; perhaps limited access to reading
in the past (due to socioeconomic status) is the reason.
6.4.2. Reading Sub-Skills

So, what do they think are the critical reading skills a learner needs to develop?
Time to reflect
What do they think are the critical reading skills a learner needs to develop?
Well done!
Here are the critical reading skills a learner needs to develop:
Silent reading
This is a skill that everyone needs to adopt to be able to read quickly and effectively. It enables
the reader’s eyes to flow rapidly and freely across the page, recognising the individual words and
internalising the meaning, but not pronouncing them. Discourage lip movements which lead to
staccato reading.
Skimming
This involves the readers in letting their eyes run rapidly over the text to discover what the text is
about in general. It does not require the learners to understand every word that they read.
Learners need to be taught and accept that unknown words will be present in a text and that it’s
an excellent skill to be able to deduce the meaning of a new word from the context.
Scanning
This is when the learners search through a text, looking for specific pieces of information.
Learners reading aloud
Some teachers do this frequently. It’s a bit difficult to comprehend why this is done when it is a
skill that very few people need to develop except, perhaps, advanced learners. How many times
do we have to read aloud to an audience?
The problem here is that time is taken from silent reading which everyone needs to develop.
There are several issues:
 You either have to ignore the mistakes or repeatedly interrupt the learner to correct.
 Silent readers generally read faster than someone reading aloud, so they will be reading ahead of the
speaker.
 Reading aloud can be traumatic for some learners.
 You need to decide how much reading aloud there will be in your classroom.
6.4.3. Who Does The Reading?

Unprepared reading aloud is not a great idea unless your learners are advanced and fluent,
although even then it is best done on a one-to-one basis.
If you do want your learners to read a short section aloud in class, it is a wise idea to give them
some time to prepare so that they know what they have to do and are confident that they can do it
well.
This will also be a much more enjoyable experience for the rest of the class.
Silent reading is the best alternative for those who can read to some degree of fluency and is
likely to be your best approach. You can give the learners a passage to read by themselves and
follow this up with activities.
Let them to read at their own pace, and you can follow this up with factual questions and ‘why’
questions on the text. Some reading can also be set for homework and then followed up the next
day in class.
What about you reading aloud? This is a wise idea, now and again in short spurts, because you
can put tone and meaning into the reading so that it will be more engaging for the learners.
It goes without saying, of course, that you’ll need to do all the reading aloud with absolute
beginner classes.
6.4.4. How To Structure An Effective Reading

Lesson
Last time for this type of question! Here goes: Can you remember the lesson structure we used for
listening, speaking, and writing lessons? It will be good if you can – because it’s precisely the same
structure for planning a reading lesson!
Step 1: Opening
possible.
Tell them what is about to take place and how it will happen, e.g. I’m going to introduce you to 6
new words and chunks of words which are all to do with avoiding danger. Then I’ll give you a
short passage to read. It will have 6 spaces in it, where you need to put in each of the 6 new
words and chunks of words which are all to do with avoiding danger.
Tell them about the importance of this new learning and how it will help them.
Vary your approach to make information accessible to all your learners.
themselves.
Clearly state and model behavioural expectations, e.g. On the worksheet, there’s a short
passage. It has 6 spaces/blanks in the text. I want you to read the passage and decide which
danger warning on the board fits best in each space.
focus on accuracy.
mastery of the objective, or progress towards this. This could be a pair discussing any situations
where they have seen people following the danger warning or not following the danger warning.
accuracy).
Step 5: Closing
mastery.
Reading lessons should follow the same 5-step format we have demonstrated in the Listening,
Speaking and Writing Sections above.
Here are the practical points you need to know to ensure an effective reading lesson:
1. Pre-reading
 Pre-reading activities introduce your learners to a text. Elicit or provide appropriate
background knowledge and allow them to identify what kind of text it is.
 Your intention is to arouse their interest and help them approach the text in a more
meaningful and purposeful manner, as the discussion compels them to think about the
situation or points raised in a text.
 The pre-reading phase helps them define selection criteria for the central theme of a story or
the primary argument of a text.
 Pre-reading activities can include: discussing text type; brainstorming; reviewing familiar
lexis; considering titles or illustrations, and some skimming and scanning for main points.
2. During reading
 Giving short activities during reading can help your learners to develop reading strategies and
will help them break down difficult chunks of text. Assisting learners to employ strategies
while reading can be challenging, e.g. guessing word meanings by using context clues,
because individual learners control and need different strategies.
 Nevertheless, you can pinpoint valuable strategies, explain which strategies individuals most
need to practise, and offer concrete exercises in the form of guided-reading activity sheets.
3. Post-reading
 Post-reading exercises first check learners’ comprehension and then lead learners to a more
in-depth analysis of the text, when warranted (i.e. depending on their competency).
 Different strategies will differ with varying types of text. For example, scanning is an
excellent strategy to use with newspaper ads. Predicting and following text cohesion are very
effective strategies to use with short stories.
 By discussing in groups what they have understood, learners focus on information they did
not comprehend at all or did not comprehend correctly. Discussions of this nature can lead the
learners to analyse the text. Gradually, class discussions proceed from simply determining
facts to exploring deeper aspects and meaning of the text.
Follow-up exercises
Follow-up exercises take learners beyond the particular reading text in at least two ways:
 By transferring reading skills and strategies to other texts

 By integrating reading skills with the other language skills
6.4.5. Effective Reading Strategies, Exercises And

Activities
variety of different reading strategies and activities. Your goal is to make these practical,
1. Strategies
 Guessing word meanings by using context clues
 Word formation clues
 Considering grammar and sentence structure by noting the grammatical functions of unknown
words
 Analysing reference words
 Predicting text content
 Reading for specific pieces of information • Learning to use the dictionary effectively.
There are many integrative activities you can use. Use your imagination!
Here are some practical ideas:
 Matching/contrasting – e.g. matching/contrasting the characteristics of two individuals in the story

 Timelines – these lines will help them to understand the way a text is structured with tense changes,
linking words and flashbacks
 Character study – depending on the content, you could make this much more interesting by getting the
learners to complete, say, a doctor’s report or a police report on the character
 Learners reacting to texts by writing summaries
 Writing new endings
 Re-enacting the text
 Dramatising interviews based on the text
 Carefully listening for keywords or phrases from the text which are in authentic video or on audio
recordings
 Creating role-play situations of cultural experiences based on the text
 True/false questions, factual questions and ‘why’ questions as a basis for discussing the text (not
testing)
 Gap filling – the gaps might all be words from the passage; alternatively, they might be linking words
that hold the sentences together; they could also be grammatical items
 Distinguishing fact from opinion
 Drawing conclusions
 Relating what they have read to their experiences or other texts
 Noting contradictions and inconsistencies, perhaps in what characters say and do
2. Some reading activities
These can be used both by younger and older learners. You can adapt them a bit, e.g. perhaps
only using separate words with younger learners but using sentences with older learners.
Here are some suggestions:
Distraction
To liven up your reading materials, bring a learner from each group to the front of the class and
have them all try to finish reading the extract simultaneously while you are trying to distract
them with silly comments, sound effects, funny faces, or any other way, without touching the
learners.
Award points for the first person to finish reading or the one who kept a straight face for the
longest.
DVD control buttons
Draw a DVD player control panel on the board, i.e. a box with a series of buttons; play, pause,
slow motion and fast – but not rewind. Use the symbols that you would see on a DVD player.
Get the class to read out the extract or story together.
When you hit a ‘button’, they must adapt their reading style accordingly, i.e. start, stop, slow
down, speed up, etc. Develop the game further by adding buttons with happy and sad faces,
musical notes (indicating that they sing instead of read). Be creative. The possibilities are
endless.
One learner one word
Before you start reading as a class, put your learners into teams. Go around the room, getting the
learners to read the story or extract – one person, one word. When a learner says the wrong word
or delays for more than 3 seconds, give the other team a point.
Encourage them to be alert and to keep a fast pace going.
Read to me circle
Get the learners to stand in a circle with their reading books. Designate pairs within the circle
and instruct them to read to each other simultaneously. When you shout Switch!, they turn to the
person on their other side and start reading to them instead.
Walk and read
Tell your learners to stand up and hold the reading book close to their faces. Have them read the
book while walking around in a specific direction or any random fashion. Tell them to hop and
skip etc. to mix it up.
Upside down reading
Put learners into pairs. Have them hold their book upside down and race to read through the
extract. After each round, tell them to switch partners and do it again.
Banned words
Before you start, say that words with a particular grammatical value are banned, e.g. on, over,
under, before. It could be anything: words that begin with a specific letter or a past participle
verb. Read the text, and when a banned word emerges, learners must replace it with a sound or a
different word.
Reading bingo
Tell learners to choose 10 random words from a reading extract and write them down. Read out
random sentences from the text. When learners hear their words, they cross them out. The first
learner to cross out their 10 words is the winner and becomes the reader.
Note that many activities already discussed for speaking, writing, and listening can also be used
for intensive reading, e.g. identifying mistakes, reordering sentences, etc.
Well done! Another Module completed! What you have learned here will help you better understand the
four skills and will have demonstrated the range of simple activities you can use to help your learners
learn.
And there’s lots more to come!
Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 6.
It’s not difficult. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 7, where we will focus in-depth on how to plan and present lessons –
the greatest skill of all. Get to grips with this and your life in the classroom will be very relaxed and very
enjoyable. And very relaxed and very enjoyable for your learners too!
7.0 Intro
This is your Very Important Lesson Planning and Lesson Presentation Module, perhaps the most
critical Module of all.
No matter how good your knowledge and understanding of EFL is, total success will be difficult to
achieve if you don’t have the requisite lesson planning application skills to underpin your knowledge
and understanding.
Any mistakes or omissions in lesson planning and lesson presenting can end up with your and your
learners’ objectives not being achieved and can spoil all your hard work.
You have already picked up good ideas about lesson planning from:
 Module 2: Section 2.9. Example Lesson Plan

 Module 6: Lesson plan structures set out for listening, speaking, writing, and reading lessons.
So, you have made an excellent start.

Remember this! Planning and presenting lessons is not difficult. It’s just that there’s a lot to think
about, consume, remember and put into practice. Your aim must be to get it right first time!
‘Alice in Wonderland’
The Cat only grinned when it saw Alice. It looked good-natured, she thought: still, it had VERY long claws
and a great many teeth, so she felt that it ought to be treated with respect.
‘Cheshire Puss,’ she began, rather timidly, as she did not at all know whether it would like the name: however,
it only grinned a little wider.
‘Come, it’s pleased so far,’ thought Alice, and she went on. ‘Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to
go from here?’
‘That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,’ said the Cat.
‘I don’t much care where —’ said Alice.
‘Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,’ said the Cat.
The Cheshire Cat is right, of course. If Alice doesn’t know where she is heading, and she has no
objectives or achievement goal, then it doesn’t matter which road she takes. She can just wander
aimlessly, and she won’t know if she has reached her destination (her goal) as she never had one
in the first place.
However, you must never do this with lesson planning and delivery. You need to mark out your
route very carefully, step by step, and stick to it as fully you can, only altering it when you must.
You owe this to your learners. You need to guide them carefully towards the successful
completion of the learning.
To do this, you need a carefully constructed blueprint – a lesson plan – to guide you where you and your
learners need to go and to ensure you and your learners arrive there.
7.1 Lesson Objectives and Goals

When planning a lesson, you first need to decide on your lesson objectives, which are steps towards your
overall achievement goal.
Your achievement goal is your final goal, your ultimate achievement, your destination. This means your
learners have learned what you set out to teach them. You will have set this for some time in the future – a
specific date when your intended end goal is achieved. It may be the next day, or in a few days or it may be
several weeks ahead. It all depends on how much content needs to be covered.
Objectives are the steps you take to achieve that goal.
Example of objectives and achievement goal: Running a marathon
For example, let’s imagine you have never been a runner. But you wake up on October 1 and decide that you
are going to run the Tokyo Marathon on March 1. Good!
So, running the Tokyo Marathon on March 1 is your final destination, your achievement goal.
But how do you get to your achievement goal? You need to set down several steps – objectives – to achieve
this.
Objectives such as:
 seeking advice from those who have run a marathon before

 reading a good running book, written by a successful marathon runner
 researching and buying the right equipment, again with the help of a regular marathon runner
 deciding on a realistic timeframe for completing your training
 drawing up a training and body strengthening plan and so on.
These are your objectives, the steps you need to take, which will help you to achieve your achievement goal on
March 1.
Here is another brief example in the classroom arena:
Example of objectives and achievement goal: Teaching comparatives and superlatives
Your achievement goal for your first term with your beginner class is: To ensure that my learners can utilise a
wide range of common comparatives and superlatives, in speech and writing, relative to their age and level,
by 20th December.
Here is your objective for the first lesson: To introduce my learners to the comparative form of 2 adjectives
(bigger, smaller) and to ensure by the end of this lesson that they will be able to utilise these forms in speech
and writing.
Notice that your first objective doesn’t mention superlatives. Your learners need to grasp the comparative
form before they move on to the superlative form. So, you’ll set other objectives on other later days, taking
you step by step to achieving your goal.
SMART Objectives
Your objectives need to be tight.
An effective way to test whether your lesson objective is tight enough is to use the mnemonic SMART.
This is an aide-mémoire for:
 Specific: Is it clear what I aim to do?

 Measurable: Is it measurable?
 Achievable: Is it achievable?
 Realistic: Is it realistic?
 Time-based: Is it time-based?
A syllabus and a course textbook, if you have one, will give you a general direction for planning your
teaching. However, if there is no syllabus or coursebook, you will still succeed if you stick to all the practical
advice we offer in this Module.
To decide on a specific objective for a particular lesson, you always need to think about your learners’ specific
learning needs at that time and the stage they have reached in their learning.
To decide on your objective, you will need to say to yourself:
What do I want my learners to be able to do by the end of the lesson, assuming they are ready for this?
Your answer, then, will be the objective of your lesson.
Then you must write it down. Your objective might say something like this: By the end of this lesson, learners
will be able to use 3 prepositions of place (at, in, on) in speech and writing.
Alternative writing might be: To enable the learners to use 3 prepositions of place (at, in, on) in speech and
writing by the end of the lesson.
Don’t get too hung up about the wording. Just make it clear, concise, and SMART.
So, your objective describes what your learners will be able to do with the language by the end of the lesson.
One way to verify that an objective is effective is to ensure that the outcome can be assessed. That is, after
the lesson, will you be able to assess the learners on 3 prepositions of place by correctly forming questions or
answers relating to these 3 prepositions and they will be able to demonstrate form, meaning and usage. Reflect
on all of this – it will set you on the right path.
7.2 Various Lesson Objectives
Objectives may focus on a range of learning needs. They could focus on, for example:
 A function (e.g. refusing a request)

 A grammatical structure (e.g. the comparative)
 A particular topic or theme (e.g. ordering a meal)
 Developing a language skill (listening, speaking, writing, reading, pronunciation)
 Listening to a story for pleasure
 Identifying different English accents or dialects
 Encouraging a positive attitude to learning the foreign language
In reality, you may include more than one of these objectives in your planned lesson plan.
For example, the lesson is set in a train station (situation); the language to be learned could be making requests
(functional language); the specific language structures could be: I would like a timetable for trains going to …
Please can I have …? Do you have …? All four language skills may be practised during the lesson.
But stick to one overall (main) objective in the lesson or learners may get confused. Don’t attempt too
much. So, the overall objective of this lesson could be: By the end of this lesson, my learners will be able to
request in speech a train timetable in the station, using the appropriate language structures.
Note that you could have more than one objective in a lesson, but these are likely to be secondary objectives –
perhaps a personal objective for yourself: By the end of this lesson I will also be able to reduce my TTT
(Teacher Talking Time) by using a range of gestures.
Perhaps your Head of Department has suggested to you that you try out some gestures to reduce your TTT. So,
while you are working on the main lesson objective, you may also have this secondary personal objective
going on in the background. You would still note this on your lesson plan.
This is your personal objective that you are hoping to achieve in addition to the main objective of: By the end
of this lesson, my learners will be able to request in speech a train timetable in the station, using the
appropriate language structures.
Remember! Some lessons may be introductory, some may continue work from a previous lesson, some may
build on and develop work from an earlier lesson, some may practise skills learnt in previous lessons, some
may be designed to enrich and extend points made and concepts studied in previous lessons, some may
complete a unit of work and some may be used for diagnostic assessment. So, your objectives will differ from
day to day and week to week.
7.3 Purpose and Principles of Lesson

Planning
The key purpose of a lesson plan is to guide you through your lesson so that successful learning takes place.
It is a blueprint, a roadmap for success. Put simply, it is a set of notes that help you to think through what you
are going to teach and how you are going to teach it. It also guides you during and even after the lesson when
you reflect and evaluate how your lesson went.
Time to reflect
Even although you have just started this Module, you will already have some lesson planning
knowledge, reaped from what you have already covered during this course.
Also, you have already been through many years of schooling in the past. Think about one of the
teachers you had. What do you think your teacher needed to take into consideration when planning a
lesson?
The points are not complicated. They are just common sense. And they are all practical points.
So what do you think are the key points you need to take into account when planning a lesson?
Well done!
Here are some practical lesson planning tips. If you follow these, you won’t go wrong:
1. Plan carefully
To become a competent and effective teacher, you must commit to planning all your lessons carefully. Plan,
plan, and plan again. If you don’t, it won’t work out well for you or your learners.
2. Don’t wing it
Some teachers go into a classroom without a lesson plan, thinking they will be able to ‘wing it’. Oh really! As
the adage goes, however, If you fail to plan, you’ll plan to fail. Never get too big for your boots – treat your
learners with respect and fairness.
Spending more time planning a coherent and cohesive lesson before the lesson will make it easier for you in
the classroom (perhaps over several lessons) as you will not be expending any extra effort trying to figure out
what to do next. This will allow you to attend to your learners in-depth.
Also, the more you teach using effective lesson plans, the less time you will have to spend intensively planning
in the future.
3. Keep your lesson plan tight
Don’t write pages and pages of detail that will be difficult to refer to in the classroom.
Remember! Don’t describe every step or procedure in intricate detail or your eyes will be focussing on
the plan and not your learners.
4. Keep it clear and simple
Try to make your lesson plan clear and straightforward so you can easily refer to it. The various steps must be
numbered clearly.
Later in this Module, we will introduce you to our full 5 Step Lesson Plan, where all the steps are numbered.
Don’t sub-divide the steps into several further steps because this is likely to be confusing for you.
A lesson plan should be clear and easy to read during the lesson. Assorted colours, boxes, and underlining are
useful. Use abbreviated notes or bullet points.
Remember this! Always imagine that if you are ill, you may have to give your lesson plan to a colleague to
teach, so make it clear and straightforward so that your colleague can teach from your plan if necessary.
5. Don’t depend on your memory
Incorporate examples of language that you are introducing or practising within the appropriate step. This will
help to remind you as you teach because it is easy to get a little bit confused.
6. Add variety
Your learners will likely have different strengths and different ways of learning. Some will learn better by
speaking, while others will learn faster by reading or looking at pictures. Some of them may learn best by
speaking and writing.
By providing your learners with a variety of activities, you will maximise their opportunities for
learning.
In any case, all your learners will benefit from a change of activity during the lesson. A switch from listening
to speaking will immediately invigorate your learners and give them something new to do.
However, if the speaking goes on too long, they may start to wilt. A switch to a writing activity will provide
the spark to get your learners actively involved again.
You will soon discover that one activity can be utilised in a variety of ways. For example, you might start by
asking the learners questions, then move them on to look at a table, then get them to listen to a recording based
on the table and, finally, you might give the learners a writing task based on the recording/table.
This integration provides variety and a much more interesting and engaging lesson for your learners.
Some coursebooks seem to concentrate on particular skills. For example, you may find that your coursebook, if
you have one, has a large number of speaking activities. However, even the most ardent learner does not want
to spend consecutive lessons speaking in pairs and groups.
So, if this is the case with your coursebook, it is essential to supplement it with your additional activities that
cover all the language skills. The language skills are mutually reinforcing, and it is vital to provide your
learners with practice that includes all the skills as much and as often as possible.
Your lesson may last 40 minutes, 60 minutes or even longer but, whatever the length, try to ensure that there is
variety. It is normally challenging to concentrate on learning a new language for 40 minutes if the lesson
consists of only one activity.
A much more successful approach is to divide the lesson into different portions so that the learners can
practise the target language in different ways.
7. Don’t attempt too much
And remember this: You must not attempt too much in one lesson. If you do, you will lose your learners.
Keep it simple. Focus on the key points/steps in a logical and sequenced structure; leave subsidiary points for
another day. Don’t add in any new points/steps you haven’t planned.
8. It usually turns out fine
If you haven’t had any teaching experience, lesson planning may seem a bit challenging. After all, it’s hard to
know what to expect, particularly concerning everything that could potentially go wrong.
It must be said, however, that lots of things will go wonderfully right. The good news is that even a little
bit of practice and experience will bring the lesson planning process into sharp focus for you.
7.4 Deciding What to Present for Learning

How do you decide what to present? The answer to this will depend very much on the teaching
situation that you are working in.
Three main factors will influence what you present:
1. The needs of the learners: Of course, it’s not always apparent what those needs are. But very
quickly, through involving them in all the skills areas, you will start to draw up a needs picture
based on your needs analysis.
2. The syllabus: In some schools, you may find a syllabus which can help you to decide what to
do. However, there may not be one. Therefore, you will have to depend on a coursebook or
advice from colleagues.
3. The coursebook: This will probably be the most practical guide. Coursebooks rarely follow the
same order in presenting new structures, but at least some thought has been given to the whole
process and, especially where you are starting in the EFL field, you’ll probably feel more
confident if you follow its lead.
You can add your supplementary materials to enhance this. However, again, there may not be a
coursebook, and so you’ll have to rely on advice from your Director of Studies or Head of
Department and other colleagues.
On our travels, we’ve heard a few new and inexperienced teachers saying that their decision on
what to present was based on their intuition. Wow!
However, as intuition has no place for conscious reasoning, it’s unlikely to be very successful
when planning what to do and how to do it in the EFL classroom. Intuition is useful in other
parts of our lives, but a learner’s progress and future cannot solely be based on the teacher’s
intuition. So, if you are new and inexperienced, take care with intuition.
7.5 Logical and Sequenced Planning
Let’s step out of the English teaching arena for the moment and reflect on logical and
sequenced planning in another learning arena.
Example – Introductory Lesson on the Second World War
If you were a history teacher, it would be foolish and wrong to leap into teaching teenagers about
the Second World War from 1939 without addressing the events that led up to this.
It would necessitate going back first to describe the failure of the League of Nations and the
European powers to halt Hitler’s previous transgressions in rearming and invading other
European countries and so on, without anyone doing anything about it. Germany was fully ready
for war, but other European countries were not.
This would be a logical step which would better enhance the learners’ learning and
understanding.
When you get the logical sequencing wrong, learners will become confused, and you will have to
do a lot to get them back on track.
Perhaps the most critical part for you will be the various steps of the lesson. These will need to
be thought through very carefully if your lesson is to be a success.
You can never omit the lesson steps because this is the core of your plan; even if the time is
running out too quickly, you need to complete each step in the learning process. You may
have to leave a bit until the next lesson.
If you have thought the steps through with care and logic, your learners will continuously be
pushing the boundaries of their language competence forwards.
The steps outlined in your plan will include the lesson activities. These will be the various
activities that form a central part of your lesson; for example: Tell the learners to work in small
groups and place the items in order of importance.
The steps should be clearly defined and logical in their progression, with each step building on
the one before. Next to your plan, you may have the notes on a game, role-play cards, a gap-
filling activity, or whatever else you want to use in the lesson.
What you need to aim for is a lesson plan with logical and sequenced steps and a clear
outcome at the end.
Example
Let’s imagine that the theme of your work for the week is Family. In the first one or two of these
lessons, you could do the following, in a logical progression:
 Ask the learners to write a list of words/phrases showing what Family means to them (e.g. love,
fun, being cared for, liking, sharing, etc.).
 Get them to compare their list with their partner.
 Write Family in the middle of the board and ask learners to come and write one or more of their
words/phrases around the central word.
 Ask them to agree on the five most important points.
 Listen to a recorded dialogue with two friends talking about Family.
 Complete a writing task – sentence completion activity based on the dialogue.
 Read a passage on Family.
 Answer questions (factual as well as ‘why’ questions).
A variety of different activities like this would keep the learners engaged and interested, and
consequently learning more successfully. A sequence like this would provide the learners with
practice in listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Each language skill would have the same focus (family), and each one would reinforce the others
and build up the learners’ knowledge and confidence step by step. The different activities would
also involve the learners in working individually, in pairs and as a whole class. The variety of
activities would also help to maintain the learners’ attention and engagement.
7.6 Main Components of a Lesson Plan
Remember this again: A lesson plan is a blueprint, a road map that guides you through our
lesson.
1. At its most basic level, it’s a set of notes that help you to think through what you are going to
teach and how you are going to teach it.
2. A lesson plan should be clear and easy to read during the lesson. Assorted colours, boxes, and
underlining are useful. Use notes, bullet points, abbreviations to keep it tight.
3. Don’t describe every step or procedure in great detail.
4. In general, though, you won’t go wrong at any time if your plan is coherent and cohesive,
learner-centred, contains sufficient variety, and has a degree of flexibility.
What it could look like

There is no global, definitive format for a lesson plan. Some schools may have a template for
lesson plans, and you may be asked to follow this. However, this doesn’t happen often.
We have constructed a lesson plan template for you. This is based on a format we have used for
many years and still serves us well to this day. We have introduced this format to you already,
particularly in Module 6.
It is a clear guide, covering the 5 steps of a lesson. At first sight, it may seem a little bit daunting
but, if you stick with it, you’ll find you can adapt the content quickly to fit any lesson without
spending time on drawing up new and different templates.
Here is a copy of our 5 Step Lesson Plan Template. It contains solid, reliable guidance on
what you should be aiming for and thinking about at each step. Obviously, when designing your
specific lesson plan, you will need to expand the boxes on the template. Let’s explore this until
you feel you have a good grasp of it. Go through this slowly, reflecting on all the questions under
the main heading.
7.7 Step Lesson Plan and Explanation of
the 5 Key Steps
It would be a good idea to print off the template below. You can look at it while you go
through the summaries of all the steps below it.
So, here’s what you need to do:
In this Section, get familiar with the template and at the same time trawl through the
summaries about all the steps which are printed below the template.
5 Step Template Class:
Level: Date:
CONNECTION TO
ACHIEVEMENT
PRE- OBJECTIVE. What will your learners be able to do
GOAL.How does the
PLANNING by the end of the lesson(s)?
objective connect to your
achievement goal?
ASSESSMENT. How will you prove that your
PRE- learners have progressed toward the objective? How
PLANNING and when will you assess mastery or progress towards
mastery?
OPENING. (__ min.)How will you engage your
learners and capture their interest?How will you tell
LESSON them what is about to happen?How will you tell them

MATERIALS.
CYCLE how it will happen?How will you tell them about its
importance?How will you tell them about connections
to previous lessons?
LESSON INTRODUCTION OF NEW MATERIAL. (__
CYCLE min.) What key points will you emphasise and

repeat? How will you ensure that your learners
actively absorb the information?How will you vary
your teaching approach to make information accessible
to all learners?Which potential misunderstandings will
you anticipate? Why will your learners be
engaged/interested?
GUIDED PRACTICE. (__ min.)How will you clearly
state and model what’s expected?How will you make
certain that all learners have several opportunities to

LESSON
practise?How will you scaffold exercises from easy to
CYCLE
more difficult?How will you monitor and correct
learner performance?Why will your learners be
engaged/interested?
INDEPENDENT PRACTICE. (__ min.)How will you
clearly state and model what’s expected?How will
LESSON learners attempt to demonstrate independent mastery
CYCLE of the objective?How will you provide opportunities
for extension (more practice)?Why will your learners
be engaged/interested?
LESSON CLOSING. (__ min.)How will learners summarise
CYCLE what they have learned? How will learners be asked to
describe the significance of what they have learned?

How will you ensure all learners have had
opportunities to demonstrate mastery of (or progress
toward) the objective?Why will your learners be
engaged/interested?
Summary Of The 5 Step Lesson Plan Template

ACHIEVEMENT GOAL SUMMARY
It’s best to start with this. This is your long-term instructional achievement goal. This
achievement goal may perhaps take a day, some days, weeks or a whole term or school year.
You will achieve this by completing a range of objectives, smaller steps in, perhaps, several
lessons which will achieve the big goal. Write down your achievement goal, as explained earlier.
OBJECTIVE SUMMARY
Do this next. Here you state clearly and succinctly what you hope to help your learners achieve
in the lesson.
Note that a learning item may take more than one lesson. That is, you cannot possibly hope that
your learners will master the comparison of all common adjectives (e.g. big, beautiful, etc.) in
one single lesson. It’s just not possible.
So, think: What exactly do I want my learners to be able to do by the end of this lesson (or
several lessons)? Try to visualise what it will look like when your objective is achieved. This is
your vision of your learners’ mastery. Write down your objective (or objectives).
ASSESSMENT SUMMARY
Then do this. Once you’ve got a grasp and vision of what you want your learners to be able to
do, you need to consider how and when you will measure their progress in line with the lesson
objective.
It’s wise to think about this upfront in your planning so that at every stage you can consider if
what you are doing will meet your assessment objective.
Note that there need not be, say, a written assessment in every lesson. Your objective for a
particular lesson may be on pronunciation and intonation when reading, so a written exercise
may not be appropriate at that time.
Once you are clear about your achievement goal, your objective, and your assessment
instruments (how and when you will assess mastery or progress towards mastery), you can
now focus on setting out the rest of your plan.
STEP 1: SUMMARY OF OPENING STEP

Remember the gist of Alice in Wonderland: If you don’t know where you are going, then any
road will get you there. Your learners need to know where you are taking them, i.e. what they are
about to learn and why it’s important to them.
They also need to know how the forthcoming learning event relates to what they know already
and where they are heading on their learning journey. And your learners need to know and
understand how the learning will take place.
For example, you may have just completed some lessons which focussed on increasing their
knowledge of short one-syllable describing words, i.e. adjectives (a big dog). Once they have a
fair range of these, it would seem wise and appropriate to move on to comparatives, so that they
can now speak and write about a bigger dog, a smaller pencil.
They will be able to relate the new learning to the previous learning and will understand how the
new learning builds on what they have learned previously.
However, there’s more to a good opening. It needs to engage your learners and incite their
interest. Do something different, look mystified, perform a related trick, ask them for their help
with a related puzzle, line them up in different-sized pairs (if you are about to introduce
comparatives) and so on.
When you engage your learners and incite their interest at the start of a lesson, you are using a
‘warmer’, which we mentioned briefly before.
Once your learners have settled down after any necessary admin, you’ll get their attention by
using a warmer. This will only last a few minutes.
This is very important; more than likely they’ll have just come from situations where they have
been using their native language. So, a warmer will get them engaged and participating, and into
the ‘English mode’ immediately.
Always try, as best as you can, to make the warmer related to what they have already been
learning; that is, not just using an unrelated warmer just for fun.
Here are some examples of warmers:
First session warmers: the first time you meet the class
The purpose of these would be fun and engagement.
1. You could choose a multitude of things but select a topic that will likely apply to everyone. For
example, ‘Your favourite sport’ may not apply to everyone.
 Their ‘favourite food’ would do fine.
 So would their ‘dream trip’ if they had the chance and money to go anywhere in the world.
 Or write up any three words that make sense. In this warmer, you can give them models (e.g. I
like coffee, or Can they go? etc.) to get them started. Encourage them to write another one or two.
2. They’ll know what a paperclip is. If not, demonstrate its primary use. Then demonstrate some
silly or ingenious suggestions for using a paperclip, e.g.
 unclogging the teat/nipple on a baby’s bottle
 a page marker
 snowshoes for mice
Give them time to think of an idea and get them to draw their ideas on the board.
Warmers with a purpose
Here are some examples to demonstrate warmers with a purpose, and to show how easy they are
to construct.
1. In the previous lesson, they have learned the structure: Would you prefer to…?
For the start of their next lesson, make up some two-set fun choices, headed up with: Would you
prefer to …
The choices could be anything:
 be a tiger/be a python
 be a singer/be a film star
 receive $100 for doing nothing/receive $10000 for doing a bungee jump from the Burj Khalifa in
Dubai (830 metres high)
2. Reinforcing and expanding learning: Word search for alternatives to ‘nice’
Let’s imagine that in the previous lesson when discussing authentic conversation, you
emphasised the need for them to be a bit more specific and descriptive with the words they use.
In this warmer, you are focussing on the use of vague words, such as ‘nice’, ‘great’ or
‘awesome’. Explain this to them.
Put up your word search matrix which includes alternatives to, say, the word ‘nice’. Put the
learners in pairs. They have 2 minutes to identify and write up as many alternatives as they can
find in the word search matrix, e.g. agreeable, attractive, charming, delightful, friendly, good,
kind, pleasant, etc.
Also, this simple warmer can allow you to build in a bit of timed competition if you feel it’s
appropriate.
Before moving on, check their understanding of what’s about to happen in the lesson by asking
clarifying questions and getting them to summarise in their words what is about to happen.
STEP 2: SUMMARY OF INTRODUCTION OF

NEW MATERIAL STEP
This is a crucial moment for you. In your planning for this, you will have decided what new
learning you will introduce. However, it’s equally important to plan how you will present it.
Here you will clearly and succinctly introduce your learners to the new learning. It could be a
new language form, skill, or concept which you’ll introduce, explain, model, demonstrate, and so
on.
You need to ensure the new learning is taken in by the learners and that it’s accessible to all your
learners. To achieve this, you need to vary your approach and language.
Remember: If you make it accessible to them, they will remain engaged and interested.
And remember this: Do not attempt too much at the one sitting. If you do, you will lose
them. Keep it simple. Focus on the key points/steps in a logical and sequenced structure;
leave subsidiary points for another day. Don’t add in any new points/steps you haven’t
planned.
Use different approaches to ensure stimulation and accessibility: visual cues, vocal cues, written
demonstrations, modelling, speaking, questioning, summarising, and so on. Drive their
involvement via participation: asking clarifying questions, asking them for examples and using
them as realia. By doing this, they will remain engaged and interested.
Also, you need to keep reminding them of the importance of the new learning and what they will
be able to do with it. Continue to sell the benefits of this new learning.
Although you will have planned for possible misunderstandings, don’t assume it’s all going to go
to plan for all your learners. Keep asking clarifying questions and ask learners to summarise the
key learning points, so that you can check their understanding. In this way, any
misunderstanding will come to light.
Finally, ensure you do not go on too long so that there is insufficient time for the learners to
practise in Step 3. Ensure you don’t fall into this trap.
STEP 3: SUMMARY OF GUIDED

PRACTICE STEP
Your learners must have sufficient time and opportunity to practise their new learning. In this
step, it will be guided, controlled practice, practice which is supported by you.
The principal intention of this step is to help the learners internalise the learning, in a sheltered
environment, from their short-term memory (information memorised in Step 2) into their long-
term memory for the future.
Note (again) that guided practice is not always done via a written worksheet. It may involve
learner role-plays to practise some form or function, or you may be leading the class in practising
substitution drills or pronunciation.
Your learners must be clear about what they have to do. Give clear and straightforward
instructions and check their understanding of these. Model the required behaviour. If your
instructions are unclear, learning time will be lost.
You must plan well the guided and independent practice stages so that your learners know what
they have to do. But there’s more to this. It should also spark thoughts in your mind about
your classroom management.
What will those who finish earlier than others do while others are working away? If you haven’t
planned for this, then you may be providing an opening for some ‘misbehaviours’, e.g. the early
finishers dropping wholly into their L1 and distracting others. So, build in extension activities
(further activities) for those who finish early.
During this time, you should aim to give all your learners different opportunities to practise, time
permitting. Don’t build this part of the lesson around one or two learners demonstrating a point
at length; otherwise, some learners will drift off.
Ensure you keep it going at pace, with learners working together and your questions aimed at the
whole class so that everyone is engaged.
Ensure that the guided practice activities are scaffolded, i.e. sequenced from easy to more
challenging. If you set the task at too steep a level in the first place, things will fall apart. Don’t
worry that some of the learners may find the initial part of the task too easy; they’ll soon come to
the more difficult parts which will stretch them.
Remember: If some learners find an initial part easy, and they have completed it correctly,
you can always get them to help their partner catch up.
During all this time, you will be moving around, answering questions, helping to solve problems,
and encouraging and praising the learners in their guided practice. But there’s more to this.
You will be monitoring whether some learners found part of the learning confusing, difficult, etc.
Now’s the time to put it right before they move into independent practice.
So, you might say: Everyone hold up worksheet 2. Ah, I see some of you are putting your
answers in different boxes. My fault. Silly me. Everyone look at the board, and I’ll explain it
better this time. (Always say the confusion was down to you. Don’t ‘blame’ them.)
Again, before moving on, ask clarifying questions and ask learners to summarise the key
learning points, so that you can further check their understanding.
STEP 4: SUMMARY OF INDEPENDENT

PRACTICE STEP
This is the step where learners refine the language form, skill, or concept on their own,
without your assistance. It’s generally free, uncontrolled, and independent practice, but
you will still be there to give help, guidance and support where needed.
It’s also a great opportunity to assess that your objective has been achieved, i.e. they can
demonstrate mastery of the objective or progress towards mastery.
You will already have determined how you will assess, e.g. a written exercise, learners using the
new spoken form with their partners while you observe, role-playing, a group activity involving
both speaking and writing and so on. You can try different assessment approaches.
As in the other steps, ensure they know what to do and how to do it. Model the required
behaviour.
Ensure the activity (or activities) demonstrates mastery of the objective (or progress
towards it),
i.e. it must focus on demonstrating achievement of the objective. If the objective states they
will be able to do something both in speaking and writing, then your activities should
ensure that both abilities are demonstrated.
Note that this applies to all learners in your class. It may be challenging to assess this if the
learners are working in groups. So, ensure that your activities provide ‘proof’ for all your
learners regarding their level of progress/achievement.
This is not so challenging as it sounds. The first activity could be a written piece, filling in blanks
on a worksheet. Then the learners could be paired up to practise the target language. Remember
this again: The target language is the language learners are studying (English). Examples of
individual items of language could be the comparative structures (bigger, faster) or other
structures (If were you …).
From your observations, you may feel that both the stronger and weaker learners will benefit
from some additional work, so you can design some appropriate extension activity into a
homework exercise. Note that this is in addition to the independent practice and not in place of
it.
The stronger learners could attempt a more challenging activity, and the weaker learners could,
perhaps, do further practice on an item that was causing them a bit of difficulty. Again, you need
to take time to ensure they know what to do and how to do it. Model the required behaviour.
STEP 5: SUMMARY OF CLOSING STEP

This should be a very short step, not much more than 5-7 minutes or so in a one-hour lesson.
Here your focus is on:
 Keeping up their engagement by asking the learners what they have learned. Ask them: What
have we learned in this lesson?
 Keeping up their interest by asking the learners to tell you about the significance of what they
have learned. Ask them: What is the significance/importance of what we have learned? How will
this benefit you?
 Issuing homework, as necessary.
 Keeping up their participation to the end by allowing them to demonstrate their mastery, if this
hasn’t been done fully with some learners in the independent practice stage. It’s likely to have
been done in the independent practice stage, but you could also fire out some rapid questions,
giving lots of praise for correct responses which demonstrate how well they have done.
 Praising them for their attention and effort put in.
That wasn’t too difficult, was it?

Now, let’s try out all of this on a specific lesson plan, using our 5 Step Lesson Plan.
7.8 Full Example of the 5 Step Lesson Plan
in Action, Plus Lesson Worksheet
The best way to demonstrate this in action is to take you through a lesson which we have
prepared earlier, as they say. This will be based on the earlier lesson plan re the comparative of
adjectives. There’s no point in us introducing a new topic because your previous familiarity with
the content will help you so much with this.
Key points
 Note that this is the lesson plan format you should use for planning all your lessons for all skills
areas and grammar and lexis lessons.
 We have completed the lesson plan as if it is you who is completing it.
 You will find your own way of abbreviating the information in a lesson plan.
 On this occasion, we have written it out in full to ensure all is clear for you. In practice, you
would shorten the text considerably.
 As long as you understand your abbreviations/symbols, then that’s fine. Remember, though:
another teacher should be able to pick up your lesson plan and run with it.
 We have put in suggested timings. Whatever timings you allot to the 5 steps of your lesson plans,
always ensure that the Guided Practice and the Independent Practice stages are assigned
the highest proportion of lesson time.
 We have based our timings on a 60-minute lesson. If it were only 45 minutes, we would adjust
all the timings pro-rata.
For continuity and familiarity, we have used the same lesson plan idea as before.
This time, however, note that this final version contains:
 Timings for each step

 Materials reminders (what materials you will be using and when)
 Colours, making it easier to follow
 An additional worksheet in the Guided Practice Step (scaffolded)
 An additional activity in the Independent Practice Step
 An extension reminder in the Independent Practice Step
 Homework activity
It is now a complete lesson plan.

So, here it is. Take plenty of time to explore this. Remember: Effective lesson planning is
the most crucial teacher skill of all.
Background to this lesson plan
This lesson is geared to beginner learners of any age group. It is an introduction to the
comparative form of adjectives (but you won’t use these words with them).
The learners have already learned and can use all the basic one-syllable adjectives you will use in
your lesson plan, although you will add in others (which they also know) later for homework to
demonstrate that the form can be applied to most one-syllable adjectives.
Also, your learners know and can use the structures: I am big/small /young/old, and he/she/it is
big/small/young/old, etc.
As this is their very first lesson on the comparative, you won’t bring up any exceptions or
differences; e.g. some adjectives doubling the final letter in the comparative form,
e.g. bigger. Any exceptions, differences or spelling issues can all be handled in later lessons.
As you trawl through this complete lesson plan, also look at the 5 Step Template to help
you remember what should be included in each step.


Lesson Plan Worksheet (2 Pages)
Lesson Plan Worksheet (2 Pages)
Homework Worksheet
Remember: We changed the word in list 1 to the word in list 2.
list 1 list 2
big bigger
small smaller
young younger
old older
Do the same with list 3 and list 4. Write the new word in list 4. I have done the first
one for you.
list 3 list 4
fast faster
great
quick
short
tall
fat
sad
thin
This is now a very solid and very engaging lesson plan.

Remember: In reality, you would shorten this considerably by using your abbreviations,
bullet points, symbols, mnemonics, etc.
Note that we only spent a few minutes constructing the worksheets. This
was intentional. There are no prizes for teachers who spend hours making up fancy
worksheets. Keep them simple.
So, this lesson would not be too challenging for you in terms of explaining structures,
grammar, etc., but it would require a good bit of thinking and planning so that there are no
cognitive mishaps.
Note that the learners have been involved in speaking, listening, writing, and reading
during this lesson, which is what you should aim to achieve as much as
possible. Remember! Follow our process outlined above when you start teaching. Follow it,
and you’ll excel in lesson planning and lesson delivery.
7.9 Controlled and Uncontrolled
Exercises/Activities
You are now fully aware that it is during the Guided Practice and Independent Practice Steps that the
learners are involved in activities and exercises to embed the learning.
In the Guided Practice Step, they practise the target structure in line with the model you have presented. The
aim here is accuracy.
In the Independent Practice Step, they aim to attempt to demonstrate independent mastery of the objective.
They produce the target structure themselves (usually working in pairs and groups). The focus here is
on fluency.
Use a variety of exercises and activities. But first, please note these key points:
1. Exercises and activities can be classified as controlled (in the Guided Practice Step) or uncontrolled or free (in
the Independent Practice Step).
2. A controlled exercise is structured and controlled, with a learner’s output, or ‘answers’, often limited to either
being correct or incorrect. Exercises are designed to focus on a specific point or a specific objective, such
as fill in the blanks with the correct verb form, and to promote accuracy.
3. An uncontrolled/free activity is designed to ‘activate’ the learner’s learning. Activities ask for specific learner
behaviour; as such, they are learner-centred and focus on promoting learner fluency. Often, there is no single
correct answer or outcome to the activity, but several possible open-ended responses. In an activity, the learner
must create and negotiate his or her own language.
4. There can be areas of overlap between some exercises and activities.
We have drawn up a list of examples of activities you could use. These types of exercises and activities would
be utilised in the Guided Practice or Independent Practice steps of your 5 Step Lesson Plan model.
Examples of controlled exercises/activities (typically used in the Guided Practice Step)
Here is a list of typical controlled (and sometimes a bit semi-controlled) exercises that you can use in any
lesson:
Cloze: You omit words from a passage at regular intervals (for example, every seventh word). You give them a
list of words, not in any order, and tell them they must use one word to fill each gap.
Usually, there are no gaps in the first two or three lines, to help establish a context for the learners.
The length of the passage and the number of words omitted will depend on the learners’ competence. Matching
exercises
Example:
Matching: The learner is faced with two groups of words, phrases, or sentences; each item in the first group
must be linked to a different item in the second.
Example:
And more:
 Dictation – for listening or writing tasks

 Information gap – a worksheet activity where learners work out missing and different information that each
has on their worksheet.
 Extending sentences – part sentence given then learners complete
 Drills – whole class or individual oral repetition of pronunciation or structures
 Forming questions for answers already given
 True/false questions
 Matching sentence parts
 Multiple-choice questions
 Spelling exercises
 Reconstructing jumbled lists/notes
 Labelling maps/diagrams
 Making sentences from words given in any order
 Putting jumbled sentences in order
 Matching parts of text with pictures
 Writing headings for parts of texts
 Drawing a picture
 Copying text
 Question-answer – you know the answers learners should give
 Ordering pictures
 Ordering events in a logical order
 Inferring attitudes/mood
 Completing charts
 Following instructions
 Locating and correcting errors
 Locating differences between texts
 Identifying topics or words mentioned (e.g., checking off items)
 Story chain (when teacher-generated)
 Reading aloud
And with a bit less control:
 Gapped dialogue – fill in the gaps

 Pronunciation
 Ranking things in order
 Guided discussion
 Questionnaire
 Taking notes
 Writing/answering questions
 Brainstorming
 Question-answer (when you or their partner do not know the answer beforehand)
 Cued narrative/dialogue
 Preparation (self-study; silent reading; pair planning and rehearsing)
Examples of uncontrolled/free exercises/activities (typically used in the Independent Practice Step)
 Role-play/simulation
 Interview – interviewing a partner who is perhaps role-playing as a famous person
 Survey – surveying the class group on some topic
 Describing a picture
 Short drama/skit
 Presenting an argument (ensure the topic is culturally appropriate)
 Giving a speech/report
 Debate (ensure the topic is culturally appropriate)
 Discussion (ensure the topic is culturally appropriate)
 Problem-solving
 Creative writing
 Continuing a story
 Games
 Information-gap
 Writing (emails, stories, letters, invitations, or compositions)
There are so many activities you can use in the Guided Practice and Independent Practice Steps, to ensure:
 firstly: accuracy in form, meaning and use (Guided Practice Step) and
 secondly: fluency (Independent Practice Step)
So, you now have plenty to get on with when you take up your post.
7.10 Evaluate – Check – Reflect
Just like any blueprint or roadmap, you’ll want to evaluate your lesson plan several
times before teaching to ensure it is robust enough to guide you and your learners to achieve the
lesson objective.
1. Evaluate Whether Your Lesson is Robust or Not

Consider these Very Important Points:
1. Is it well planned? (Does it hang together? Do the steps link together well?)
2. Is the timing right?
3. Will my learners enjoy the lesson? (If there’s enough variety, they will.)
4. Will my learners learn what they are supposed to learn in the lesson? (If you have loads of fun or
a poorly planned lesson, they won’t.)
5. Will my learners be active throughout the lesson? (If you limit your talking, this will lead to
more activity. Amend your plan if you are talking too much. Always try to move things along
briskly.)
6. Will the plan ensure that my learners participate actively? Will some be uninvolved?
(Considering interaction in-depth will help you ensure there’s enough participation.)
7. Are the four language skills being practised during the lesson? (You should aim for this in every
lesson, where possible, not necessarily in equal amounts.)
8. Will the learners be able to use English communicatively/creatively?
9. Is the class organisation appropriate at different points in the lesson? (Groups, pairs, etc.)
10. Are the handouts, if any, correct?
11. Are the teaching aids relevant and appropriate?
12. Will the lesson be too controlled by me or have I ensured adequate free and uncontrolled activity
for the learners?
13. Is there enough material? Is there too little/much? (Always ensure you have some additional
materials in case you finish early. At the same time, ensure you do not attempt too much in one
lesson.)
14. How do I ensure that learners use English throughout the lesson?
Re Point 14, here’s what to do:

Free yourself up to walk around the classroom, encouraging those who are not using English to
do so.
Of course, if you ensure you keep your language straightforward and uncomplicated and geared
to their level and ensure the language in the materials is also straightforward and uncomplicated
and geared to their level, this will reduce any non-English language.
Also, if some pairs finish early, they often strike up conversations in their native language while
they are waiting for other pairs to finish. This is distracting for others, so always ensure you have
some additional materials/activities (extension materials) for those pairs who may finish earlier
than others.
2. Check if everything is in Order

After evaluating your lesson and making any adjustments if necessary to ensure it is robust,
check to see that everything is in order.
It’s easy to miss out on some vital reminders for yourself or miss out on some instructions or
explanations for your learners.
This happens to us all, even experienced lesson planners.

So, imagine you are at the receiving end. If you were one of your learners, would you need
any further input to get through this lesson seamlessly?
3. Reflect
Take time out to reflect on your lesson plan. Make this a habit. A period of reflection will
activate deeper thinking and will tell you if you are good to go – or not.
You’ll soon recognise that feeling of satisfaction, a feeling that you’ve done everything you can
to ensure you’ve planned the lesson well.
Also, in your early days as a teacher, do not be afraid to ask your colleagues to look over
your lesson plan. They will often come up with some suggestions or comments which will add
to the success of your lesson.
In addition, we have developed a Lesson Evaluation Form for you, for evaluating your
lesson after you have taught it. We’ll come to this in a moment. You could also use this as a spur
for reflecting on your lesson before you teach it.
7.11 Following and Adapting Your Lesson

Plan
Should you always follow your lesson plan at all cost?
Although you should do your best to follow your plan, in practice it may have to be modified because of what
occurs during the lesson.
This is not something we would encourage inexperienced teachers to do as a matter of course. Do not be
tempted to modify your plan unless you have excellent reasons for doing so, and you are sure about what
changes to make.
Reflect on this scenario: You come into a classroom and find that several learners have questions about work
that was done during the lesson the previous day. Their questions are perceptive and indicate a clear need that
deserves to be addressed.
You have a choice; you can respond to their questions immediately, or you can tell them that you will do so in
the following lesson. Both responses are appropriate but, in practice, most teachers want to respond to their
learners’ questions as soon as they can. This gives a more flexible feel to the classes.
However, the disadvantage of responding immediately may be that you cannot cover everything that you have
planned for your lesson.
Under these circumstances, you may decide to modify your plan to some extent.
And reflect on this: You have reached the halfway point in your lesson but have become aware that your
learners are struggling with the pair work activity that you gave them because they appear to have forgotten a
conditional construction that you taught them a few weeks ago.
You know that if you can spend some time revising this construction, your learners will be able to complete
the pair work successfully.
Under these circumstances, you may decide to switch over to a revision activity before letting the learners
return to their pair work. Making a change like this to your lesson plan is not uncommon.
7.12 Planning Time

Planning will take up some time, of course, but it should not come to dominate your life!
Some teachers find it helpful to plan for the first two or three days of the next week’s lessons on Sundays and
then plan the remaining days during mid-week. Some teachers find it best to plan in the evenings, while others
believe that it is better to get to work early in the morning and do the planning then.
It doesn’t matter when you do your planning but when you first start teaching you should be prepared to spend,
say, an average of about an hour to one and a half hours for the delivery of a one-hour lesson.
Sometimes, you will spend less time, but there will undoubtedly be other times when you’ll need more time
than this, particularly when preparing to teach some complex grammatical point, e.g. phrasal verbs, or
coherence.
Some teachers mistakenly see planning as an inconvenience that takes up too much time. They believe that
five minutes before a lesson is quite sufficient. Oh, really?
They forget that a successful teacher doesn’t prepare a lesson plan only for an inspector or a headteacher to
evaluate; she prepares it for herself because it provides her with the support she needs during the lesson. And
with that support, she will deliver an effective and engaging lesson that will benefit her learners, time and time
again.
It can sometimes be challenging to find imaginative approaches, but a carefully planned lesson can provide
both you and your learners with a great deal of satisfaction and enjoyment.
A well-planned lesson gives you great confidence when you walk into the classroom, knowing that you have
plenty of material to use and you are prepared to answer any questions on the target language of the day. Just
imagine what would happen if trainers who are training doctors, airline pilots or train drivers didn’t take time
to plan their daily lessons thoroughly. It’s a sobering thought.
7.13 Post-Lesson Evaluation and Reflection
When you come out of the classroom, you must always try to find time to evaluate the completed
lesson. Make this a habit, too.
Try to be open-minded and honest with yourself. Sometimes, some aspects don’t go off as smoothly as you
would have liked. At other times, you’ll feel elated that everything just clicked.
Evaluation is a habit; an excellent habit. As you progress and become more experienced, it will become
second nature to you. In your early stages, however, you need to focus on this and discipline yourself to do it
after every lesson.
Learn from any glitches and ensure they don’t happen again. Also, identify what went well and build these
aspects into your future lesson planning.
This will help you to grow in your new career.
Ensure you do not confuse fun and laughter with successful learning. It’s good that the learners enjoyed the
lesson, but the critical question is: Did they learn what they were supposed to learn?
Sometimes fun and laughter will lead to solid learning, but there won’t be too many occasions where this
happens. It’s good that learners enjoy themselves, but you need to ensure your objective is achieved within the
time allotted.
Remember! It doesn’t always have to be you evaluating yourself. With adult classes, you can ask some of the
learners how they felt the lesson went. You can ask your Head of Department or Director of Studies or another
team member if they have time to sit in on parts of your lesson and give you feedback. Make use of these
experienced people!
Now you know the reasons for evaluating your lesson, what areas, skills and traits should you consider?
Criteria For Evaluating A Lesson, After You Have

Presented It
Here’s an evaluation form we have prepared for you. The form contains the key areas, skills, and traits you
should consider when evaluating your lesson after you have presented it. Use it well.
Time to reflect
So, what do you think are the key areas, skills, and traits you should consider when evaluating your
lesson after you have presented it?
There are so many points to consider, so don’t rush this!
Well done!
Here’s what we think, in the table below:
Lesson Evaluation Form (1) Lesson: Introduction to Comparatives:
Class 7b – 16 December
N
Skills and Traits Yes Comments
o
Objective(s) achieved satisfactorily? Learners learned what they were
supposed to learn?
Active learners at all times?
Attention: Learners attentive at all times? Equal attention given to
learners?
Content Knowledge: Any issues or questions that proved a little bit
difficult for them or me?
Control: Was the lesson too controlled by me? Did I allow them
enough free and uncontrolled activity?
Communicative Language: Did the learners use English
communicatively throughout?
Correction and Feedback: Immediate feedback given to learners on
questions and errors? Knew what to correct and what to ignore?
Cultural Awareness: Displayed at all times?
Engagement: Engaged learners throughout? Were learners engaged

with the L2 throughout the lesson?
Enjoyment: Did learners enjoy the lesson?
Flexibility: Adapted to new situations that arose?
Lesson Evaluation Form (2)
N
Skills and Traits Yes Comments
o
Homework: No homework assigned, or assigned at the last minute?
Instructional Examples: Adequate, meaningful, clearly illustrated and
varied?
Language Skills: Were the four language skills practised during the
lesson?
Materials and Aids: Relevant, appropriate, welldesigned? The right
amount or not?
Organisation: Was the class organisation appropriate at different points
in the lesson? (Groups, pairs, etc.)
Planning: Well-planned structure? 5 Step Plan: Adhered to at all
times?
Teacher Talking Time: Minimised?
Techniques: Variety, e.g. print materials, drills, roleplays, small
group/individual work?
Timing: Started and ended on time? Adequate time for each stage?
Topic: Stuck to topic?
Visuals (including board): Clear and appropriate?
Voice, Body Language, Cues, Gestures: Effective?
All this should be pretty clear. You can add to this if you feel there is some additional element you should
evaluate.
Learn from your lesson evaluations!
7.14 Future Lesson Planning
You must utilise what you’ve learned for your future lesson planning.
This is what a competent and capable teacher does. Just like a learner, to be effective you must continue to
learn, sift out the good criteria from the bad, and move from strength to strength in your career.
Every day is a school day for the teacher, not just the learners.
Well done! Another Module completed! What you have learned here will help you better plan and
present your lessons. When you get your planning and presenting right, you will feel more relaxed and
motivated, as will your learners. For us, lesson planning and presenting is the greatest skill of all.
And there’s lots more good practical stuff to come!
It’s not so difficult. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 8, where we will focus in-depth on Critical Teaching Skills you must
master. Take your time and absorb all the practical guidance. This will ensure that you get it right first
time.
8.1 Paralinguistics
What’s this all about?
Paralinguistics is the fancy term for aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words. This
term encompasses such elements as body language, gestures, mime, facial expressions, and tone and pitch of
the voice.
Such elements may add weighting, emphasis or nuances of meaning to what is being said.
8.1.1 Body Language

It’s not only the words that we use that are important when we are communicating.
Body language (non-verbal communication) can play a large part in how successful your classrooms are.
Why pay attention to your body language? Because it’s what your students respond to.
Your body language will almost always be taken at face value. Non-verbal messages are powerful in language
classes, especially where students may not have all the skills they need to decipher verbal language; in this
situation, their attention is drawn to your non-verbal communication.
Here are some essential practical tips:
Be at the door when your learners arrive: Students will almost always calm down when you are standing there.
This is your ‘territory’, and you’re allowing them to enter.
Project your voice: Address your class with a clear and upbeat voice — that’s how you command your
students’ undivided attention. Tone and pitch are important.
Try and avoid standing behind your table for lengthy periods: When you stand behind your table/desk, you
unwittingly establish a physical barrier between yourself and the students. Get into the midst of them; be a part
of the group.
Always use the whole classroom: Walking around your classroom from time-to-time demonstrates your
ownership of the space, establishing your authority inside it. Doing this keeps students on their toes.
Get close to misbehaving students: There’s no need to shout. Just stand next to their seat. This communicates
that you’re keeping an eye on them and they’ll usually stop whatever they’re doing.
Use facial expressions: Be expressive with your face. Wear an open, enthusiastic look, and they’ll take your
cue. Smile and they instinctively know that a light-hearted discussion is afoot.
Work on your gaze – practise it to make sure it’s effective but not at all threatening. Your students will pay
attention to the cues provided by your facial expressions.
Stoop to their level: When you want to address specific students one by one, whether you’re chastising a
student for misbehaviour or helping him out with a language item, it helps to physically get down to his level,
rather than merely standing in front of him. Physically adjusting to meet him at eye level makes the interaction
feel more genuine and level-headed.
But remember this: Follow the conventional rules of proxemics (distance) and kinesthetics (touching) that
apply to the culture(s) of your students.
Stand up straight: Always strive for an erect posture when you’re speaking from the front of the class. A
sagging posture may indicate a lack of confidence, perhaps making your students doubt your credibility. It may
also encourage misbehavers to start disruptions in the classroom because they feel your authority can be
challenged.
Talk slower: Slow down your talking. This demonstrates confidence. Speaking too fast may indicate that
you’re rushing through what you’re saying because you’re unsure of what you’re talking about.
Keep your hands in open view: Putting your hands in your pockets may indicate that you’re either nervous or
hiding something. It doesn’t inspire confidence in your students, perhaps seeing you as defensive.
Eye contact: Make frequent eye contact with all students in the class. All your learners want to be noticed. Do
not bury yourself in your notes and lesson plans.
Dress: Dress appropriately, considering the expectations of your students and the culture in which you are
teaching.
8.1.2. Gestures And Mime
When teaching a class, you can use simple phrases to direct the learners: That’s right. That’s not right. Who’s
next?
However, you can also convey many instructions, requests, invitations and corrections by using various
gestures and mimes.
Gestures and mime promote interest and encourage engagement and participation. So, in addition to your
voice, you could use your hands, your eyes, your facial expressions or a combination of these.
Gestures and mime encourage the learners to speak. They also reduce your Teacher Talking Time.
Of course, you’ll need to ensure your learners recognise what your miming and gesturing means, so teach
them, as necessary.
Gestures and mime are very useful and engaging when teaching some tricky meanings. For example, the
difference between happy/sad, hard/easy, shy/confident can be demonstrated relatively quickly via mime.
If the learners laugh at your mime or gesture, they will likely remember your point much better than if you
write your explanation upon the board.
Gestures and mime are also useful for eliciting certain words and phrases. If you teach very young students, it
is also common to associate gestures with words to help students recall vocabulary better. Using the same
gesture every time you say a particular word or phrase will help these students associate the word and gesture.
Some gestures you could use to encourage speaking and participation
Encouraging a response from the student group: With a smiling, open-eyed look, draw your hands to yourself
as you would when asking a group to come closer to you.
Instructions: Gestures for giving instructions might include, for example, a finger moved from left to right to
show that something is wrong with the sentence and that the student should try to correct it. This may be
accompanied by a slight screwing up of the eyes.
Listen: The gesture for Listen! might involve cupping a hand around one ear.
Quieten down: Quietening the class down could be achieved by moving both hands up and down with the
palms facing downwards, again with the eyebrows raised.
Correction: Gestures can be equally useful when giving immediate corrections to learners’ speaking errors. A
letter T made with both hands can indicate the wrong tense has been used or that the article the is missing.
An inverted V made with the index and middle fingers of one hand with the index of the other used as a bar
across it to form an A could mean wrong subject-verb agreement (e.g. he live here).
Tense: One common set of gestures is used by teachers to show the required tense – pointing forwards with
one finger means the future tense, pointing down to one’s feet means the present tense, while indicating over
one shoulder with the thumb implies the past tense.
These different gestures can initially be taught by giving the instruction orally along with the gesture; learners
will soon get the point.
Of course, you can add to these and develop your own catalogue of gestures.
Be careful with some gestures
Very few gestures are universally understood and interpreted. What is perfectly acceptable in, say, the USA or
the UK may be rude, frowned upon, or misleading in other cultures.
Here are some useful examples:
Beckoning with your index finger. This means come here in the UK but not in the Middle or the Far East,
Portugal, Spain, Latin America, Japan, Indonesia and Hong Kong. It is more acceptable to beckon with the
palm down, with fingers or your whole hand waving.
Pointing at something or someone in the room, using your index finger. It is impolite to point with the index
finger in the Middle and the Far East. Using an open hand or your thumb is more acceptable.
Making a V sign. This means Victory in most of Europe when you make this sign with your palm facing away
from you. If you face your palm in, the same gesture means get lost or worse.
Forming a circle with fingers to indicate OK. Although this gesture may mean OK in the U.S.A. and some
other countries around the world, there are some notable exceptions. In Brazil and Germany, this gesture is
obscene. In Japan, this means money. In France, it has the additional meaning of zero or worthless.
Patting a student on the head. This can be very upsetting for some Asian students. In the Buddhist religion, the
head is deemed sacred. So, some children from cultures influenced by Buddhism may feel uncomfortable if
their head is touched.
Passing an item to someone with one hand. In some Far East countries, this is very rude. Even a small object
such as a pencil or business card must be passed with two hands. In many Middle and
Far Eastern countries, it is rude to pass something with your left hand, which is considered unclean.
Nodding your head up and down to say Yes. In Bulgaria, for example, nodding your head up and down
means No.
8.1.3. Tone And Pitch

Tone is shown or heard in how something is being said. It is more like an attitude rather than a voice pattern. It
is somebody’s general sound; this could be happy, upset, excited, angry or ecstatic, etc. Emotion has a great
deal of influence over one’s tone.
Take care with your tone. We’ve already mentioned that the ‘whole person comes to school’. You may have
had some personal issue before coming to class. Try not to let that emotional event affect the pleasant tone that
your learners are accustomed to. It would be unfair to them.
Pitch is the lowness or highness of our voice. Some people naturally have a low-pitched or highpitched voice
or somewhere in between.
Emotional factors can affect the pitch of the voice. For example, some people may speak in a lower pitch when
they are tired. Surprise may make some speak in a higher pitch than usual.
There may be little one can do with a continuous high-pitched voice which may become a slight distraction for
learners, at least until they are used to it. However, changes in pitch due to tiredness may be resolved if the
fatigue can be alleviated in some way. You should reflect on your pitch and consider how you can adapt it, if
necessary, to a more balanced pitch.
8.2 Using the Board

Let’s consider the most common teaching aid in classrooms – the whiteboard/blackboard.
Remember this! In most countries, rich and poor, there is almost always a classroom board. What we often
found in poorer countries was that there was often a blackboard, but there was a shortage of chalk. In all your
future EFL travels, it would be wise to take some with you.
8.2.1. Effective Board Work

You will quickly realise that the board is the most useful of all teaching aids. It is virtually always
available and can be used for various purposes without any special preparation.
Whether it’s a blackboard or a whiteboard, or an interactive whiteboard, learn to write on it clearly.
This is critical if your students are young and are new to your style of writing, and where the students’ first
language has a different script, such as Arabic or Chinese. Your writing should be large enough to read from
the back of the class.
Here’s what to do:
1. Arrange your board carefully. You could divide the board into two with a line down the centre. On one side,
you could write essential words or phrases that you want the students to see throughout the lesson.
On the other side, you could write individual words as they arise in the lesson and which you might erase after
giving an explanation.
Alternatively, you might list essential vocabulary items on the left and lexical items that might present issues
for students on the right.
2. Don’t use joined-up writing in the beginner/elementary classes. You may start to do this in the last years of
primary school but make sure your writing is clear and neat.
3. Do not hide the board. You should stand sideways, half facing the board and half facing the class, with arm
extended. In this way, students can see what you are writing, and you can see the students. This will make you
aware of what they are doing while you are writing.
4. Remember! Writing on the board always takes longer than you think it will. If you are busy writing for a long
time, your students are more than likely sitting there with nothing to do.
5. Talk as you write. You should say aloud what you are writing, phrase by phrase. To involve the class even
more, you could ask students what to write. For example, you could prompt your students by asking: What’s
the next word? How do I spell that?
In all cases, you’ll want to keep students involved, so they don’t grow bored or restless or start chatting about
something else.
6. Don’t write up too much information. Consider whether some items could be presented orally or written on the
board and then erased soon afterwards.
7. Where resources permit, use colours to emphasise, for example, the differences in a structure, such as the
difference between the simple past and past perfect.
Draw arrows or write numbers to show a change in word order or form.

8. An effective way of showing different forms of a structure together is to draw a table (e.g. a substitution table).
To keep the attention of the class, you could have students suggest what to write in each column (e.g. by
writing I’m… and then getting students to give the other forms).
If the table is too long to write quickly, it would be better to write it on the board before the lesson and cover it
with paper until it is needed.
9. Simple drawings can help to increase the interest in a lesson and are often an effective way of showing
meaning and conveying situations to the class. A lot of information can be conveyed using simple line
drawings and stick figures, which are easy to draw.
Just ensure they grasp what your image represents.
There’s an excellent short video on how to draw stick figures on YouTube

at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kwkSAnLHm1Y
It’s a wise idea to identify a few good drawers/artists in your classroom. Ask one of them to assist with the
drawings of men, women, animals, etc. This activity will be very motivational for them, and their classmates
will be proud of them.
10. The board is your most crucial classroom tool. You can use it to present new words, show spelling, write
prompts for practice, and organise different sets of information covered in the lesson. It can also serve as a
written record of what was taught in class.
11. The board is almost always available, there are no technical issues that can plague other teaching aids, and it
can be used for various purposes without special preparation.
12. Most importantly, effective use of the board can make both the introduction and practice of learning items
more engaging and clearer for learners.
8.3 TTT, Eliciting, Concept Checking,

Giving Instructions and Questioning
8.3.1. TTT
Your Teacher Talking Time (TTT) should be reduced as much as possible. The reduction of TTT is
accomplished through the execution of student-centred activities.
Conversely, Student Talking Time (STT) should be maximised in the student-centred classroom.
Of course, you need to talk when greeting your class, when introducing new items for learning, when
managing and facilitating classroom activities and when there is no alternative but to talk to help students in
difficulty.
There are, though, four other critical times when teacher talking time is essential and necessary:
1. when eliciting information from students

2. when concept checking to ensure that students have understood the learning material
3. when giving instructions as to what students are required to do in a learning activity
4. when asking questions
Let’s explore these critical events.
8.3.2. How To Elicit Effectively/Advantages Of

Eliciting
Eliciting is a technique which enables you to get learners to provide information, rather than always giving
them the information.
Typically, eliciting is used at the start of the lesson to encourage learners to suggest vocabulary and language
forms, and also to brainstorm a topic at the beginning of a skills lesson.
You can almost guarantee that even in a class of so-called beginners there will be at least one student, probably
more, with a smattering of English and possibly a little bit of knowledge of the grammar drawn from previous
study, their parents/caregivers, travel, watching films, etc.
Collectively, students have a significant amount of knowledge, both of the language and the outside world.
Your role is to activate this knowledge.
Eliciting helps to create a stimulating learner-centred classroom and makes learning memorable by linking new
and old information.
So, instead of slowly explaining the meaning and use of the language item, you may be able to elicit this
information from the learners themselves. The technique of elicitation involves drawing out of the learners
those pieces of concealed knowledge.
Elicitation can cover grammar items, ideas, opinions, feelings, situations, contexts and words/phrases, among
other things.
Here’s how to do it:
 Set up a situation, topic or idea by using pictures, board drawings, mime or a brief explanation.
 Encourage the learners to provide the sought-after vocabulary, tense, opinions, information, etc., showing your
rejection or acceptance through gestures, facial expressions or mime.
 Write up the elicited information on to the board as necessary, and this can then be used later, e.g.
pronunciation work, concept questions, or selecting an idea/topic for debate.
Example-Eliciting Vocabulary
You are teaching in China. You have already ‘introduced’ your USA friend to your class via photographs and
little stories. For the past two weeks, your friend has been visiting you in person. You were thrilled to see her.
Today she is leaving, and you will be sad.
This lesson could start with you showing photos of your friend to your class. They will remember her. You tell
them:
She has visited me for two weeks. (Demonstrate this via a timeline or calendar). During this time (gesturing the
timeline) I was (Mime happy-smiling, clasping hands to chest, etc.)
T: How was I? (They know this structure) (Gesture for an answer, while pointing to your ‘happy’ face.)
Chen: Happy.
T: Perfect, Chen. I was happy (write the word on the left of the board and repeat it). Today (show
timeline) she has gone away. (Gesture an aeroplane; show the USA on a world map). How am I? (Gesture to
the group for an answer, while pointing to your ‘sad’ face)
Hu: Unhappy.
T: Excellent, Hu. (Write the word unhappy on the right of the board and repeat it, checking if this is a new
word for some in the group, ensuring pronunciation, and doing a little bit of drilling. Gesture to the group for
any other word to explain unhappy.)
Lin: Sad
T: Excellent, Lin. (Write the word on the right of the board and repeat it, checking if this is a new word for
some in the group, ensuring pronunciation, and perhaps doing a little bit of drilling.)
T: (to the group) When were you happy? (Gesturing to your ‘happy’ face)
Chung: When I winned races.
T: Excellent, Chung. When you won races. (Ignoring the error.) Well done! (Gesture for other examples)
Tao: Getting sweets from my uncle.
T: Excellent, Tao. That’s a good example.
And so on. Elicitation could continue to a discussion about further happy and sad moments-noting new
vocabulary for the whole group, leading to a lesson on synonyms or antonyms, other feelings (lively/tired), a
short written paragraph about why they were happy, etc.
This is learner-centred elicitation. This is, clearly, much more beneficial than just telling them the words and
their meanings.
Eliciting what’s coming next
When you are teaching words and phrases to the class before a reading or listening exercise, you can elicit
from the learners what they feel the subject of the reading passage or conversation is likely to be.
This sets up a sense of expectation in the learners, giving them stronger motivation for reading or listening.
Eliciting via brainstorming
One common technique used in the classroom is brainstorming. You write up the name of a topic or situation
on the board and elicit suggestions associated with it.
Advantages of elicitation
 It keeps the students alert.

 The learners are actively involved, and this has a motivating effect.
 It gives you a chance to diagnose where the weaknesses of the learners lie and then to take corrective action
immediately.
 It saves you giving unwieldy explanations. This enables you to relax and enjoy the lesson more.
 The amount of TTT is reduced to a minimum while offering more opportunities for the learners to speak.
 It helps you find out what they already know.
 It helps reduce some students’ fear of guessing – the more you do this, the more the barriers will be eliminated.
 The lesson is likely to be more memorable.
 It increases the confidence of the students, via participation and more speaking.
Remember these key points:
1. Don’t overdo elicitation in a lesson; ensure there is ample time left for practicing in pairs, etc.
2. If they don’t know a word or idea, you’ll need to tell them – don’t go on and on trying to get something which
is not there.
3. It should be used regularly, not only at the beginning of a lesson but whenever it is necessary and appropriate.
4. Provide sufficient context or information. Eliciting is designed to find out what the learners know rather
than to lead them to a conclusion which only you know.
5. It’s not always you eliciting information from them. Learners can try out their eliciting skills with others in
their groups. Brainstorming is a classic example of this.
6. Remember: Lower-language level learners will require more guided questioning. Openended questions won’t
work as the learners are unlikely to have the language to answer them.
Here are some examples where you can imagine using elicitation instead of just telling them:
1. Full/half-full and half-empty/empty (ensure you have a jug of water and 3 glasses)
2. Different situations where we use the word sorry
3. Varying degrees of surprise, e.g. a little bit surprised – surprised– very surprised – flabbergasted/astounded
4. Good/better/best (this could be done simply with three drawings of different quality on the board or by
showing three pencils of varying quality)
8.3.3. Concept Checking

Concept checking questions are vital because they make sure that your learners understand and can use the
language you have taught them. Concept checking is not only crucial for grammar points and structures, but
also vocabulary, functions and idiomatic expressions.
Effective concept checking questions ask for specific information, which can be achieved by the open wh-type
questions (why, where, when, which), by using how, and also by using modals such as can, do, and did.
As mentioned before, don’t say: Do you understand? You will more than often get a Yes response, and you
won’t have any real insight into the students’ understanding. If you ever hear yourself saying this, commit to
never saying it again.
Preparation of the question is essential. Use questions that involve thinking about meaning.
Like elicitation, concept checking can be accomplished through a variety of verbal and non-verbal techniques,
e.g. gestures, miming, realia, timelines.
Example – concept checking mustn’t
A sign says: You mustn’t walk on the grass.
You to your students: The sign says: You mustn’t walk on the grass.
You ask effective concept questions:
Is it acceptable if I walk on the grass? (Response: No) Good!
Can I decide if I want to or not? (Response: No) That’s correct!
Note these two critical points:
1. The Questions Shouldn’t Use The Target Language.

For example, to check understanding of the past progressive (past continuous) used to interrupt another action
in the past:
Example of the target language: I was eating dinner when the phone rang.
You ask: Was I eating dinner before the phone rang?
The question tries to address one of the aspects of the meaning (the action started before the phone rang), but it
uses the very same language (I was eating; Was I eating) about which we are trying to check the
understanding. This is a weak concept checking question.
So, you need to formulate your questions in a better way:
Target language: I was eating dinner when the phone rang.
You ask effective concept questions:
Did I start eating my dinner before the phone rang? (Response: yes)
Did I stop eating my dinner when the phone rang? (Response: maybe)
Note that verb forms like this lend themselves well to having their understanding checked with timelines.
2. Concept Questions Should Check Understanding Of The

Language Item, Not The Situation
Let’s go back to mustn’t.
You say: You mustn’t walk on the grass.
You ask this concept question: Why mustn’t I walk on the grass?
This is a poor concept question. First, you are using the target language in your question (mustn’t), as
explained above.
Secondly, your question is checking understanding of the situation – the reasons why it is forbidden to walk on
the grass – which is not the point of the exercise. It is not checking the meaning of mustn’t. Instead, you need
to ask effective concept questions:
Is it ok if I walk on the grass? (Response: No) Good!
Can I decide if I want to or not? (Response: No) That’s correct!
8.3.4. Giving Instructions

You need to provide crystal-clear instructions. Giving clear instructions will have a crucial impact on the
success of your lesson. Some experienced teachers have still not grasped this, but you will if you follow our
guidance below.
Time to reflect
How can you ensure you give crystal-clear instructions?
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich/biscuit and reflect on this.
Well done!
Here is a wholly practical route to follow when giving instructions:
1. Plan your instructions: Think about the words you will use, the illustrations you will provide, and so on, to
ensure that your instructions facilitate an effective exercise or activity. Written instructions can be included in
your lesson plan.
2. Get their attention: If your students miss even small amounts of what you are explaining, they may find
themselves having problems later. For a pair or group work task, give the instructions before you divide the
class into pairs or groups. Don’t give out materials until you have finished your instructions.
Once students are in pairs or groups, the learners’ attention will be naturally directed at each other rather than
at you. If students are looking down at their activity or task material, they will look at the materials and will
not listen actively and fully to you.
3. Present the information more than once: Students’ attention can wander occasionally, so it is vital to give
the students more than one chance to understand what they must do. A good tip is to present the information in
different modes; for example, say it and also write it on the board.
4. Keep your instructions brief: Most of your learners will have limited attention spans. Make your explanation
as brief and clear as you can. Thus, you’ll grasp the need for planning and thinking through your instructions in
advance.
5. Give several examples, relating your examples to their lives and their experiences.
6. Model the activity: Modelling is a mock run-through of the gist of the activity. You can ask for a volunteer to
demonstrate the run-through before the whole class gets started or you can model what they need to do.
7. Check their understanding: When you have finished explaining, check that they have understood. Don’t
ask: Do you understand? Learners will sometimes say they do understand even if they do not, often because
they don’t want to lose face.
Remember: some may have completely misunderstood. Get them to paraphrase in their own words or provide
further examples of their own.
8. Teacher language: When giving instructions, you should avoid using advanced vocabulary, idioms or phrasal
verbs, complex verb tenses such as the future perfect, and long sentences. The clearer and more concise your
instructions, the more effective they will be.
Being able to give clear instructions is a critical classroom skill you need to nurture. As you will be giving lots
of learner instructions, the success of tasks and activities can be entirely dependent on the clarity of your
instructions.
8.3.5. Questioning Strategies

This Section is all about using your common sense from the first day you teach. We have already mentioned
the mnemonic KASH, used to remind you of your knowledge, ability, skills and habits.
Questioning is an excellent example of a habit.
Sometimes we pick up habits, and we’re not aware of them. Here, we are thinking of a habit or habits you
could pick up when asking questions. Some teachers ask the question: Who can answer this?
The less motivated students, after grasping that this is the regular (and sometimes the only) way the teacher
will ask questions, can just sit there and not respond and check their phone messages surreptitiously. These
teachers have picked up a very bad habit.
You need to know how to organise question-and-answer work in class. There are different ways of asking
questions. These are called questioning strategies. For example:
 You can ask each student one-by-one randomly around the class.
 You could let any student call out the answer.
 You choose the student to answer (perhaps after asking for a show of hands).
 You could get the class to answer in unison.
 You could get one student to present a question to another student.
When employing these questioning strategies, try to think of any advantages or disadvantages. Specifically,
think about which strategies:
 help you to manage and control the class

 help you to keep the attention of the whole class
 give talented students a chance to show their knowledge
 allow weak or shy students to answer
 allow lazy students an opportunity to answer
There is no ‘best’ strategy. Some strategies may be more effective depending on the classroom dynamic, such
as class size, students’ proficiency level, and type of learning material.
Our advice to you is to be aware of this and don’t fall into a habit which can become a barrier to successful
learning for all. If you have never taught before, in any shape or form, reflect on this well before you start your
teaching.
8.4 Feedback and Correction

8.4.1. What is Feedback?
Feedback is information that you give to the learner about her performance of a learning task, usually to
improve her performance. While such feedback is generally verbal, your body language can also provide the
student clues about her performance.
The primary purposes of feedback are:
 to motivate learners when they are doing well

 to help them understand what their problems are and how they can improve when they are not doing so well
Some examples of feedback in language teaching might be:
 Yes, right! A very good answer!

 An arched eyebrow in response to a mistake
 Comments you write in the margin of an essay
 Do you want to try again? to a student who may not have provided a correct or full answer to an exercise
Feedback can focus on many things, not merely the learners’ language skills. Also focus on the ideas in their
work, their attitude towards learning, their behaviour, or their language progress. We can give feedback to the
whole class, small groups or individual learners.
8.4.2. Importance Of Constructive Feedback

Your feedback must be constructive and not destructive.
1. Feedback is a way for students to learn more about themselves and the effect their behaviour has on others.
2. Constructive feedback increases self-awareness, offers guidance and encourages development, so it is vital to
learn how to give feedback constructively. Constructive feedback is not only giving positive feedback (praise).
Negative feedback given constructively and skilfully can be very useful.
3. Destructive feedback, which is negative feedback given in an unskilled way, generally leaves the recipient
feeling sad or depressed. From the unskilled feedback, she hasn’t learned anything she can build on.
How do you give constructive feedback to achieve a positive outcome? Time to reflect
How can you ensure that you provide constructive feedback to achieve a positive outcome?
Well done!
1. Always Start With The Positive

Students need encouragement – being told when they are doing something well. When offering feedback, it
can help the student to hear first what they have done well. It is often common for the giver of feedback to
emphasise the negative. Therefore the focus is likely to be on mistakes more often than successes.
In a rush to criticise, we may overlook the things we liked. When you discuss the positives first, any negatives
are more likely to be listened to and acted upon.
2. Be Specific
Try to avoid general comments which are not useful when it comes to developing skills. Statements such
as You were brilliant! or It was not so good! may be pleasant or upsetting to hear, but they don’t give enough
detail to be useful sources of learning.
Try to be precise about what the student did that led you to use the label of brilliant or not so good:
Brilliant: The way you introduced your point just at that moment was really helpful and enabled us to resolve
that issue more quickly.
Not so good: By responding in that way, you seemed to want to impose your opinions on the rest of the class.
Specific feedback gives more opportunity for learning.
3. Refer To Behaviour That Can Be Changed

It is of no help to give a student feedback about something over which they have no choice or control; in fact,
it may be frustrating and even de-motivating.
4. Seek/Offer Alternatives
If you do give negative feedback, then try to turn it into a learning opportunity by asking the student what he
could have done differently or may do differently in a future situation. It is always better to get ideas coming
from the student.
However, if he is struggling to think about what he could have done differently, offer some suggestions.
5. Be Descriptive Rather Than Evaluative

This is expanding on ‘be specific’. Describing what you saw or heard or the effect it had on you is much more
powerful than just giving a judgement, i.e. the way you kept calm, quiet and focussed during that situation
helped everyone cope, rather than you handled that situation well.
6. Own The Feedback

It’s easy to say to the student You are …, suggesting that you are offering a universally agreed opinion about
her rather than an individual one. You must take responsibility for the feedback you provide.
Begin with I think … or I feel that … to avoid being the giver of a general opinion which you don’t own.
7. Leave The Recipient With A Choice
Feedback which demands change or is imposed on the student may invite resistance and is not consistent with
a belief in each of us being personally autonomous. Skilled feedback offers students information about
themselves; it leaves them with a choice about whether to act or how to act.
It can help to examine the consequences of any decision to change or not to change but does not involve
prescribing change.
8.4.3. Different Types Of Feedback

Key points
1. We can give feedback to individual learners or groups of learners.

2. Feedback can be oral or written.
3. Feedback can be linked to formal or informal assessment and can be given to learners in the classroom or
during individual meetings.
4. You can also write regular feedback in the form of comments, grades or marks on a learner’s record sheet. You
can use this feedback when you make your end-of-course assessment.
5. Peer feedback is when learners give feedback to one another.
6. Peer feedback is useful for all learners. The learners reflect on their classmates’ work and provide suggestions
on how they can improve. You should construct a peer feedback observation sheet to guide the learners.
7. Peer feedback can have a very positive effect on the classroom dynamics and atmosphere and can help to train
learners to become autonomous.
8. Be careful with very young learners, though. They will not be able to give detailed peer feedback.
9. Learners can also give you feedback about the lessons, activities and materials. They can tell you when they
like what they are doing and when they are not so interested in the materials or activities, or when they are
having problems with the language. They can also make suggestions for materials and activities that could be
used. Be open to this.
8.4.4. Correction: Error Types And What To Correct

Correction is when some specific information is provided about aspects of the learner’s language performance:
through explanation, or suggestion for a better way to express something, or through elicitation of these
suggestions from the student.
Correction should include information not only on which item is incorrect but also on why the item is
incorrect.
Correction is often viewed as an umbrella term for the simple correction of mistakes. Students, then, will find
your ‘correction’ even more effective if you further pinpoint what they did right as well as wrong and indicate
the ‘why’.
1. What is a mistake? What is an error?
Some teachers often differentiate between the terms error and mistake. Let’s explore this.
A mistake is often considered to be a verbal or written slip committed by a non-native or native speaker who,
once the slip is pointed out, would be able to self-correct.
An error, on the other hand, is made by a non-native speaker who does not recognise the error and is, therefore,
unable to correct it at that time.
In the past, the consensus was that mistakes/errors of any kind were a bad thing.
Today, however, they are regarded as indicators that the learner is experimenting with the language or trying
out a new language hypothesis.
You can use the mistakes/errors that a learner makes to show him the current state of his English and to
determine the content of future practice.
First, decide what the issue is.
Then you need to decide whether it’s a mistake (just a slip of the tongue) or a more serious error. This will
determine whether you can ignore it or whether you need to put it right immediately or at a slightly later time.
Finally, you need to decide, if it is an error, whether it’s a grammatical, lexical (vocabulary, phrases, chunk of
language) or phonological (pronunciation, stress, etc.) error. Sometimes it depends on the situation. Examples
What type of spoken errors are demonstrated in the following sentences – grammatical, lexical (vocabulary) or
phonological (pronunciation, stress, etc.)?
1. He feels himself unhappy today.
2. Are you here a long time?
3. Who did see the robber?
4. We enjoy very much travelling.
5. They leave at 21 High Street.
6. Use my pencil (the stress point is underlined)
7. The woman put off her coat.
8. He take French lessons.
Try and identify what’s wrong, what type of mistake/error has been made and decide whether each is a mistake
or error. Please reflect on this, jot down your ideas in bullet points and then we’ll go through them.
Don’t look below until you have completed the exercise.
Well done! Here’s what we think.
Well, it looks like at face value that they’re all errors and they are not just slips of the tongue. Of course, some
could be. If we had been there at the time, we might have said Sorry, Chen, I didn’t catch that. If Chen then
rephrases it correctly, it would be just a slip of the tongue – a mistake.
Here are our thoughts on the errors:
1. He feels himself unhappy today. (Lexical – unnecessary use of reflexive pronoun himself.)
2. Are you here a long time? (Grammatical – the auxiliary verb to be has been used instead of to have so that Are
you … has been used instead of Have you been …)
3. Who did see the robber? (Grammatical – there is a verb form error in the question with did see instead of saw.)
4. We enjoy very much travelling. (Grammatical – the student has used the wrong word order.)
5. They leave at 21 High Street. (A pronunciation problem when spoken, with the student confusing the long
vowel sound in leave and the short vowel sound in live; lexical when written, again with the student confusing
the two words.)
6. Use my pencil. (Phonological i.e. the student has mispronounced the word by placing the stress incorrectly.)
7. The woman put off her coat. (Lexical – the student has chosen the verb put off instead of take off.)
8. He take French lessons. (Grammatical – the student has chosen the wrong tense take instead of is taking.)
8.4.5. Correcting Oral And Written Errors Effectively

Having spotted the error, you must decide whether, and when, to correct it.
Oral work
In general, if the exercise is intended to improve the learner’s accurate use of English, then it would be best to
correct the mistakes/errors immediately.
However, correcting mistakes/errors during a fluency exercise might be disruptive and distracting, not just for
the learner being corrected, but also for the other learners. Do not try to correct every single mistake/error in
their oral and written work.
Consider whether the mistake is a major or regularly recurring fault. If so, immediate correction is probably in
order; if not, then it may be better to leave it until a slightly later time for inclusion in a future lesson.
Consider whether it was an error based on a language point that the learner has not met yet. If so, it may be
best to ignore it as the language point will be dealt with later.
Consider what you hope to achieve by the correction. If you want the learner to become aware of, and correct
the error, then be prepared to spend a little time explaining it and practicing the correct form.
If you are merely pointing out the error with no intention of spending time correcting it, then it might be better
not to point it out at all.
Consider what kind of student you are correcting. If the student is confident and able, and you feel he will be
able to understand and accept your correction, then go ahead. However, if the student is shy and usually is
reluctant to speak, then it may be wiser to withhold the error until a private moment can be found.
You will need to consider who will make the correction and how it will be made:
 Another student corrects the error

 The student corrects himself (perhaps after a hint/gesture from you)
 Small groups of students discuss how to correct the mistake (perhaps after a hint/gesture from you)
Or you do it by:
 Gesture and facial expressions

 Asking a question about it
 Echoing the sentence and emphasising the word with a change in intonation to highlight the incorrect word
 Showing a timeline on the board
 Writing the sentence on the board and getting everyone to consider it
 Finger correction – showing one hand to the class and pointing to each finger in turn as you say out each word
in the sentence or phrase
 Phonemic symbols
 Referring the student to a reference book (perhaps more for written work)
Written work
Don’t become preoccupied with errors: You will want to mark your students’ work, but it would be a pity if
your whole focus lay with the grammatical errors that the students have made while neglecting the content of
their work, or their progress over the previous weeks.
Don’t overdo the red ink: This is very discouraging.
Establish a marking scheme, and stick to it: Establish a marking system of your own, with symbols, and
ensure that the students are familiar with it, e.g. Pu = punctuation error, Sp = spelling error, S/P =
Singular/Plural error, etc. This will also save you time.
Be selective in your marking: Don’t try to correct everything. It might be tempting to mark every error in a
piece of writing, but is that the best way to help the student? Try to direct the students’ attention to problems
by specifically marking particular errors.
Keep a note of errors that keep on reoccurring: When an error keeps on reoccurring, take an appropriate
opportunity to spend time considering the problem with the whole class.
Give the students time to check through their work: Give the students time to look through their marked
work to study your marking symbols and to try to self-correct.
Encourage self-correction by the students: This will be easier with a class of ten adults than with thirty
young teenagers but, as far as possible, encourage the students to get into the habit of correcting their writing.
Encourage them to work in pairs: After returning their work, you may sometimes wish to allow the students
to work together in pairs and help each other with their corrections.
8.4.6. Fossilisation
When considering correction, an essential element is fossilisation.
Fossilisation is the loss of progress in the acquisition of an L2, following a period where learning occurred,
despite regular exposure to and interaction with the L2 and the learner’s motivation to continue studying the
L2. It is commonly described as ‘reaching a plateau’.
Fossilisation is pretty much unique to L2 acquisition. It would be rare to see a child fossilising certain forms of
the language when she is acquiring her first language, e.g. Mandarin, English.
It is a phenomenon which occurs in many L2 language situations, e.g. phonological, morphological, syntactic,
semantic, etc.
It appears that no further learning will make any difference, no matter how much additional exposure is given
to the L2 language and how much help is provided in error correction. The point the learner reaches in her
path of development – the plateau – seems set in stone.
There is no particular level of advancement which can be pinpointed as the stage where a learner may appear
to fossilise, but it’s safe to say that this is more often observed in intermediate proficiency levels onwards.
8.5 Testing and Assessment

This is one of the most significant omissions in other TEFL courses. The majority of
students complete their TEFL courses and are expected to construct tests and assessments
in their classes, but they have had little or no input on this.
But put your mind at rest. We will ensure that you know what you need to know.
Take your time with this and aim to grasp the key elements.
8.5.1. Testing And Assessment Explained

Here’s what you need to know:
Testing and assessment is a vast area of study, so we have chosen the key areas you need to
grasp. After this, you can build on it in the future with further reading and exploration. It really is
an interesting subject.
You’ll notice that we have already been using the terms testing and assessment. The best way to
look at this is:
Tests are events, snapshots, relatively brief moments in time in the extended process of learning
a language, often standardised and issued at specific moments such as the end-of-term or the end
of the course.
Assessment is a broader umbrella term, including different kinds of testing activities, and is
potentially based on more extended samples of language performance. It is likely, to have greater
validity as a measure of overall language proficiency and to be more reliable than the briefer and
inevitably more limited sampling taken by tests.
For example, assessment would include feedback from you on:
 your observations of the student (learning and behavioural)

 the student’s language performance and growth (or non-growth) in class
 regular mini-tests carried out in the classroom on how the student is progressing
So, assessment also covers testing.

Here we’ll generally use the term ‘assessment’, and we’ll drop into using ‘testing’ when we’re
talking about what you and we recognise as a test: the end of term, more formal, usually
standardised assessment tool where grades are given. Don’t get too hung up about the usage of
the terms.
When we use the term ‘assessor’ we’re talking about you and your fellow teachers.
8.5.2. Key Principles Of Assessment

Whenever we’re assessing students, we can’t just rush into drawing up an assessment vehicle (a
fancy word for a test) quickly without reflecting on the underlying principles of testing, e.g. is
this fair for all the students in the class? Here’s an easy (and common) trap we can fall into:
Example: A short written piece in English delivered to a class in Spain
Instruction: Some Spanish people are superstitious. Think about someone you know who is
superstitious. Give two examples of their superstitions and how the superstitions affect them.
1. This would be unfair if there is a non-Spanish student in the class.

2. This would be unfair if a student doesn’t know anyone who is superstitious.
3. This would be unfair if the student only knows about one superstition.
Here are the fundamental principles which underpin any assessment vehicle:
1. Validity
An assessment can only be valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure. The assessment
must match the elements and performance criteria of the unit of competence.
2. Reliability (Consistency)
A good test will be a reliable test. This means that if the same students are given the same test on
two different occasions, (and marked by the same or different markers), they should achieve the
same or very similar scores.
3. Washback
Any assessment piece must have positive washback. This means that the effect of the test on the
teaching must be beneficial. Otherwise, what’s the point of the assessment?
It’s essential to ensure a test is not constructed in a way that candidates can achieve high marks
by merely learning material off-by-heart. This type of test is unlikely to assess genuine language
skills and would not, therefore, provide positive washback.
4. Construct Validity
Construct validity is an element within validity. It relates specifically to the construct or trait
being measured. If your test aims to assess your students’ listening skills, then it must test
listening and not speaking, reading, writing or memory skills.
5. Fairness
Fairness means using the same assessment process for all candidates. Fairness is achieved mainly
by:
 ensuring assessment methods and procedures are not developed or implemented in such a way
that they exclude or limit individuals due to race, age, gender, disability, employment status,
social or educational background
 ensuring candidates understand the assessment process, assessment methods and expected
outcomes
 ensuring that candidates can perform at their best, e.g. the examination room is not too hot, too
cold, too noisy, etc.
6. Sufficiency
Sufficiency means that there is sufficient evidence or examples of work to make an assessment
decision.
7. Flexibility
Flexibility means using a variety of methods of assessment.
8. Practicability
Practicability means that assessments must be capable of being carried out both efficiently and
costeffectively, and to do this, there needs to be adequate resources and time.
Correctness Versus Appropriateness

Remember this! In a communicative-approach classroom, there are occasions where an answer
could contain several errors, but still be appropriate in terms of a response, while another answer
could be grammatically perfect, but an inappropriate response.
As you gain experience, you will decide how best to handle situations like this. Always be
aware that in the TEFL classroom, effective communication with an appropriate response
is often more important than grammatical accuracy.
8.5.3. Standardisation
Standardisation is used here to refer to a process that aims to ensure that:
 each teacher/assessor consistently makes valid decisions

 all assessors make much the same decision on the same evidence base
 all candidates are assessed fairly
One of the primary aims of standardisation is, where possible, to improve reliability. When valid
decisions are made with a tolerable level of reliability, assessment judgements could be said to
have been standardised.
How can assessors’ judgements be standardised (made consistent and reliable)?
Assessors make judgements about the competence of students by reference to written standards.
They base their decisions on a variety of evidence accumulated, e.g. observing the student,
questioning them and judging an activity carried out by the students.
The tasks that each student performs and the other evidence they provide to prove that they are
competent may be different for each assessment judgement.
For assessment to be reliable, each assessor’s judgements must be consistent for various students
and tasks and consistent with the judgements of other assessors.
Achieving standardisation is not easy for inexperienced teacher assessors. The following
activities help to cement this skill:
1. Frequent discussion sessions on standardisation, led by the lead assessor/internal verifier,

i.e. someone who heads up the whole area of assessment in the department and verifies that the
assessments by teachers are consistent (e.g. the Head of Department, the Director of Studies)
2. Regular feedback on an assessor’s assessment decisions by the lead assessor/internal verifier
3. Regular training on standardisation skills and techniques
4. Regular sessions during assessment team meetings covering and identifying best and poor
standardisation practice
Here are the fundamental difficulties in achieving standardisation:
1. Some assessors – and lead assessors and internal verifiers – tend to believe that standardisation is
the process of ensuring that all assessors follow the same assessment procedure and that such
standardisation ensures that assessors make reliable judgements.
Of course, it is difficult to entirely separate assessment decisions as they are part of the
assessment process. But standardising the assessment process and operationalising the internal
verification system is certainly not the same as standardising consistency in assessment
decisions.
2. Assessment teams are sometimes unsure how much disagreement/inconsistency is tolerable. For
example, with assessment decisions on the borderline between competent and not yet competent,
the teams would have to establish an acceptable level of agreement.
3. Consistency of assessment judgements may be affected by the diversity of evidence that students
can present.
A standardisation process to follow

The easiest way to carry out a standardisation activity is to collate copies of real exam papers and
ask each assessor to make a marking decision. These can then be compared.
They should also note any queries they have, e.g. further information which is needed.
This helps the internal verifier to check that the assessors are asking the right and relevant
questions when looking at evidence and are, hopefully, arriving at the correct decisions.
The following framework should provide ideas for internal verifiers to carry out such an
exercise:
1. Select a unit of learning which many of the team assess and ask each to bring along two
examples of their completed assessments.
2. The completed assessments are passed around the team, and each assessor completes an
assessment feedback form as if he/she is assessing.
3. The feedback forms are collected and evaluated by the internal verifier and feedback is given to
individual assessors, confidentially, at a later time.
4. These exercises should be carried out frequently until standardisation is cemented within the
assessor team.
8.5.4. What Language Skills should be Tested?

Whatever the reason you decide for assessing your students’ language skills during the term, the
best approach is to integrate the language skills.
Instead of trying to test each skill individually, the tasks could involve two or more skills at a
time so that, for example, the students could listen to a passage and then do a writing task or read
a passage and then write about it.
The advantage here is that the tasks reflect the realities of language use, and so provide a clearer
picture of the students’ abilities.
Speaking, listening, reading, writing, and the usage of grammar and new vocabulary no longer
stand alone in the communicative approach classroom. They did in the past when perhaps on one
day students would have listening practice, and on another they would have speaking practice.
These days have gone now. These language skills are now treated in union. Therefore, language
skills assessments should integrate two or more of the skills to make the assessment more
authentic.
However, you may feel it’s necessary to introduce some discrete point tests, now and again.
Discrete point tests are tests which assess one item of language at a time.
For example, the following multiple-choice item tests only the learners’ knowledge of the correct
past form of the verb eat:
When I was young, I … lots of sweets/candy.
a. eat b. eating c. ate d. eated
Remember that this type of discrete testing only demonstrates the learners’ ability to produce or
recognise an individual item. It does not provide any evidence as to how they would use the
language in actual communication.
8.5.5. Importance Of Regular Assessment And Testing

It’s only logical that there should be regular class assessment activity. It’s a given, as they say.
Only in this way can you identify:
 learner gaps and strengths

 who needs to be taught what next
 what growth in language is really taking place
 what has been taught well and what you need to work on (are your methods effective?)
 what language items need to be re-visited
 what evidence you can use to help you plan your future programme of work with the class
Ensure you don’t just focus on speaking skills. The communicative approach integrates all skills,
as we have stressed several times.
All skills need to be tested.
8.5.6. Summative And Formative Tests

Nowadays, both summative and formative assessments are used to evaluate students’
performance and learning. However, relying on just one of the methods may lead to student
learning needs becoming unclear, since one form of assessment cannot provide a full picture of
the situation.
Let’s explore these two forms of assessment.
1. Summative assessment for students’ performance evaluation (More
FORMAL assessment)
Summative assessment is used to evaluate certain learning needs and usually consists of a form
of quiz, exam, end-of-unit test, end of term test, etc. It is an evaluation conducted by you at the
end of specific periods to judge the level of students’ performance and knowledge.
Such a form of classroom assessment is used to define a student’s final mark, as well as helping
educators to make corrections and adjustments in the current curriculum, where needed, for the
learning needs to be met in future.
However, summative assessment cannot evaluate the efficiency of learning as it is happening
because assessment is carried out only after the learning has taken place. So, any curriculum or
methodological improvements can only be implemented in the future.
Here are some typical types of summative assessment (more formal), some of which we have
mentioned before – but we’ll mention them again.
True/false: Learners are given astatement, which they mark true or false.
Multiple-choice: The question consists of a stem (the question or statement) and a number of
options (usually four), from which the test taker has to select the right one.
Gap-filling and completion: The test taker has to complete a sentence by filling a gap or adding
something (e.g. the correct form).
Matching: There are two groups of words, phrases or sentences. The task is to link each item in
the first group with another item in the second group.
Cloze: In a cloze exercise, you omit words from a passage at regular intervals. This could be
every seventh word. Usually, there are no gaps in the first two or three lines, in order to establish
a context for the students. Students fill the gaps, choosing the appropriate words from a given
list.
Transformation: A sentence is given (in written or oral form), and the test taker has to change it
according to some given instruction, e.g. switch to another tense.
Rewriting: A sentence is given; the test taker rewrites it, incorporating a given change of
expression, but preserving the basic meaning.
Example: He came to the meeting in spite of his illness.
Rewrite: Although …
Dictation: You dictate a passage or set of words. The test takers then write them down.
Questions and Answers: Simple questions, very often following a reading or listening text, or as
part of an interview. This task may require either short or long answers.
Example: What is the family relationship between Chen and Hu?
Essay: The test takers are given a topic, such as My Best Friend, and are asked to write an essay
of a specific length.
Monologue or Oral Interview: The test takers are given a topic or question and asked to speak
about it for a minute or two.
Example: Which hobby/pastime do you prefer and why?
2. Formative assessment for students’ learning evaluation (more INFORMAL assessment)
Formative assessment is the type of assessment used to reflect and evaluate the efficiency of
learning in its process, and, consequently, it is a part of the teaching process.
You use it to discover gaps in the learning/teaching. You adjust both the teaching and learning
processes to the learners’ learning needs immediately in the process of learning.
Such an approach enables educators to raise the learning standards in real-time in the process of
teaching. Having evaluated the current needs of each student, including those with lower
abilities, you can address them immediately.
The information provided by formative assessment is used for modifying the teaching and
learning activities in the classroom to get the best possible learning results.
Formative assessment is essential and very useful for getting feedback on students’ progress to
identify and correct any possible errors. As a result, you may change the methodology of
developing speaking and listening skills, for example.
Here are some typical types of formative assessment (more informal):
Some of the activities mentioned above under summative assessment will be used plus a
selection from the following activities:
 Observing learners’ spoken or written work and answers to comprehension tasks

 Keeping notes on the learners’ performance during particular classroom tasks
 Getting learners to complete self or peer assessment sheets
 Getting feedback from students themselves on their learning
 Noting attitude and effort
8.5.7. Multiple-Choice – How To Write Valid And Reliable

Questions
Here we will focus on multiple-choice assessment. Very few inexperienced teachers have ever
had any experience in writing multiple-choice assessments, even although this will be a crucial
assessment instrument in the classroom.
Multiple-choice items can test lower-order and higher-order thinking. Learners can complete
these reasonably quickly, and teachers can mark them swiftly. They are objective tests, widely
used in formal tests, though it can take a long time to devise them correctly.
In devising multiple-choice questions and options, there are several considerations to be borne in
mind.
Note that we use stem for the question, and choice or option for the response choices.
 Make the question and requirements unambiguous and in a language appropriate for the
candidates.
 Avoid giving clues in the choices/options which help to identify which response is the correct
one.
 Provide around four choices to reduce guessing. Ensure that the distractors (options which look
like they may be correct, but they aren’t) are close to the correct response so that the candidate
will consider them. That is, make the options realistic.
 Keep the choices around the same length; ensure the correct answer is not much longer than the
others, where possible.
 Avoid giving grammatical clues. For example, the word an in the stem requires an option that
begins with a vowel; the word is in the stem requires an option written in the singular.
 Avoid using textbook language in the correct choice only. Learners can easily spot that this is the
correct answer.
 Ensure that the questions include significant learning rather than just a simple recalling of facts
and figures.
 Embed the nature of the issue in the stem (the question) of the item, ensuring that the stem is
meaningful in itself.
 Ensure that the stem focuses on as much of the item as possible, with no irrelevancies.
 Keep the readability levels low.
 Ensure that all the options are reasonably plausible, so that guessing of the only possible option
is avoided.
 Avoid the possibility of candidates making the correct choice through incorrect reasoning.
There are several attractions to multiple-choice items, for example:
 They can be completed relatively quickly by a competent question writer, enabling many
questions to be asked which, in turn, enables good coverage of each skill area, thereby increasing
reliability and validity.
 There is limited writing, so candidates’ writing skills (or their lack of these) do not impede
demonstration of knowledge or skill.
 The opportunities for errors or biases in marking can be reduced.
However, they have been criticised by some educationalists:

 Multiple-choice testing may demean and reduce the complexity of knowledge, learning and
education to the trivial, atomised (fragmented) and low level.
 They have little diagnostic or formative potential.
 Scores may be inflated through informed guessing.
However, if you follow our guidelines above, you will construct valid multiple-choice
assessments.
Multiple-choice activity
Have a look at these test questions. Is each of them valid and reliable – or not? Please read them
and add Yes or No beside the numbers below and comment on why you think the question is
valid and reliable – or not. Then check what we think, below the questions.
Q1. Who has scored the most goals in one season for Real Madrid, and in which year?
a. Salomón Rondón in 2011

b. Isco in 2012
c. Roque Santa Cruz in 2013
d. Juanmi in 2014
Q2. Which state was the 16th state to join the Union in the USA?
a. A. Tennessee
b. B. Hawaii
c. Vancouver
d. Alaska
Q3. The term ‘side effect’, used in relation to a drug:
A. refers to any drug effect other than the one the doctor wanted the drug to have
B. is the chain effect
C. is an additional benefit
D. is the key effect
Q4. Each organism is made of cells, and every cell comes from another cell. This is the:
A. Relativity Theory
B. Evolution Theory
C. Heat Theory
D. Cell Theory
Q5. A test is valid when it:
A. produces similar scores over time

B. fits well with a similar form
C. measures indubitably what it purports to measure
D. ensures everyone can pass it
Q6. A test which may be scored merely by counting the correct responses is called an
_______________ test.
A. consistent
B. objective
C. stable
D. standardised
Q7. What is the effective number of questions in a test to ensure it is a true test of
competence?
A. less than 10
B. less than 20
C. more than 40
D. more than 50
Q8. What is (are) the capital(s) of Bolivia?

A. La Paz B. Sucre C. Santa Cruz
A. A only
B. B only
C. C only
D. both A and B
Answers
Well done! We wonder if you came to the same conclusion as we have: they are all unacceptable
as test items.
1. Not acceptable. The answers contain 2 pieces of data. However, it is possible to answer this,
knowing only one piece of data. Let’s say the answer is D. If we know that the highest scorer in
recent times is Juanmi, then we can answer the question without knowing this occurred in 2014.
Similarly, if we know the most goals were scored in 2014, then we can pick Juanmi even
although we did not know at all that he was the highest goal-scorer.
2. Not acceptable. Providing they know that Vancouver is in Canada and Alaska and Hawaii were
the 49th and 50th states – the most recent states which many people (around the world)
remember – to join the Union, then they have too good a chance.
3. Not acceptable. The long answer in A gives a clue that this is likely to be the correct answer.
4. Not acceptable. There is a clue to the answer D in the stem of the question – the word cell.
5. Not acceptable. The intended answer C contains wording which is clearly textbook language and
candidates will likely identify this as the answer.
6. Not acceptable. The word an in the stem of the question indicates that the next word must start
with a vowel – thus, the answer is obviously B.
7. Not acceptable. This is heavily flawed. If the answer is meant to be A, then B is also correct as
any number that is less than 10 is also less than 20. Similarly, if the answer is meant to be D,
then C is also correct as any number that is more than 90 is also more than 80.
8. Not acceptable. Bolivia is one of the few countries which has two capitals. This is easy to
remember. Therefore, this can be answered easily by choosing D without knowing the names of
the cities.
So, we can see that writing valid and reliable multiple-choice tests requires a lot of
thinking.
8.6 Supplementary Materials
Supplementary materials are worksheets and other materials you can use in addition to the classroom text if
there is one. They include skills development materials, grammar, vocabulary and phonology practice
materials, collections of communicative activities and your own resource materials.
Supplementary materials may also come from authentic sources. Examples of these authentic materials are
newspaper and magazine articles, pictures, and videos.
You can use supplementary materials to:
 overcome the lack of materials when you are teaching with minimal resources
 replace unsuitable material in the classroom text, if there is one
 fill gaps in the classroom text, if there is one
 provide appropriate material for learners’ specific needs and interests
 give learners extra language or skills practice
 add variety to your teaching
Making your supplementary materials may seem daunting at first, but it’s not if you know what to do. Teacher-
made materials can be very effective, assuming that they are relevant and personalised and answer the needs of
the learners in a way no other materials can.
Our key focus in this Section will be to consider two particular situations:
 where you are teaching with minimal resources and cannot depend on pre-made supplementary
materials being readily available or appropriate
 where you find that the coursebook, if you have one, lacks the types of materials you wish to have
In these situations, you must resolve this yourself and get or make them.
In the next two Sections, we will focus on worksheets, workcards, and flashcards.
8.6.1. Worksheets And Workcards

Two excellent forms of teacher-made materials are worksheets and workcards.
They can be used for oral practice in pairs or groups, or for listening, reading and writing practice, with
students working with other students or on their own.
Remember this: Many of the examples of worksheets on the internet are pretty dull. Usually, there is just a
list of questions with spaces for the answers. Try and make your materials a bit different and add in a picture or
some colouring.
1. Worksheets
 A worksheet is typically a Letter/A4 sized page (or two) of tasks.

 It is given out to individuals, pairs or groups, depending on the approach required.
 Learners give their answers/responses on the worksheet.
 You circulate during the completion.
 You typically check the answers/responses with the whole class.
 Sometimes they are disposed of; sometimes the learners can keep them; and sometimes you’ll take them in to
study progress, e.g. handwriting, or to include them in the learners’ portfolios.
Here are three simple worksheets we have created for you, to demonstrate that it doesn’t take long to
construct them. We’ve used ready-made pictures, but you could draw or trace these or ask some artistic
teacher or student to help you if need be.
Example 3: The Gruffalo
2. Workcards
 You would typically create these yourself for all kinds of tasks and situations.
 These are typically small, laminated cards, about the size of an index card. You would laminate them so they
can be used repeatedly with different learners. However, if there’s no laminator, keep them in plastic files.
 The learners complete their activity on a separate blank sheet or in their notebooks, not on the workcard.
 They are typically for short tasks – individual, pair or group.
 Different learners may be working with varying workcards at the same time.
 Depending on your choice you can colour them and put little pictures on them.
They are excellent for:

 Recycling activities where, for example, some individuals need more practice with some specific item
 Giving out to more able learners who have finished ahead of the others who are still completing the whole
class activity you set
 Giving the class a break from learning after they have all been working hard. Quizzes, small puzzles and
riddles can all be entered on these cards for these relaxing moments.
The workcards are then handed back to you.

Here are some examples which should be self-explanatory:
1. These could be used for a discussion between pairs or groups, for a short, written piece, or a student
presentation to the whole class:
2. This next type could be used for relaxation, and perhaps a little prize could be given to the winning group. You
could encourage them to do some dictionary work for any difficult words, where dictionaries are
available. Remember this: Don’t use examples of animals or things which don’t exist in their culture. We used
this with Spanish students.
It is, of course, the Iberian Wolf. Depending on student levels, you could increase or decrease the level of
difficulty.
Some practical ideas for workcards
1. Stamps
Put different postage stamps on a card. Ask the pairs to identify what countries the stamps are from. A word
bank can be supplied. Higher performing students can be asked to add the capital of the country, the name of
the language spoken, etc.
2. Read And Draw

Read and draw. You could write a description of a place, a person or an unusual animal (e.g. an armadillo) on
the workcard. The students must draw a picture from the description and compare their efforts.
Then you can let them see a real photo/picture of the place, person or animal. This can be good fun. Some may
go right off track as they have misunderstood an essential part of the instructions.
Remember, though, that this is not a drawing task per se. It’s a reading and comprehension activity.
3. Things In Common
Give a list of 3-4 words. The students write what the words have in common. For example, beginners could
get dog, cat, bear: animals. Older learners could be challenged with pint, silver, width. They may take some
time to work out that no other English words rhyme with these words!
4. Matching
You make up two lists, one of countries and the other of capitals. The students match the country with its
capital city.
5. Words That Sound The Same

You present two lists of words that sound the same but have different meanings, e.g. right, write. The students
must match the words that sound alike. This can also be done with opposite words and words that rhyme.
8.6.2 Flashcards
A flashcard is a laminated picture of, say, a house, garden or kitchen with the name below it or on the back of
the picture that you can hold up for all to see.
Ensure these are culturally appropriate. For example, if all your students come from the inner city,
there may not be many gardens around.
You could make these Letter/A4 size. You could also make smaller versions so that, say, each pair can have
their own to look at. Gradually, through time, you’ll be able to miss out the picture and just show the word.
It’s good to intersperse showing the word with also writing it on the board, to get their minds thinking further
that spoken words can be written down.
It’s a wise idea to colour your flashcards from the start if you can, e.g. nouns in pink, adjectives in blue, verbs
in green, etc. You would typically start with nouns. Of course, you won’t use the metalanguage with them.
You would just call it a thing or an animal.
When you move on to say, adjectives, you’d point out that this card is not in pink like the other card (nouns)
and this will help them a bit to understand categories and differences through time.
With ‘showing’ activities like holding up flashcards, always plan to do some other activity after this to
consolidate the learning. For example, once they have learned some simple words, they can practise in pairs,
reading words to their partners.
Remember! Become familiar with what supplementary materials are available in your school.
When you arrive, draw up a materials needs analysis checklist at the beginning of the course to find out what
you will want to add to the classroom text, if there is one, when you are planning your lessons. Plan ahead!
8.6.3. Practical Tips For Developing Your Own Material
1. Make Them Fit The Context

Several criticisms of commercially made materials continue to be voiced, particularly concerning context. Here
are the main criticisms, which we have mentioned before:
 The coursebook and accompanying materials produced for the global EFL market are too generic.
 Often, they are not geared to specific groups of learners.
 Often, they are not aimed at any specific educational or cultural context.
 Often, they contain functions and speech outputs based on situations that the majority of foreign language
learners may never be in.
 They are often Anglo-centric in their construction and production and therefore do not reflect any local
varieties of English. ‘Anglo-centric’ typically means centred on or giving priority to England or things
English.
Thus, many teachers find it much, much better to make their own materials to make them fit the specific
educational and cultural context.
2. Make Them Fit The Individual Learners

Commercially produced generic materials cannot address the needs of all the unique individual learners in
classrooms. However, you can by:
 creating or adapting materials to the individual needs and learning preferences of students
 creating or modifying materials that take into account the learners’ first language and the learners’ culture and
personal experiences
 creating or adapting materials at the right level for specific learners, to ensure the materials present an
appropriate challenge and degree of success
 changing the often-repetitive model and organisation in the coursebook to add more variety within the
classroom to meet developing needs (e.g. using whatever is appropriate to achieve the goal – topics, situations,
functions, etc.)
3. Make Them Fit Today’s Events

Commercially produced materials cannot keep up to date with local and international affairs. World and
country changes can happen rapidly, and learning materials need to keep up with changes and events that are
of particular interest to learners in their situation. Just have a look at a Timeline for the 21 st century on
Wikipedia to remind yourself of some local and international affairs that have happened. How can learning
materials keep up with these?
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_21st_century#2011 )
Only teachers on the ground can make the materials relevant to today’s world.
4. Lack Of Finance
A large number of schools may not have the budget to supply modern resources for the TEFL classroom.
Instead of moaning and groaning, most teachers step up to the plate and design their own materials as a
matter of course. The school and your learners will be very appreciative of this.
Guidelines for Designing Your Materials
Remember the words of the Cheshire Cat in Alice in Wonderland: Alice: ‘Would you tell me, please, which
way I ought to go from here?’
‘That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,’ said the Cat.
‘I don’t much care where —’ said Alice.
‘Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,’ said the Cat.
If you haven’t designed materials, you must have a definite route to follow; otherwise, things may not turn out
as planned, and you and your learners may miss out on learning opportunities.
Here are the practical points you need to consider when planning the materials, while constructing your
materials and when reviewing your materials after completion.
Time to reflect
What practical points do you think you would need to consider when planning, constructing
and reviewing YOUR materials?
Well done!
1. Meet Your Learners’ Needs

Ensure your materials meet the learners’ needs in terms of their language skills, their cultural and educational
context and experiences, their learning preferences and their interests. Also, ensure you are aware of the
culture-specific learning processes of the learners in their situation.
For example, in some countries, parents/caregivers and educational institutions want to see less fun and more
work, so you will need to take this into account.
Also, in some countries, there is often more emphasis given to rote-learning, e.g. parents/caregivers and
institutions wanting to see you giving the young learners lists of vocabulary to rote-learn even though these
words may be learned out of context with the classroom teaching at that time.
Always ensure the materials link with what the learners already know; otherwise, the materials will not meet
the intended objective without a whole lot of additional input.
Where you do feel that something must be included but is not linked to their knowledge or experience, ensure
you clarify the inclusion before they start working with the materials.
2. Fit Your Materials With The Syllabus And Curriculum

Ensure the materials fit with the goals and objectives of the syllabus and curriculum if these are in place. Make
sure you are au fait with the complete syllabus and curriculum.
3. Consider Your Skill Base

Consider if you have the skills to do a reasonably professional job. Designing materials from scratch needs a
bit of experience to draw on, creativity, competent artistic skills and a sound understanding of materials design
and construction.
Absorb all this Section and, when in situ, ask others for help where you need to. Do not hold back on this.
That being said, it’s not that difficult. There are plenty of internet sites that can guide you in drawing.
4. Ensure You Search For Resources

Ensure you have the resources needed. Don’t spend time on planning the creation or adaptation of materials if
you do not have the ready resources to enable you to do a good job.
Some teachers will say that it’s necessary to be able to access computers and the internet, a good colour
photocopier, a laminator, a CD player or the like, etc. Well, we know teachers who survived nicely for years
without any of these in the school.
But they made friends inside and outside of the school and soon had access to some of these tools. You’ll
never get if you don’t ask. If you don’t have these, it’s not the end of the world.
We mentioned access. Schools are busy places, and often other teachers have planned to use a particular
resource. Ensure you plan well with the school administration so that you can use the resource at a scheduled
time. Book these well in advance.
5. Consider Copyright
Ensure you consider copyright. Yes, you must, not just for your sake but also for the sake of who is employing
you. Unless an artist, writer or producer clearly states that the material can be freely used within your
classroom, then you need to take care.
If you use copyrighted material in your class, which then goes down so well that it’s included in the school
brochure or on the school website, this could cause a problem for the school.
If, say, a writer or producer says you can use their material in class, that’s fine. If they say you need to ask
permission to do so, then you should follow this up and seek approval. If a writer or producer says you cannot
use the material, then steer clear of it.
In general, an idea cannot be copyrighted, so you may see something that sparks your interest, and you can
make up your own material based on that idea. However, the simple lifting of photos and text as they were
initially produced is not generally allowed.
Re pictures and images, numerous sites offer these without any copyright, but at a price,
e.g. https://www.shutterstock.com/
6. Work Out Your Time

Ensure you have adequate time to see this through. Experienced teachers will share one indisputable fact with
you, based on their experiences: it always takes longer than you think it will.
7. Stimulate Interaction Within Cultural ‘Rules’.

Ensure your materials stimulate interaction and provide a communicative purpose. There’s little point spending
lots of time on the production of materials if those materials are not going to encourage interaction in the
classroom. Such interaction should be in line with the types of interaction they will come across in their
outside world.
The materials don’t need to be complicated. A simple information gap activity worksheet will fit the bill
nicely.
However, good spoken communication does not just rely on the words spoken.
There are other factors such as turn-taking (me then you then me then you), and recognition of personal space
(proxemics) that you need to take into account when designing interactive activities for a communicative
purpose.
8. Stretch Your Learners

Ensure your materials provide a necessary ‘stretch’. You must produce materials that stretch your learners’
knowledge, understanding and application skills.
This is necessary for the ongoing development of the learners’ language competence.
Your materials should build on what they already know but should include new items (e.g. new vocabulary or
a new structure) which will stretch them to generate new language, e.g. by guessing, predicting, hypothesising,
noticing links, etc.
9. Develop Their ‘How To Learn’ Skills

Ensure your materials ‘push’ learners to develop language learning skills and strategies.
You need to teach your learners how to learn, e.g. understanding learning strategies that can help them
whenever they have difficulties in communicating.
Some examples of learning strategies are re-wording (saying their communicative piece differently,) and the
use of effective body language (facial expressions, nodding, etc.) which can help their communication move
forward.
Also, through time, young learners can be taught how to self-evaluate their work.
10. Focus On Form Too

Ensure your materials focus on form as well as communicative function. In the modern communicative
classroom, the emphasis is often on independent and creative expression with less focus on the form of the
language.
Some teachers may take their learners through a lengthy period of learning without focussing on any aspects of
language form.
For inexperienced teachers, in particular, this may be because their TEFL course focussed entirely on
communicating (at all costs) and little time, if any, on ensuring that issues of form and structure etc. are
addressed.
Alternatively, it could be the inexperienced teacher is unsure of some elements of form which often come
under the heading of grammar.
Nevertheless, you owe it to your learners to help them notice and understand the forms of language so that they
don’t just use speaking and writing to communicate but also understand that knowing the form of the language
will help them speak and write correctly at the same time.
What this means is that you should also include exercises and activities that will encourage learners to analyse
the language and form and test their own hypotheses as to how the English language works, depending on their
level, of course.
11. Integrate All The Language Skills

Lots of language materials focus mainly on speaking and writing. And, in the TEFL classroom, you often see
the same focus – speaking and writing. But listening and reading are also very important.
This phenomenon is peculiar, particularly with listening skills. When communicating, your listeners will not
only speak. In turn, they will listen. Listening is an important skill and plays a critical part in the overall
communication. However, it is not focussed on to the same extent as speaking is.
So, don’t fall into the speaking and writing trap. Create materials that give the learners opportunities to
integrate all the language skills.
12. Ensure Authenticity

It is paramount that your learners are exposed to authentic materials. Authentic materials are materials which
are unscripted and not explicitly developed for language learning purposes. They haven’t been fabricated for
a language learning purpose.
This applies not only to written texts (e.g. newspapers, magazines, original letters, etc.) but also to spoken and
visual texts. Ensure the recording of the spoken voices is real and not fabricated for a learning purpose. Ensure
too that any video you use hasn’t been performed for a language purpose.
If you record your materials, ensure that they consist of people saying and doing things in typical situations,
unaffected by the microphone or camera and making no effort to change their communication to suit a
language purpose, so that your learners have access to authentic language.
13. Link Materials

Ensure your learning materials connect. If you lose sight of your objectives and the need for steady progression
in language learning to achieve goals, you may end up with a pile of unconnected materials which may confuse
your learners.
So, keep a close eye on coherence throughout your development process. Ensure one piece links with another
in a steady progression towards the language learning goal.
14. Impress
Ensure you make a good impression. Ensure your materials look as good as they can, with consistency in the
layout.
Also, ensure you don’t cause anxiety or confusion for the learner. For example, when designing an information
gap or cloze activity ensure there is adequate room for the learners to write their answer.
Ensure they know whether the hatched lines in the gap represent the number of letters or not. Ensure they
know whether to write or print their answer.
In addition, it’s always wise to consider whether you will be using these materials again. If they are materials
which will be used frequently, get them laminated (where possible) so that they still look fresh when used
again and again.
15. Ensure Clear Instructions

Clear and precise instructions are critical. If you need to start the exercise again because the instructions are
weak or unclear, this doesn’t look good and is unfair to your learners. It will be frustrating for you and them.
Also, the language in instructions needs to be appropriate to their level and in simple words. There are no
prizes for you for using complicated words.
Follow all these guidelines, and you won’t go wrong. One of the most rewarding experiences in teaching
is designing and developing your own materials and reflecting later on how well they helped you and
your learners to achieve the language goal. Go for it!
8.6.4. Visual Aids And Realia

Other supplementary materials are visual aids and realia.
Visuals and realia (real-life, authentic language materials), can be brought into the classroom to teach
vocabulary, to prompt grammar practice, to build dialogues and narratives, and to initiate games and quizzes.
We’ve already mentioned a simple visual aid when we were discussing eliciting: full/half-full and
half-empty/empty (using a jug of water and 3 glasses). This simple aid can be used for several activities:
1. Vocabulary: degrees such as half-full

2. Comparatives and superlatives: big, bigger, biggest amounts of water
3. Colours: showing colours or different degrees of colour, e.g. pink. To capture their interest with this, take a
few bottles of baking/icing colouring with you in your suitcase. Put a hidden drop or two of a different colour
in the bottom of each glass, before the class begins. Let it dry. They won’t notice this. Then, as if by magic,
your blue, red and green colours will appear as you pour in the water. They’ll think you are a magician!
4. The concept of weight and the vocabulary arising from this.
Realia pieces can help to bring the language classroom to life. A carefully assembled collection of materials,
such as restaurant menus, classified ads, flyers, and travel brochures can be excellent supplements to the
primary resources you use. Collect these before you go. Here are some other examples of realia:
 Postcards and letters

 Bulletin board notices
 Extracts from newspapers, including articles, advertisements, classifieds, crosswords, horoscopes, features, etc.
 Comics and cartoons
 Calendars and planners
 Shopping lists
 Airline tickets and itineraries
 Photographs
 Picture sequences
 Creative texts, such as poems and extracts from plays, short stories, and novels
Audio/visual
 Casual conversations amongst native speakers
 Radio and TV news and weather broadcasts
 Public announcements (e.g. from airports)
 Messages recorded from answering machines
 Telephone conversations
 Transactions in stores and public institutions such as libraries
These pieces of realia can be used as the raw materials or input data for a task, or they can be used to provide
cultural background, to assist in explaining new vocabulary and as a stimulus for a range of learner language
activity.
Good job, as they say.! Another Module completed! What you have learned here will help you better
understand your teacher role and the practical skills and techniques needed to ensure you are
competent and effective at all times.
And there are more skills and techniques to come!
It’s not taxing. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 9, where we will focus indepth on effective classroom management.
It’s vital that you manage your class well, so absorb all the points and put these into action in your
classroom.
9.1 Grouping Learners
9.1.1. Learner Interaction Patterns
Let’s explore how learners can be grouped in the classroom. In today’s classrooms, many classrooms are based
mainly on the student-centred approach of Communicative Language Teaching.
The classroom as a ‘community’ becomes a central concept.
This community is most effectively created and maintained by the effective grouping of learners in pairs and
groups.
This is very important for the smooth running and management of your classroom. There’s no best
arrangement, but some are better than others.
When selecting a learning exercise or activity, you must take into consideration the learning dynamic and
determine how to group learners. You will need to consider:
 the learners’ proficiency level, particularly if the class is a mixed-level class

 learners’ learning preferences
 learners’ needs
 learners’ personalities and relationships with others in the class
And you will need to be aware of which learners will work together best for the learning to be most effective.
The vast majority of the learning exercises and activities in CLT classrooms are designed to be done in pairs or
groups.
A whole class pattern would be one in which all the students take part in an activity collectively. Examples of
such activities include chain stories, or a class game, such as vocabulary tic-tac-toe.
Other patterns include individual or ‘solo’ work, which can include taking tests or the reviewing of personal
performance. Of course, the individual work could be carried out in any seating arrangement.
Putting students to work on their own can allow learners to work at their own speed and give them time to
think and work on their individual needs and progress.
9.1.2. Strategies To Ensure Effective Pair- And

Group- Work
Here are some useful practices to consider when you are organising pair and group work, to ensure that
your learners are learning and using the language effectively:
Context: Give the students a clear context for the activity to increase their motivation.
Explain: The instructions that are given at the beginning are crucial. If the students do not understand
precisely what they must do, there will be time-wasting, confusion, lack of effective practice, and possible loss
of control.
Model: After explaining, demonstrate clearly what students must do. Use a volunteer student or pair to
participate in your demonstration, if possible.
Set time limits and prepare for early-finishers: Tell them how long the activity will last. Indicate what you will
do to confirm that the time is up. Tell them what to do if they finish early. Ensure you have additional
materials at hand that early-finishers can work on.
Monitor: Your most important job once you get the exercise or activity going is to move around the pairs and
groups and actively monitor what’s going on. This entails either contributing to give help or keeping a distance
(though still listening in) – whichever is apt at that time.
Ending: Aim to finish the activity while the students are still enjoying it and are still interested or are at the
point where their energy and interest levels are just beginning to wane.
Feedback: Run a feedback session with the whole class, immediately after the activity has finished. Feedback
could include:
 giving the right answer(s), if this is appropriate
 considering and evaluating suggestions from the learners
 putting their suggestions/ideas on the board and adding comments
 displaying materials the pairs or groups have produced
 praising them for their efforts and so on.
Your primary objective in the feedback session is to express appreciation for the effort that has been invested
so that students feel there was a purpose to their work.
9.2 Classroom Space

9.2.1. Proxemics
In a classroom, some students may wish to sit away from you while, at the same time, you may want to sit
closer to the students, perhaps wanting to make a more significant impact or wanting to have a better chance to
relate to students.
An awareness of proxemics, which refers to cultural rules concerning proximity, is vital.
In some cultures, such proximity rules are stereotypically close, while keeping a distance is emphasised in
other cultures.
Over-generalising people and their cultures is all a bit silly. However, we must help you where we can. We
feel it’s fair to say, based on our experiences, that some cultures do demonstrate a ‘closeness’ or a ‘distance’
when standing up speaking to each other.
Generally, Latin Americans, South Americans, Black Americans, Africans, people from the Middle East, those
from Indonesia and those from southern Europe tend to speak with less distance between them than, say, White
Americans or White British people.
For White Americans and White British, keeping a recognised distance is generally the norm.
It’s not a question of good or bad; it’s just the way it is.
In classroom terms, you also need to know and work with whatever is the typical distance between you and a
student when in a formal teaching mode.
Also, you need to have an awareness of the extent to which this is modifiable.
Specifically, you will need to define a space that does not break any cultural rules or make students feel
uncomfortable.
Remember! Think about how the physical classroom space can be used to avoid any proximity ‘rules’. You’ll
need to research the ‘rules’ for the country where you will be teaching, and you’ll need to observe this
carefully once you start teaching.
9.2.2. Optimising The Physical Space

In an EFL class, the optimisation of space and creation of appropriate teacher-student distance involves
physically determining the seating arrangement of your students.
There is no single best way to organise the physical space in a classroom.
One of the main elements you will want to consider is how best you can accommodate your learners when you
place them in pairs or small groups.
You will also have to consider where you position yourself as you present material, as you monitor pair and
group work and as you conduct other drills and exercises.
You must consider the space needed to give your students individualised attention when required, as well as to
factor in external circumstances, such as overcrowding or mixed proficiency levels.
The next Section will give you food for thought.
9.2.3. Seating Arrangements

When trawling through these seating arrangements, note that the teacher’s desk may be used mainly for
holding notes and books and a place to put a computer projector. In the communicative classroom, the teacher
will tend to be up and about for most, if not all, of the lesson.
In former times, the teacher may have sat there, perhaps marking work while the students were completing
exercises. However, it shouldn’t be like that in the communicative classroom.
1. Traditional rows
Pros
 Promotes a teacher-centred vantage point
 Effective for lectures, student oral reports
 Useful for assessments, visual or audio presentations, computer or overhead presentations, and board work
Cons
• Not Student-Centred
 Pairs and groups can’t easily interact without moving the furniture.
 Students at the back may feel left out.
 Staring at the back of the head of the student in front for prolonged periods is hardly stimulating.
2. Spaced rows
Pros
 A little bit less formal than traditional rows and the opportunity for a bit more rapport than traditional rows
 Students can view the other row to break up any monotony.
Cons
• Not Student-Centred
 Pairs and groups can’t easily interact without moving the furniture.
 Students at the back may feel left out.
3. Horseshoe
Pros
 More flexible – you can conduct a teacher-centred presentation and can come in quickly to the centre to
monitor
 Good for pairs
 Students can see more of their peers and exchange information a bit easier.
 More informal and enhances a sense of equality for all
 No hiding place for weaker students who may typically hide behind more dominating students; thus, there
should be more participation
Cons
• Group work is not easy without moving desks.
Students on extreme flanks may lose focus.
4. Circle Pros
 Promotes equality, with you and students as one. You are less of an authoritarian figure.
 Less formality
 Perhaps more intimacy
 Students can all see each other and exchange information easily.
Cons
• Being cut off from the board may be seen as a drawback by some teachers.
5. Pairs
Pros
 Learning more collaborative
 Allows for more communication and reflection time for the students
 You can roam more freely from pair to pair.
Cons
 Some students may not wish to be paired up.
 May be more difficult for you to teach to the whole class since the attention of some pairs may be focussed a
bit more on the pair dynamic and not so much on you
 May be more noise, but the benefits often outweigh this
6. Groups
Similar pros and cons as 5
Pros
 Learning more collaborative
 You can roam more freely from group to group.
 Often less noise than pairs as fewer learners speaking at the one time
Cons
 Some students may not wish to be in a particular group.
 May be more difficult for you to teach to the whole class since the attention of some groups may be focussed a
bit more on the group dynamic and not so much on you Summary
Seating is a critical factor in classroom management.

There are other possibilities-so experiment!
Try and move away from the traditional classroom layout of rows which inhibits student participation and
student attention.
Aim to provide the best possible conditions for optimum learning to occur.
9.3 Teaching Large Multi-Level Classes

9.3.1. Profile
Some teachers view a large class as 20 students or so but wait until they have 30 or 40 students – then they’ll
know what a large class really is. So, it’s all relative.
The term multi-level is a lot easier to define, as this term is used to identify any group of learners who differ
from one another in one or more significant ways, e.g. age, level, competence, prior experience, the degree of
literacy, etc.
In many adult EFL classes, there are even more variables that affect the level structure within the class.
Because of funding constraints, learner scheduling difficulties, and programme logistics, some programmes
will place learners of all or several levels into the same class.
Such classes often include speakers of many native languages, some of whom use the Roman alphabet and
some of whom do not (e.g. Mandarin, Arabic).
Learners may also have varying degrees of literacy in their first language as well as in English.
Other factors that add to a classroom’s heterogeneity, or diversity, and the rate of progress include:
 Type and amount of a learner’s previous education

 Learning preferences
 Learners’ learning goals
 Learners’ expectations of appropriate classroom activities
 Culture, age, gender and, in some contexts, the religion of each learner
9.3.2. Pros And Cons

Pros
Many teachers are very positive about teaching multi-level classes. They feel:
 There’s enjoyment in watching all the students mingling, getting to know each other, making friends and
learning about the different values and cultures of the other students. There’s a greater sense of community.
These large, multi-level classes provide you with a significant opportunity for creativity, innovation and
personal development.
 It’s impossible to get around everyone so students can help by teaching each other and working together.
These teachers feel this peer teaching and collaboration are surprisingly effective, fostering co-operation and
student autonomy.
Cons
For some teachers, their first impression upon hearing they will have to teach large multi-level classes is
usually not so positive. They typically focus on these disadvantages:
 These classes are challenging to control.

 It’s challenging to find suitable material to satisfy the differences in learners.
 They’re unsure as to whether their students are all learning effectively.
Our view
If you have already gained experience in classroom management with smaller classes with fewer levels of
difference, and everything has been fine, there shouldn’t be much to worry about. You will have gained the
transferable skills which you can apply to the larger classes.
Yes, you may need to tweak a few things, and you may need to do a bit more planning, but you’ll be fine. We
don’t quite see how a teacher who has gained the skills in class control, materials development, monitoring and
ensuring effective learning just loses those skills because the class is bigger and there are more levels.
You’ll make up your mind if the time comes. New teachers would not typically be put in charge of a large,
multi-level class until they have gained substantial experience. However, reflect on all of this, just in case.
9.3.3. Effective Planning And Grouping Strategies

1. Planning
Planning for multi-level classes requires the ability to juggle many different elements.
In particular, you must provide a range of activities that address the learning preferences, skill levels and
specific learning objectives of everyone, as best as you can.
You can use a variety of techniques and grouping strategies and a selection of self-access materials (i.e.
materials which students access on their own with little or no guidance from you) such as crossword puzzles,
texts, computer software and games to help all learners be successful, comfortable, and productive for at least a
portion of each class.
Your approach should be to design materials and activities that enable lower levels to succeed, middle-levels to
do more and succeed, and higher-levels to do even more and stretch themselves to succeed further.
Remember! The alternative to this – planning and using activities that meet the needs of only those learners
whose skills fall somewhere in the middle or so- will frustrate those with lower skills and bore the more
advanced learners.
Also, you will need to decide who can help with what during a learning activity.
Generally, planning for all the varying levels, preferences and learner expectations is more timeconsuming
than planning for a single level class and the classroom management can be a little bit more taxing unless you
plan well.
2. Reflect on Possible Approaches
How can you best handle a large multi-level class?
Here’s what to consider in your planning stage:
1. Class community and identity
When considering your approach, i.e. whether to divide up the class or not, think first what effect either option
will have on the class community/class identity.
For example, will dividing the class up into two halves or several groups have a detrimental effect on class
cohesion as compared to keeping it as one whole class of multi-level students? If so, can the break in the
cohesion be fixed?
 Don’t get fixated with levels – do a needs analysis
Your Head of Department/Director of Studies tells you that your class will be made up of elementary and
intermediate levels. However, no individuals are the same. You will find that there are sub-levels within these
levels.
Also, you may well find that a particular elementary student is stronger in speaking than some of the
intermediate students. It’s only because she was weaker in the other skills that she is still classified as
elementary.
The same can be said for an intermediate student who showed great strength in all the skills apart from writing,
but his overall mark was sufficient to label him intermediate, yet his writing is not much better than some
elementary students.
In your first week or two, aim to do a needs analysis of their proficiency. Even if they are younger students, it
would be wise to carry out a needs analysis, so that any groupings you decide on will be tighter.
There are other non-linguistic factors which you may need to take into account, as best as you can. These may
come up during your needs analysis:
 Some students may prefer to work with others from a similar social background.
 Some may prefer to be with others from the same geographical area.
Some may prefer to be with others from a similar educational background.
 Some may prefer to be with others with similar competence in English.

 Some male students, due to cultural reasons, may be hesitant in taking part in groups with women or where
women are appointed leaders in the group.
 Some prefer to be in groups of a similar age.
 Some may not be comfortable in groups with other learners they consider to be more prominent or of higher
status.
 Identify your ‘assistants’
In a mixed-level group, you have ready-made ‘assistants’: those students with the more developed skills and
competence who can help you, when needed, to teach their peers who don’t yet have the skills and competence
aimed for. This is a huge benefit, so look at this very positively.
Fortunately, most people have an innate desire to help others, and this is prevalent in all classes in all cultures.
For example, a student who has substantial experience of word order can help with tutoring those who are not
so competent in this item.
This peer teaching and collaboration is surprisingly effective, fostering cooperation and student autonomy.
So, a thorough needs analysis should help you to identify who should be able to assist you with what aspect
during the course. Thus, your workload will be reduced.
 Consider the key pros and cons of different groupings
1. One Whole Class Of Multi-Level Students

Pros
 The class community is intact.

 Less-competent students can listen to more-competent students, and this may inspire them.
 More-competent students can help the less-competent students and the more-competent students will improve
their cognitive skills while doing so.
Cons
 More-competent students may get frustrated and bored waiting on the less-competent to complete their efforts.
 Frustration and boredom may lead to the more-competent students chatting over the lesscompetent students
while they are still trying to speak or answer a question.
 Less-competent students may give up because it’s all a bit too complex for them.
2. Dividing Up The Class Into Halves Or A Few Groups

Pros
 A better chance of students at a similar level working together

 Less frustration for both the more-competent and the less-competent
Cons
 The possibility of a Us and Them division within the class

 The class community may not be intact
5. Be mindful of the additional workload

In deciding as to how you will approach any divisions you make, you need to be fully aware of how, say,
several groupings will affect your workload.
You can’t spend all your time in the evenings and weekends, developing loads of different activities and
worksheets for numerous groups. It’s just not the way it should be. You need to get out and about and live your
life!
3. Make a Decision and Buy Them In
We have had experience of the full range of groupings in the multi-level classroom. Based on some of the pros
and cons above, our preference was to divide the class into two halves, or three thirds if there was an unusually
large number (sometimes 50+).
When we tried several groupings in the classes, sometimes 5-8 groups, we felt that the amount of teacher-
group contact time in one lesson of, say, 50 or 60 minutes, was just too small.
After settling them down with a warmer, giving out instructions, taking care of any class management issues,
ensuring there was an enjoyable and fun closing activity, the teacher-group contact time was far too short.
Students need teacher-group contact time so that their (group) queries can be answered and so that you can
continue to motivate them. This is much easier when you are dealing only with two main groupings, or three at
the most.
Also, it’s much easier when you only have two groups to monitor and prepare for. Of course, within each of
these two groups, you’ll still have to build in differentiation into the exercises and activities.
It’s true, of course, that there’s the potential for a Us and Them division and the possibility of a break in class
cohesion but often this arises because the teacher hasn’t explained this in a way that would buy them into the
division into two groups.
Ask them for their help on Day 1:
You: Sometimes we will be learning as a whole class together but, importantly, I’m going to divide the class
into two groups for most of the time. One group is not better or more important than the other. You can decide
on the name of each group.
Breaking the class into two groups is proven to make you learn better and faster.
In addition to what you might learn from me, it’s vital that you also gain additional skills and knowledge from
each other. By working in two groups, you will achieve optimum learning.
Can I ask you for your help in this, accepting whichever group you are placed in? In this way, there won’t be
any interruption, and we will make full use of all the time available. I’m sure that’s what you would wish to
happen. Is everyone agreeable?
Or in similar words.
This strategy has worked for us, and there’s no reason to think it won’t work for you. Try it.
Short and open class discussions on some factors, such as learning preferences and interaction patterns, will
also help in overcoming any reluctance.
In the end, of course, it’s up to you to decide on which strategy you favour.
No matter which you choose, analyse your students’ strengths and weaknesses over the first couple of weeks,
draw up a needs analysis and firm up your groups.
Your aim is to try and construct homogeneous groups, made up of learners who have roughly equal skills (for
example, certain degrees of fluency or literacy).
Of course, there will be some students who do not tick all the boxes, so you’ll need to aim for a percentage of
competence across the skills.
4. Don’t Stick to Your Main Groups All the Time
To ensure that you keep the class community as cohesive and motivated as possible, to ensure that your
students get all the learning opportunities they deserve, and to ensure variety, alter your group formation from
time to time:
1. Whole Class Work

Here are some tasks/activities which are appropriate for whole-class work and this would then lead to follow-
up work set at different degrees of difficulty for different student group requirements (e.g. more practice in
writing):
 Class project: The whole group can participate in a class project to create a finished product (such as a text,
bulletin board, or collage), where each learner completes a part of the task based on individual abilities and
interests.
 Reading comic strips or photo stories
 Listening to audio or viewing video • Learning songs
 Brainstorming on topics of interest
2. Pair Work
Pairs offer the most significant opportunity to use communicative skills.
Similar-ability pairs succeed when partners’ roles are interchangeable or equally tricky. Activities for similar
pairs include information gaps, dialogues, role-plays and pair interviews.
Cross-ability pairs work best when partners are given different roles, and more substantial demands are placed
on the more proficient learner. So, here is an excellent opportunity to mix the groups.
Some examples are activities where one dictates and one transcribes, interviews where one questions and one
answers, and role-plays where one learner has a more significant role than the other.
In this dynamic, the more proficient partner can also play the role of mentor, helping the less skilled partner in
times where she may need attention and you are tied up with other pairs or groups.
3. Individual/Solo Work
When learners are doing independent activities in the multi-level classroom, the usage of self-access materials
can enable students to take responsibility for choosing work appropriate to their levels and interests.
A self-access component includes activities from all skill areas as well as vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation exercises.
With self-access materials, each task is set up so that learners need minimal, if any, assistance from you to
accomplish the activity.
Directions are clear, and answers (when applicable) are provided on the back of the activity, allowing learners
to evaluate their work without your intervention.
When used regularly in the classroom, self-access time can foster a relaxed environment where learners decide
how and when to interact with one another, with you, and with English.
9.4 Classroom Discipline

While more movement of students and more communication amongst students have had a positive effect in the
communicative classroom, they have also increased the potential for things to go wrong. This can lead to
possible problems relating to student discipline and behaviour.
These issues of discipline and student behaviour are the most frequently mentioned concerns of inexperienced
teachers.
Gradually, you will develop your strategies and techniques for dealing with inappropriate behaviour.
Often, indiscipline arises due to confusion over:
 weak classroom rules, or lack of them

 roles and expectations, i.e. your and your students’ roles and expectations
In essence, inadequate classroom management is likely to be at the root of it, most of the time.
9.4.1. Teacher Attitudes To Discipline
Although it is a bit of a generalisation, there seems to be two main categories of teachers with their differing
attitudes to discipline.
Some see the learner as the recipient of information that the teacher, as the fount of knowledge, must provide.
They view the learner’s role as relatively passive. They control. They tend to accept the need for minor
punishments as an incentive to learning.
On the other hand, some teachers see learning as a process that requires the active commitment of the students.
These teachers try to avoid punishment, relying on the students’ interest in the work to keep them out of
trouble.
These teachers see themselves more as guides than controllers, and so they seek to maintain discipline through
persuasion and by tapping into the students’ good nature.
Experience tells us that if you genuinely care for your students (as you will) and communicate well with them
in not only their subject content but in all social ways, you will bring out the best in your students. When you
keep these goals in sight, you will often get the better of even the most troublesome student.
You’ll decide on your approach.
9.4.2. Key Issues Affecting Student Behaviour

Let’s consider and reflect on some typical issues:
 You try to be liked instead of respected.

 An innate urge among some teachers to control students rather than elicit their respect for authority
 Some teachers never seem to develop effective strategies for dealing with unacceptable student-created
problems.
 Confusion over rules, roles and expectations – on both sides
 Poor teacher-student communication
 School supervision and discipline policies which are unbending, i.e. zero tolerance • A lack of school
supervision and discipline policies
9.4.3. Strategies For Minimising/Preventing

Discipline Issues
It’s unlikely that you will have been involved in preventing/minimising discipline issues in a classroom.
Nevertheless, you will likely have observed this while you were a student and your teachers were
handling discipline issues.
It is impossible to provide a set of rules and procedures that will work in all student situations and settings.
However, many practical strategies work well.
Time to reflect
So what do you think may be useful, practical strategies in preventing/minimising discipline issues in
your classroom?
Try and do this without looking at the next Section. Take some time out to make a drink or
sandwich/biscuit and reflect on this.
Well done!
Here’s what you need to consider:
1. Good Planning And Organisation
Indiscipline is best controlled by preventing problems from occurring in the first place.
Careful planning and organisation are the keys to preventing problems arising.
Careful planning and organising promote a constant momentum, pace and a feeling of purpose which keeps the
students’ attention on the task at hand and does not allow the formation of a `vacuum’ which may be filled by
distracting or counter-productive activity.
An awareness that everything is planned, and you know where you are going, contributes a great deal to your
confidence and to your ability to win the trust of the students.
Because the bulk of your students are motivated by your quick-paced and organised momentum, the
misbehaver is often ignored by the rest of the class. He has no audience to perform to and will give up his
counter-productive activity.
2. English-Only Environment
Cultivating an English-only climate as much as possible will go a long way towards creating a classroom that
does not get side-tracked with L1 usage. However, there may be some occasions where you will allow L1
usage.
3. The Skill Of Distraction

Creating a distraction is an almost guaranteed way to close the curtains on the misbehaving performer. His
performance will stop abruptly.
Always have some already-prepared distractions up your sleeve.
This can be achieved in several ways:
 Hands up those who want to see this fantastic picture.

 The first group to put these words into a proper sentence, and write it on the board, will get 10 points added to
the best group end-of-term award.
 Ah! I forgot about the box. Who wants to be first to see what I’ve got in my box?
 Let’s try this out. I’m going to whisper something to Chen. Then he must whisper the same thing to Chang, and
then Hu to another member of the group and so on. The last person in the group must stand up and tell me
what was whispered. Are you ready?
 Who wants to hear about something funny that happened to me yesterday?
He’ll want to be a part of this new activity, like everyone else.
4. Clear And Concise Instructions

Clear and concise instructions are critical. Too much hesitation and mind-changing on your part can easily
distract students.
5. Stay Alert At All Times – For Negatives And Positives

You need to be constantly aware of what is going on in all sectors of the classroom, keeping your eyes and ears
open. Don’t fall into the trap that some teachers fall into, using the time in class to mark previous work. That’s
a recipe for disaster.
Your role is to facilitate learning at all times in the classroom. When you’re up and about, you will be fully
alert as to what’s going on.
However, it’s not only negative behaviour you should be keeping an eye on. Look out for positive behaviour
too. When you see good, specific examples of positive behaviour, praise your students.
Don’t just praise them with a common phrase such as Well done, group B. Tell them why you are praising
them: Well done, group B. I’ve noticed that everyone is doing a separate part of the task. That’s what group
work is all about. Thank you!
And, of course, communication with parents and caregivers is paramount. If school policy allows it, find the
time, on a termly basis, to send a note to parents/caregivers, telling them what the students have done
well. This will be discussed at home and will provide further motivation to your students.
6. Set And Agree On Classroom Codes Of Behaviour
A student code of behaviour should be agreed with your students. Encourage their participation in drawing this
up. As a result, they will know the consequences of their action should it not be socially acceptable to the rest
of the group or you, e.g. concerning homework, letting others speak without interruption, sticking to routines,
etc.
Also, be wise and present your code of behaviour to the class, e.g. how you will behave at all times (be patient,
never shout, etc.). This acceptance by you that you too will follow a code of behaviour will build their trust in,
and respect for, you.
7. Ensure Fairness And Consistency

Be fair and consistent at all times with all your students. The classroom rules for dealing with each aspect of
misbehaviour need to be applied consistently, always, no matter if the misbehaver usually is one of your best
students.
8. Always Focus On The Behaviour Displayed, Not On The

Person
Don’t make any comments about the misbehaving person. Stick to commenting on the behaviour.
9. Encourage Even Your Misbehaving Students

When you observe them doing something right and positive, praise them. For example: Well done, Li. You’ve
got some outstanding examples there.
10. Use Your Body Language

Often, there is no need to speak. Most students will stop misbehaving when you:
 stare at them at length

 clap your hands, once
 shake your head, signalling No!
 use a tool agreed in the class rules, e.g. ringing a bell
11. Get Your Students Up And Moving

Ensure you build in movement into your lessons. The movement may be part of the lesson, e.g. roleplays, or
intentional movement for its own sake, e.g. changing places, doing part of the lesson outside the classroom.
When students are sitting still, lesson after lesson, lethargy can creep in. A lethargic environment is a ripe
environment for misdemeanours.
12. Keep Up The Pace

Another ripe environment for misdemeanours is when there is a break in the pace of your lesson. Breaks and
lulls in the pace may result, for example, due to technical issues or spending too much time with an individual
or group over some point.
When you are planning your lessons, you need to take these possible periods of inactivity into account. Ensure
you have some quick and meaningful activity that the class can do during these breaks and lulls.
13. Do Not Ignore Minor Issues

Inexperienced teachers tend to ignore minor problems in the hope that the problems will go away by
themselves. Occasionally they do, but more often they escalate. Generally, it is advisable to respond
immediately and actively to any potential problem you detect.
14. Deal With It Quietly
The best action is a quiet but clear-cut response that stops the activity.
15. Move Students

Ensure your potentially disruptive students sit at the front of the class – close to you.
16. Stay Close To Them

When a student persists in misbehaving, move towards her and ask if you can help her; then, when you have
calmed the student, walk away with a smile and a Well done!
Alternatively, you could sit down close to any disruptive students and carry on the lesson from that position.
They’ll stop what they are doing when you’re up close and personal.
17. Don’t Use Threats

If you use threats, they are likely to exacerbate the problem. Sometimes, teachers make threats which they will
not implement.
Some of your students will soon become aware of this and will take their misbehaviour to the brink, knowing
that very little will happen. They have worked out: Nothing happened last time, so why will it happen this
time?
18. Control Your Temper At All Times

Never get angry. This especially applies to cultures where showing strong negative emotion is one of the worst
things you can ever do.
1. Approach the offender and tell him he needs to stop doing what he’s doing.
2. Deliver this up in a confident manner but do not shout.
3. Pause, while keeping full eye contact, showing an expectation that you expect him to stop.
4. Repeat this process if the offender does not stop immediately.
This calm and confident approach will work in most cases.
19. Dealing With More Serious Incidents

These may never arise. However, it’s essential to have a strategy in case this ever happens.
1. Always remember that the whole person comes to school. Has something happened externally,
e.g. at home and is this the underlying cause of their misbehaviour? So, take care and take a moment to
consider this.
2. Speak loudly but don’t shout.
3. Don’t go down the argument track or things will get worse. Stop and go silent. Remember you have a class to
look after.
4. Offer, with empathy, the opportunity for the misbehaver to take time out in the fresh air and then return to
class.
5. Then get the class back on track.
Depending on the seriousness of the issue:
a. Arrange a meeting with the student later to discuss the issue, emphasising that the focus of the meeting is not
about discipline.
b. See if you can get to the bottom of it all – the cause of the behaviour – and try to help the student to move on in
a more positive vein. You may still have to impose some sanction in line with the classroom rules.
c. For a severe action, e.g. threatening other students or vandalising property, you need to alert your Head of
Department/Director of Studies as soon as the lesson ends. Seek advice and be guided on the best route to take.
Don’t be afraid or don’t feel weak about asking for help
9.5 Classroom Dynamics
9.5.1. How To Create A Productive Classroom
Environment
What is a productive classroom environment?
There is no single definition for this but what we do know is that it should include these elements:
 A caring environment where students are inspired in the educational process

 A learning environment where everyone gets along with everyone else to achieve the learning goals
 A learning environment that is positive at all times
An environment which is not just centred on academic achievement but also aims to address students’ social
and emotional needs, particularly younger learners’ needs
So, how can you make your classroom a productive environment? It will come as no surprise that many of the
elements you have already studied will contribute to making your classroom a productive classroom. But there
are other elements.
1. You Must Be Positive At All Times

This isn’t easy. However, it is certain that when you are positive, this is the crucial catalyst for making your
students positive and productive. Positive emotions lead to motivation.
Be a positive role model at all times; the rewards are great.
2. Create An Inclusive Environment

An inclusive environment is one where everyone is equal and gets treated the same. It celebrates differences
and diversity. Everyone feels welcome and safe, and all are encouraged to work together and volunteer
different perspectives which enrich the discussions. A learning community is established.
A vital element of this community is that cooperation is more productive than competition.
Here are some essential practical tips to ensure you do not disrupt the inclusive environment you are
building:
1. Continuously examine your assumptions. Never allow yourself to believe that all your students share the same
opinions and beliefs as you do, e.g. the position of men and women in your society, views on sexual
orientation, what you see as ‘a family’, your views on economic class, etc.
2. Use inclusive language all the time. Inclusive language is language which avoids expressions which may be
construed to omit certain groups, e.g. continually using man, mankind, he which might be considered as
excluding women.
3. Use lots of diverse examples that relate, for example, to both sexes and work across cultures. By using lots of
diverse examples, your students will hopefully connect to at least one of these.
4. Never fall into the trap of inadvertently attributing what are called low-ability cues. Here is an example of this:
You are teaching a class of native-Japanese students. The students are having a bit of difficulty with some item
of language. You say, inadvertently: I can help you with this. Japanese speakers have great difficulty with
these.
Wow! In the students’ minds, they may very well construe this as an eternal, uncontrollable problem that
Japanese speakers have and which they may never be able to overcome. Goodbye to your inclusive
community!
So, avoid these types of comments at all cost.

5. Finally, difficult though it may be with a large class, you will never build an inclusive community if you don’t
learn and use your students’ names. Start with a few at a time, and then learn them all. Show them that you
care about them.
3. Ensure The Learning Is Relevant To Them At All Times

When students can see and understand that what they are learning is relevant and critical to their success and
wellbeing, they will be much more engaged. Make it crystal clear what they are learning and why they are
learning it. Sell the benefits of the learning.
4. Discover What Makes Them Tick

Explore your students’ attributes, learning preferences and interests by asking, listening and observing. By
doing so, your teaching will be even more relevant to them, and this will motivate them further to become
engaged and achieve.
5. Allow Them To Voice Their Suggestions

No matter what age your students are, giving them an opportunity (now and again) to contribute to what goes
on in the classroom will provide them with a feeling of ownership in the learning process.
This sense of ownership will increase their motivation. It can be as simple as:
 What will we do next?

 Do you want to do this in pairs or groups?
6. Agree How Others Should Be Treated

Agree on a code of conduct with them, setting out the positive behaviours and positive interactions that all will
want to see, including your behaviour. Involving them in setting these ground rules will maximise their buy-in.
Present the ground rules in an informational way and not as commands.
7. Teach And Encourage Positive Behaviours At All Times

Do not assume that all students know what positive behaviours are or that all of their parents/caregivers are
continuously helping them to understand these and put them into action. Ensure you teach them positive
behaviours.
Learning how to make positive actions and then putting these into action add to the students’ intrinsic
motivation.
8. Ensure You Know Where You Are Going, And They

Know Where They Are Going. Help Them To Get There.
 Tell them what they are going to achieve by a specific date.
 Give them updates on their achievement goal along the way.
 Ensure your curriculum is well-planned with clear and sequenced objectives.
Ensure your content includes variety, authenticity and choice where possible and is culturally relevant at all
times.
 Ensure that your students are challenged to learn.
 Stick to your objectives; do not stray from these.
 Ensure there are lots of independent activities for them to practice their learning.
 Monitor their progress both formally and informally.
 Do regular reviews of their learning to ensure it is embedded.
9. Keep Reminding Yourself And Your Students That The

Class Time Is For Learning.
Of course, it’s good to have fun and lots of laughs in your classroom. However, keep reminding yourself and
your students that you and they have a goal to achieve for their sake. So:
 Have some fun when your objective for the lesson has been achieved. Get this order of events right.
 Ensure you are aware of what time planning is all about. Effective time planning is based on urgency and
importance. Ensure you work out what is urgent and what is important. When an item is both urgent and
important, then it’s critical to get on with it right away.
 Teach at a brisk pace and limit the lulls in your classroom. If there are unexpected lulls, ensure you have an
activity to keep them going.
 Help your students to understand ‘pace’ and how it relates to them. If they are falling a bit behind, they need to
do their bit to keep up with the pace, i.e. using their own time at lunchtime or early evening to catch up. Ensure
this is one of your ground rules.
 Ensure all your students understand all the classroom routines and help them to understand that some routines,
if not carried out briskly, will eat into their learning time, e.g. settling down at the beginning of class, giving
out worksheets.
 You too need to ensure that any teacher routines, e.g. admin tasks, are carried out briskly and that you don’t go
on and on about some particular point.
10. Arrange Your Classroom Well

How you arrange your classroom will also determine how productive it is:
 Ensure you arrange it to minimise any distractions, e.g. ensure those sitting at a window have their backs to the
window.
 Ensure you are positioned such that you can see all your students all the time.
 Ensure you are positioned so that you can easily interact with any student at any time.
If you follow all our advice, there’s absolutely no doubt that you will create a very productive classroom.
9.5.2. Pacing
Let’s explore pacing a bit further.
Pacing plays a crucial part in classroom dynamics.
Pacing is the result of you calculating the time needed in the various lesson stages and the actual amount of
time these stages take place in the real-time execution of the lesson.
Here are some common pacing issues:
 Allowing an activity that is working well to take up far too much additional time
 Giving too many examples to illustrate a teaching point
 Relying too much on drawings/diagrams on the board, which can slow the lesson down
 Reviewing homework during class time in a non-selective fashion
 Trying to teach for mastery of each learning point- sometimes a reasonably good grasp of a point is good
enough
 Addressing questions at length, particularly questions that are outside of the topic being discussed
 Allowing pairs and groups to work without a clearly defined time limit
Pacing can significantly influence the ultimate productivity of a class or lesson. For example, a class that
moves too quickly or chugs along too slowly can disengage learners.
How then can you make sure you are pacing the lesson effectively?
During your lesson planning, you need to determine how long each task and activity should last.
Once a lesson begins, you will then use your experience and knowledge to make decisions about any changes,
e.g. because the students are having difficulty with a structure.
Maintaining flexibility is critical.
Planning decisions relating to pacing can be determined by you considering the following questions:
 What do I hope to achieve in a specific lesson or unit of work in the time that I have?
 How many different tasks or activities can I reasonably expect to complete in the time available?
 If I am using the primary textbook, does the teacher’s guide give suggestions on pacing?
 If so, are these guidelines realistic or practical for my particular class dynamic?
 If I have varying levels of ability subgroups within the class, should I try and pace activities differently for
different subgroups within the class?
 Pacing is an elusive skill for some teachers.

 Predetermined rules for deciding how long to prolong an activity often do not work.
Experienced teachers can pick up cues from students that indicate their levels of interest or boredom and
evaluate these cues against the aim of the lesson. Inexperienced teachers can pick up this skill quickly by
observing experienced teachers.
 Always keep alert for tell-tale signs of student boredom, disengagement, or confusion and frustration.
9.6 Cross-Cultural Aspects in the

Classroom
We touched on cross-cultural aspects previously. We stated that:
1. Students’ learning preferences may differ from yours.

2. Your previous learning experiences may have influenced the way you think students should learn, but your
students may have different expectations of how they can best learn.
3. Some students may expect to use a coursebook every day, but your approach may be entirely different.
4. What you think the students need may be much different from what some students want.
An awareness of cross-cultural aspects in your classroom is vital. So, let’s explore this.
9.6.1 Cross-Cultural Aspects

Here are some practical guidelines to ensure you get the cross-cultural aspects right:
Cross-cultural aspects play a crucial part in classroom dynamics. Handle these aspects right, and the class will
be on fire. Get any critical cross-cultural aspect wrong, and the learning may well be disrupted.
You will need to be sensitive to cultural differences and cultural elements at all times, particularly as they
pertain to the host culture since they can influence overall student learning behaviour.
You must be fully aware of the environment in which you are working and mustn’t judge the students based on
your cultural background and educational experiences.
If you are not aware of cultural nuances, it can prove to be detrimental to your success.
You cannot assume that your expectations of the classroom will be the same as the learners’ expectations.
Remember: The comments below are general – every single student from a particular culture won’t
necessarily display the same behaviours.
Examples of cultural differences
Here are some cultural differences that can come up in class. We have mentioned a few of these already, but
we must include them here again. It will all depend on where you are teaching and the cultural background and
educational experiences of your students.
This information will serve you well, so reflect on this regularly.
Learners’ Expectations
Learners from more traditional educational systems may expect you to behave in a more formal and
authoritarian fashion during classes.
They may also want you to engage in the extensive correction of grammatical form or pronunciation during all
activities rather than at specified points in a lesson, or not at all.
In some cultures, e.g. Brazil, Norway and Spain, students are expected to be vocal and pro-active in the
learning process; in other cultures, such as Japan and Korea, learners are expected to be silent, passive
recipients of knowledge.
In some cultures, silence is viewed as a sign of respect and a willingness to learn; in other cultures, it is seen as
boredom and a refusal to participate.
In some cultures, students asking a question is seen as disrespectful, challenging and inappropriate; in others,
asking a question is seen as a significant sign of students taking responsibility for their learning, and something
to be welcomed.
Teachers’ Expectations
Similarly, you bring to the classroom your expectations regarding teacher behaviour. This includes your views
on appropriate learner behaviour within your culture in general, as well as in the classroom.
You may unconsciously attribute these same expectations to your students, which can heighten the potential
for conflicting expectations and evaluations of behaviour between you and your learners.
Gender, Age And Status-Related Issues

Find out whether your learners have ever experienced mixed educational groupings; whether they expect male
and female teachers to behave differently; and how different classroom activities, including various group
configurations or activity types, such as role-plays, might affect learners due to native cultural constraints.
Research this before starting.
You may encounter reluctance from both men and women from cultures in which women have historically
been constrained by social roles that do not promote active participation in mixed-sex settings, e.g.
Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia
In some cultures, if some students think that women (especially younger or other lower-status women in their
eyes) are lower in the ranking, that will exaggerate any adverse reactions they have to being interrupted,
corrected, told to do things in the classroom that are unfamiliar, etc.
Some students might feel they cannot interrupt or correct students who are older, in a high-status job, are male,
etc. or may be shocked when you (or another student) do not pay attention to such distinctions.
Inappropriate Topics For Discussion In Various Countries –

General
 Religion
 Politics
 Dating, sexual relations
 Gender roles
 Civil strife (where some students are refugees from this strife)
 Immigration (where some students are in the process of this and may be unsettled by questions about their
personal details)
 Freedom and democracy
 Human rights issues
 Conflicts with other countries
 Discussing opinions and beliefs
There are some cultures in which the reaching of a group consensus is more highly valued than a statement of
personal opinion, so discussion-type tasks should be used with care.
The cultural make-up of your class will determine your approach; when well used, of course, these activities
can be very successful.
Gestures
The main point to note with gestures is that people do not stop finding a gesture offensive just because they
understand that it means something else in other countries.
Impulsiveness V Reflection
In some cultures, such as most of the USA, children are encouraged to answer any question quickly, while in
other cultures, e.g. Japan, reflection is encouraged before answering.
Proxemics
Each culture has its norms for the distance between two people standing and conversing, and these norms may
also differ between you and your students.
Eye Contact
In some cultures, respect is shown by avoiding eye contact, or shortening the length of contact, while in others
making eye contact is evidence of honesty and respectfulness. One frequently misunderstood example is that
East Asian students often close their eyes when concentrating.
Your failure to make eye contact with students in some cultures could be interpreted as you lacking in
confidence.
Active Participation
Verbally expressing ideas and asking questions during class can prove difficult for students unaccustomed to
this form of active participation.
Communication Styles
Be aware of the cultural differences in reasoning and communication. There are patterns of expression and
rules of interaction that reflect the norms and values of a culture. A lack of understanding of these
communication styles could lead to confusion, anxiety and conflict. Two key communication styles are Direct
v Indirect and Attached v Detached.
Direct: straightforward, no beating about the bush, avoiding ambiguity v Indirect: meaning conveyed by subtle
means, stories, frequent use of implication.
Attached: communicating with feeling and emotion, subjectivity is valued, sharing one’s values and feelings
about issues is desirable v Detached: communication should be calm and impersonal, objectivity is valued;
emotional, expressive communication is seen as immature or biased.
Motivation And Memorisation

You will already be thinking of many ways to motivate students which, in the main, will work. Be aware that
in many schools in China and Taiwan, there are numerous learning strategies based entirely on memorisation.
The greatest motivator is success in exams and is based on how much students can remember.
Writing
In some cultures, students are not stimulated and supported to express their opinions and ideas. They may have
little experience with creative writing to bring from their native language.
Interrupting
In some cultures, several students talking over each other is typical, whereas others will wait until there is
complete silence before making their contribution.
Volume
Another variant is the volume at which people pitch their voices for ‘normal’ conversation. This can vary
widely, even among subcultures, and will also put a learner at a disadvantage if either speaking too softly or
too loudly is viewed negatively by you.
Autonomy
You will tell your students that they should take charge of their learning, that you are a helper and guide rather
than the source of knowledge and authority. However, these wishes may not fit with educational traditions
from different cultures.
Movement In Class
If you are accustomed to walking about the room to monitor your students’ performance and crouch down to
help a student, and if you are teaching in a culture that views this as somehow offensive, it will be your
responsibility to modify your technique to conform to the expectations of your students.
Summary
1. Always be culturally-aware.
2. Increase your learning of culture in the classroom.
3. If ever asked about any subject we have suggested as taboo, reply: I’m sorry. I’m a guest here in your country,
and I don’t think I’m in any position to comment.
9.6.2 Handling Cultural Issues In The Classroom

If any cultural issues come up in class, decide if it’s any of those areas mentioned above: e.g. religion, politics
and democracy
If it is, it’s closing time, and you need to close down the conversation or debate straight away.
1. Do it courteously.
2. Empathise with the student(s) involved that their point is important, worrying, concerning whatever emotion is
stated by the speaker.
3. However, state that you need to move on. Something like this: I’m sorry everybody, we’ll need to move on.
We’ve got lots to cover. I suggest the two of you continue the discussion outside the classroom. Right, where
were we?
Of course, if it’s a general discussion about superstitions or what foods are eaten in different countries and
appropriate areas like these, then you will let it run for a bit as real communication is taking place.
Remember! Be aware of any inappropriate discussion topics starting and head them off at the pass
quickly!
9.7 Professional Responsibilities in the

Workplace
9.7.1. Rules, Policies And Procedures
1. Follow all the school rules – all of the time. It’s just common sense. Don’t start to question them.
You may be able to do this once you have been in situ for several years.
2. Because a ‘rule’ is not written down, it doesn’t mean that it doesn’t exist. Inexperienced teachers are frequently
so overwhelmed with the excitement of the new environment that they can miss subtle nuances of behaviour,
expectations, and unwritten rules. So, ask! Ask your Director of Studies or Head of Department or a colleague.
Otherwise, how will you know if there is an unwritten policy or ‘rule’? For example, there could be unwritten
‘rules’ about:
 Dress code
 Class noise volumes
 Class internet usage
 Plagiarism
 Homework
3. Follow any institutional codes/policies, e.g. diversity, equal opportunities, code of conduct, disciplinary code.
Implement institutional procedures, as set out by the school, e.g. health and safety, record-keeping, time-
keeping, etc.
4. When you are teaching in a small town or living in accommodation near to the school, remember that your
conduct may be heavily scrutinised and discussed – by students, parents and other teachers. Of course, you
should enjoy yourself in your free time. But time and time again, there have been complaints about some
teachers drinking too much, making too much noise when returning to their accommodation at night and
dressing slovenly when they are out in the streets. So, beware of these situations. Fit in with the expectations.
5. One of your greatest achievements will be if you put into action everything in YOUR Code of Practice. If you
do so, you will become an excellent teacher.
Well done! You have completed the penultimate lesson. Only one more to go! What you have learned
here will help you better understand how to manage your classroom, seamlessly.
Again, it’s not too challenging. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 10 where we will explore how to teach young learners. They’re a
special group and a delight to teach. You’ll learn how to teach them, using a ‘softly, softly’ approach.
10.1 Significant Issues
10.1.1. Significant Issues
Our focus is on significant issues
It’s impossible to cover everything about teaching young learners in one Module. So, treat this as an
introduction.
Later, if this is an area you are genuinely interested in, you can take a full Teaching English to Young Learners
(TEYL) course.
Note that all the information and activities in the previous Modules will be of great benefit to you when
teaching young learners.
Content
Note that we have included a Unit on using storybooks in the classroom. We also refer to storybooks on
several occasions.
We have cited a couple of excellent storybooks to enable us to demonstrate particular language points or
activities. You may never have read these storybooks. If you have, that’s great. If you haven’t, please seek out
a copy of each. They are:
1. The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle (the text is also on the Internet)
2. The Gruffalo by Julia Donaldson
You can also find these on YouTube.

10.1.2. Who are young learners?
There is no definitive guide to age ranges in TEFL. The age range applied to the young learner varies from
country to country.
Throughout this short course, we will deem younger young learners to be those who are in the range of
around 3 years old up to approximately 7 years old or so. This group will be our primary focus.
We’ll also mention older young learners. We’ll label those who are in the range of 8 years old up to around
12 years old as older young learners. Older young learners will be involved in a lot of the same learning
as younger young learners, but the learning will be more in-depth. We’ll summarise the information
for older young learners.
If we don’t mention younger or older, then we’re talking about young learners in general.
Remember! Every single child is unique. Thus, there can be significant differences in children of the same age
range. So, it would be foolhardy to try and categorise what every learner should accomplish by, for example,
age 7 specifically.
10.1.3. How Children Learn And Develop,

In General
Here are some key points:
 Children are not just little mirror-images of adults. They are different from adults.
 Children think differently; their view of the world is different, and it’s posited by some ‘experts’ that they live
by different moral and ethical principles from those which adults live by.
 It is paramount that a teacher explores and reflects on how her learners may think and how they may view the
world.
 To utilise effective teaching strategies, a teacher must be aware of learners’ ages and general stages of
development.
Language development is our focus in this Module. Note, though, that language development doesn’t just
occur on its own and to the same degree as peers. When a young learner is developing her language, other
developmental areas are at play, such as:
 Cognitive development
 Emotional/social development
 Physical development
A teacher must also be aware of these aspects. It’s important to reflect on the various characteristics of
development we might expect to see in children at certain stages. However, these can only be general
guidelines as each child is an individual.
Always remember that all your learners are individuals. Although it’s useful to study some theories, their end
product is almost always the universal aspects of language development, i.e., conclusions which typically
apply to all or most situations.
However, your role is to develop a group of individuals, some of which may not fit the universal model.
10.1.4. Key Learning Principles

Here’s what you need to know:
 Children think differently; their view of the world is different. Some say that they live by different moral and
ethical principles than those which adults live by.
 Language development doesn’t just occur on its own and to the same degree as peers. When a young learner is
developing her language, other developmental areas are at play, such as cognitive development,
emotional/social development, and physical development.
 Scaffolding is essential. Scaffolding is when we provide learners with a great deal of support during the early
stages of learning.
 Learning is much more successful when learner preferences and strategies are considered when teaching young
learners.
 Variety brings life to the young learner classroom.
 Use a whole person approach. A teaching approach that appeals to all learning preferences, development
needs, and interests speaks to the entire person in ways that a one-sided approach does not.
 When teaching younger young learners, it’s paramount that you set learning challenges that are appropriate to
the development stages of each learner. A ‘one size fits all’ approach will not work, and you will be doing a
disservice to your learners.
Remember this: Don’t focus on the child’s age. Focus on her development.
To these, we can add some essential approaches you should aim to implement:
 The need for discovery methods and lots of practical, meaningful activity
 The value of a learning-by-doing approach
 The importance of play and active learning
 The value of diversity
 The need to create an enriching social, emotional and physical environment
 The goal of developing autonomy in children
 The importance of emphasising individual needs, abilities, interests, learning preferences and rates of progress
 The goal of fostering and satisfying curiosity
 The recognition of the value of peer group support
 The need for learner self-expression
 The importance of intrinsic as well as extrinsic motivation
 The need to use the environment to promote learning
 The goal of ensuring the quality and intensity of a child’s experience
10.1.5. General Differences

Between Younger And Older Young
Learners
Here are the main differences between younger and older young learners. The following guide is not
definitive; every child is an individual.
Younger Young Learners Older Young Learners

Fidgety Stay still for more extended periods
Limited concentration in short bursts Concentration improves
Lack of ability to plan and control behaviour Starting to plan and control behaviour
Like to have fun Like to have fun
More self-conscious about making mistakes

No fear or embarrassment when making mistakes
and what others think
Limited life experiences Developing life experiences
A growing awareness of the world around

They have limited knowledge of the world.
them
Concerned about themselves, with little concern for

Developing awareness of others
others
Concerned with concrete experiences in the here and Starting to learn about abstract issues through
now: what they can see, touch, smell, etc. thinking and experiences
Beginning to display an interest in real-life

They enjoy play, fantasy, imagination, and movement.
issues
Understand meaning but cannot analyse form in Developing an interest in analysing form in
language, nor are they interested in analysis language

Little awareness of language learning and themselves Increasing awareness of language learning
as language learners and themselves as language learners
Limited literacy skills Developed reading and writing skills
10.1.6. Affective Factors In L2 Learning

Remember! L1 is the term used for a learner’s first language (the learner’s native language). If someone asks
you if you allow L1 in the classroom, they are asking if you allow your learners to use their native language in
class.
L2 stands for the second language a learner is learning. Your learners’ L2 will be English.
There are two crucial differences between L1 and L2 learning: affective factors and fossilisation. Let’s explore
affective factors first of all.
Affective factors are emotional factors that impact on learning an L2. They can have a negative or positive
effect. Negative affective factors are called affective filters.
Examples Of Affective Factors That Can Impact

Learning, Positively Or Negatively
 A learner’s attitude to English, to the teacher, and other learners in the group
 Whether L2 learning is deemed as an essential life skill in young learners’ minds.
 New and different learning contexts and situations
 The class environment: the degree to which it is relaxed and comfortable
 Degrees of feelings and emotions:
 inhibition
 mood
 attitude
 motivation
 self-confidence
 anxiety
Unlike parents/caregivers in a learners’ L1 setting, teachers in the L2 environment often must work hard to
build trust, understanding, and motivation to try and free learners from their inhibitions and attitudes so that the
learners can freely interact and use the English language.
Aim to reduce the negative factors and develop positive ones by building a positive group dynamic. You can
achieve this by allowing a degree of learner autonomy and ensuring that the activities are motivating for the
age and interests of your learners.
10.1.7. Fossilisation In L2 Learning

The second crucial difference between L1 and L2 learning is fossilisation.
Fossilisation is the loss of progress in the acquisition of an L2, following a period where learning occurred,
despite regular exposure to and interaction with the L2 and the learner’s motivation to continue studying the
L2. It is commonly described as ‘reaching a plateau’.
Fossilisation is pretty much unique to L2 acquisition. It would be rare to see a child fossilising certain forms of
the language when she is acquiring her first language.
It is a phenomenon that occurs in many L2 learners when learning certain aspects of the language, for
example:
 phonological (the sounds in a language)

 morphological (the forms of words)
 syntactic (arrangement of words in a sentence)
 semantic (the meaning)
It appears that no further learning will make any difference, no matter how much additional exposure is given
to the L2 language and how much help is offered in error correction. The point the learners reach in their path
of development – the plateau – seems set in stone.
There is no particular level of advancement which can be pinpointed as the stage where a learner may appear
to fossilise. Still, it’s safe to say that this is more often observed in intermediate proficiency levels onwards.
Here we will focus on the possible causes of fossilisation. Various suggestions have been put forward for the
causes of fossilisation:
1. Native-like fluency in an L2 may not be possible beyond a certain age – the learner’s brain loses plasticity at a
critical period, and therefore certain linguistic features cannot be mastered.
2. Transferring language rules from the L1 to the L2, thereby causing confusion
3. Using some learning strategies to too great an extent, e.g., overgeneralisation, simplification, paraphrasing for
the lack of linguistic knowledge
4. Communicative pressure – the learner is pressured to communicate ideas above her linguistic competence
5. Weak teaching and a poor learning environment, e.g., too much negative feedback or failure to build a
classroom community
6. The lack of desire to articulate – the learner makes no effort to adopt target language norms because of various
social and psychological factors.
7. The learner’s mind has reached subconscious conclusions that are difficult to unlearn.
However, some believe that it’s possible to prevent fossilisation before it takes place.
Here are some suggestions that will help to overcome or, at least, delay fossilisation:
 Correcting repeated errors the learners make

 Practising more problematic language than the non-problematic language the learners have already acquired
 Increasing the input of the target language via the spoken word, using the extra time gained from activities
such as reading and analysing, thereby reducing the effect of the negative transfer from their L1
 Introducing them to better language strategies: motivating them to use them on every occasion; encouraging
strategies which link both form and meaning and encourage crosslingual comparisons
 Increasing exposure to the target language and the target culture, via multimedia, authentic texts, field visits to
English-speaking environments, seeking help from parents/caregivers in increasing the learner’s exposure, etc.
Well done! Let’s now explore grammar in the young learner arena.
10.2 Grammar for Young Learners

10.2.1. Grammar For Younger Young Learners
When considering grammar in the younger young learners’ arena, it’s essential to be aware of
the difference between explicit and implicit instruction.
Here is a description of these two forms of grammar instruction:
Explicit grammar instruction
 A belief that success in language learning is down to grammar mastery and accurate usage.
 Grammar rules should be explained.
 Learners learn through lots of drilling and grammar exercises.
 However, learners learn a lot about language but may be unable to use it in context.
Implicit grammar teaching
 A belief that learners can acquire language without overt grammar instruction – in much the
same way as L1 learners.
 A belief that conscious use of language forms and structures may result in a high affective filter,
leading to reduced proficiency and fluency.
 Implicit grammar instruction focuses on language use, not language usage.
 A focus on meaning rather than form
 No rules
You can quickly work out that implicit grammar instruction is the best route when teaching,
say, a 4-year-old child.
So, in the younger young learners section below our focus is on implicit grammar
instruction.
10.2.2. Teaching ‘Grammar’ To Younger Young

Learners
Here’s what to do and what not to do:
1. It just wouldn’t be appropriate to teach grammar formally and explicitly under the age of, say, 7
years old or so. That’s a general age guide. But that doesn’t mean you won’t be involved in
grammar activities!
2. You should not use any metalanguage with your younger young learners. Metalanguage is the
language used to talk about language, e.g., noun, naming word, verb, etc. However, there is the
possibility that your younger young learners may already be aware of some metalanguage,
e.g., naming word, noun – from their learning in their native/first language (L1) classes.
You need to find out if this is the case. If so, you can use the terms naming word and noun, etc.
 Aim to get them to notice some forms and patterns, and then use them automatically after lots of
practice. Don’t’ use the word ‘grammar’.
 The grammar you help them to notice must emerge from meaningful contexts, and there should
be some meaningful communication that leads to a focus on grammar, e.g., listening to you
reading a story or singing a song such as This is the way we wash our hands.
Remember this, always: Never teach grammar in isolation when teaching younger young
learners. This would be a recipe for disaster.
 Young learners need to be able to see (gradually) the relationship between form, function,
meaning, and use, i.e., what form is used to express what functions and meanings, e.g., Please
Miss, can I have a pencil?
Strive to balance form, meaning, function, and use. Learners should understand not only the
mechanics of the language, but also (gradually) the how, why, and where a particular structure,
word, or phrase gets used.
 Where grammar progress is slow, don’t think that this is all down to influences of, and
differences in, the learners’ L1. Some learners have difficulties with grammar in their L1. Also,
some aspects of complexity in grammar are pretty universal.
 Developing foreign language knowledge, understanding, and application skills is a lengthy and
complicated process. It is certainly not a linear process, where one stage moves on to the next.
We have mentioned several times that your crucial role is to help them to notice grammar.
Here’s an extended example of how to go about this:
An extended example: noticing grammar
Younger young learners need grammar to take their language learning forward to the next step.
They won’t know they are getting grammar input. Unknown to them, you will be selecting
grammatical features in stories, dialogues, songs, chants, rhymes, etc. so that you can bring their
attention to these features in non-formal ways.
At this early stage, the form-focussing techniques you use will be simple but very important at
the same time.
Imagine you are reading them a story that goes like the one below.
Note:
The words in bold should be emphasised.
Take in three real apples and hold up the requisite number when you mention each number.
One day, Piggy the pig ate one apple.
One day, Lionel the lion ate two apples.
One day, Ellie the elephant ate three apples.
Remember: Here, our goal is form-focussing – noticing and grasping a correct structure. So, it
would go something like this:
T: Can anyone tell me what Piggy ate?
Chen: One apple.
T: That’s right, Chen. One apple. Wang, can you tell me what Piggy ate?
Wang: One apple.
T: That’s right, Wang. One apple. Let’s say it together – One apple.
SS: One apple. (We’re using SS to stand for all learners.)
T: Well done, class. Can anyone tell me what Lionel ate? Yes, Lily?
Lily: Two apple.
T: Yes, Lily, he ate two apples. Listen, everyone, he ate two apples. Again, who can tell me what
Lionel ate?
Li: Two apples.
T: That’s right, Li. Two apples. Two apples. Lionel ate two apples. Let’s say it together. Two
apples.
Piggy ate one apple. Lionel ate two apples. Let’s say it together: Piggy ate one apple. Lionel
ate two apples.
Good!
Can anyone tell me what they hear? Is it the same? One apple, two apples.
Li: Not same.
T: Why is it not the same, Li?
Li: Two apples has sss sound.
T: That’s right, Li. Two apples has a sss sound at the end.
Everyone, when we have one apple, we say apple. When we have two apples, we say apples –
a sss sound at the end. If we have more apples than one, we say apples – a sss sound at the
end.
Can anyone tell me what Ellie ate?
Lily: Three apples.
That’s right, Lily. He ate more than one apple. He ate three apples. So, Piggy ate one apple.
Lionel ate two apples. Ellie ate three apples.
Then you could finish the story and recap with an oral exercise on the plural sound with other
animals, to reinforce the plural ending –s.
Of course, you wouldn’t mention the word plural. And you can leave exceptions to this plural
formation till another time.
Remember this: Do your research and find out beforehand how the plural form is constructed in
the learners’ native language (L1). This can help you with your planning, mainly where the
construction in the native language is much different from English.
You may even be able to impress them by using a bit of their language to show differences or
similarities in plural forms. They will love that.
In this example, your prime role is to help the learners notice this aspect of form – the –s at the
end of plural nouns. Further fun exercises based on the topic will help to internalise this
grammatical point into their internal grammar system in their memory bank.
Once it is internalised, they should be able to draw on this knowledge and form later as required.
This example demonstrates learning-centred grammar, taking the opportunity to highlight and
help them notice some grammar form point while they are in the learning process – listening to,
and speaking about a story.
So, at this very early stage of learning, we are taking an opportunity to attend to form, without
them being aware of it.
Also remember this: Frequently, the best way to get a learning point over is to make up your
material. At these early stages, a story may only last one or two pages, with very few words.
So, it’s easy to construct something that fits the bill, using only a few words and relevant pictures
you can draw, download from the internet, or take in as realia, particularly where you feel the
class materials are not exactly what you want.
We just made up the apples bit when we got to this part of the course. It only took five minutes
or so. If we had built a little story around it, we doubt if it would have taken more than 15
minutes.
As children get older, you can introduce more explicit forms of instruction, but with younger
children it’s much too early to bog them down with too much explicit grammar input.
Abstract and formal presentations of grammar with difficult words and concepts such
as adjective just won’t work with younger young learners.
Softly, softly is the key. Your role for these learners is to help them notice and then try and use
some grammatical forms and items as they crop up, assuming they are ready to take these on
board.
In the early years, the teaching of English as a Foreign Language will centre mostly
on meaning, e.g., This is a dog. This makes sense. However, we mustn’t overlook accuracy, so
you should grasp opportune moments to help your younger young learners with the form of the
language.
Clearly, fun exercises and games will be useful tools to make the grammar input more enjoyable
and less abstract for your younger young learners. Remember: They need to learn words and
expressions in context.
10.2.3. Different Practical Techniques For

Increasing Younger Young Learners’ Grammar
1. Classroom Routines
Younger young learners start to learn a language by picking up chunks of language, primarily
from you in the classroom, e.g., Good Morning, Mr Jones; Please, Miss …
So, they are taking their first steps in building their internal grammar.
2. Whole Class Instructions

Whole class instructions can be fairly easily grasped, and again you can introduce them to
patterns and new lexis. Vocabulary is generally seen as individual words, whereas lexis is a
somewhat broader concept and consists of words, phrases, collocations, chunks, and formulaic
grammatical expressions.
Backed up with gestures and mime from you and perhaps a game such as Simon Says, these can
be transferred to their grammar memory banks:
 Speak quietly, please.

 Stand up, please.
 Sit down, please.
 Choose a partner, please.
3. Chants And Rhymes

Chants and rhymes also provide excellent opportunities for introducing grammatical
constructions and patterns. You can use many of the traditional songs and chants, e.g., This is the
way we wash our hands, or you can be more adventurous and write your own to suit the targeted
language form.
Your song/rhyme to the same tune as This is the way we wash our hands could easily be
something like:
This is the way we stand up quietly
This is the way we sit down quietly, etc.
Use your imagination and don’t hang back from singing, even if you can’t keep a tune very well.
You could always try rapping!
4. Brief, But Planned, Conversations

With younger young learners, it’s essential to build in scheduled little chats as an integral part of
your daily routine. You can do this with individuals, pairs, or groups.
In addition to building bonds, these chats will bring out useful information about their language
competence and their interests. This is quality information for you.
You may learn about some structure that you can help them with:
My foot sore. (Oh, your foot is sore? Why is it sore?)
My books is wet. (Oh, your books are wet. Why are they wet?)
This corrective feedback is an essential tool for helping all learners of all ages.
Alternatively, your chat may give you useful information about their likes and dislikes. You then
have valuable information as to what your next topic might be – pets, football, superheroes, and
so on.
5. Increasing Their Noticing Skills

As their learning progresses, you can step up the work on their noticing skills. They may now be
ready for more controlled noticing activities. So, the story you read is not just for listening and
improving their speaking skills; it is also for enhancing their noticing skills.
Example-noticing skills
Prepare a worksheet with statements and drawings:
1. The cup is … the table (with a picture/drawing of a cup on a table). Write the words on,
under beside the picture/drawing.
2. The plate is … the table (with a picture/drawing of a plate on a table). Write the words on,
under beside the picture/drawing.
3. The spoon is … the table (with a picture/drawing of a spoon under the table). Write the
words on, under beside the picture/drawing).
Teach them the meanings of the prepositions: on, under – via visual presentation, miming,
puppets or dolls/action men, board work, a little bit of drilling.
Now read your prepared story, which might be something like this:
It was time for baby Lucy’s dinner.
Mummy put baby Lucy’s cup on the table.
Daddy put baby Lucy’s plate on the table.
Baby Lucy was watching. She wanted to help. She took her spoon to the table, but she put
it under the table.
Now give your instructions regarding what they need to do to complete the exercise in pairs.
Read the story slowly, and then reread it at an average pace.
Guide them through the exercise. Read each statement through. Ask them to tick the right choice
– on or under.
You can then build on this simple exercise as time goes on, e.g., increasing the number of
prepositions, removing the drawings, putting the questions in a random order so that they are not
sequenced in line with the story sequence.
You could involve the learners by getting one of them to do the actions, e.g., sitting on your
chair, crawling under your chair, etc.
6. Language Practice Activities For Enhancing

Form/Structure
Here are some examples of activities:
1. Story reading
2. Drilling
3. Cloze activities
4. Questionnaires, surveys, and quizzes
5. Information gap activities
6. Intentional little chats with individual learners to check their progress and give corrective
feedback on the spot
7. Projects. For example, if you are using an excellent storybook such as The Very Hungry
Caterpillar, you could extend this into project work and keep caterpillars in the classroom. The
opportunities for ‘grammatical’ work would be immense, e.g., Chen, your caterpillar is big.
Hu’s is bigger.
10.2.4. Teaching Grammar To Older Young

Learners
Again, we hesitate to name an age range as all children are unique, and cultural approaches to
learning grammar vary.
But to help you, some would say that grammar learning and metalanguage are best left until
children are aged about 8 or so. So, this section focuses on these older young learners from
8 up to the age of 12 or so.
If they are ready for it, you can start to introduce some language analysis and some
metalanguage.
Key points
1. Use activities such as

1. Rhymes
2. Chats with individual learners and groups – and discussions amongst themselves
3. Some drilling
4. Cloze activities
5. Questionnaires and surveys
6. Information gap activities
7. Presentations
8. Fun activities and games for motivation and learning
2. Gradually, for older young learners, it will be possible to introduce some specific exercises
which focus on separating grammar for study. If the school organisation does not prescribe a set
curriculum, you need to decide when to do this.
You’ll know it’s time to do it when your older young learners show an active interest in
grammar forms such as: Why is it that eat becomes ate, but beat doesn’t become bate?
 Ensure you are aware of what grammar they have learned and are learning in their first language
and make yourself aware of what metalanguage they know. Don’t overdo metalanguage.
However, sometimes it may be necessary to introduce some metalanguage.
 Generally, they should be ready for work on some tenses and punctuation, and they may be ready
for some self-correcting.
 Also, they will enjoy puzzles and crosswords where they can start to discover some basic
grammar rules for themselves, e.g., most nouns are formed in the plural with adding –s or –es,
but other groups make the plural in different ways.
 They may be ready for creating basic sentences with models, e.g., Pronoun + Verb + Noun, e.g.,
I like apples or Pronoun + Verb + Adjective + Noun, e.g., I like green apples.
Remember this: Always think: How can I make this easier for them to grasp? So, for example,
you could give all the word classes a different colour.
To make it more challenging, you could mix up the order of the words, and your learners
rearrange them to the order of the model.
 Fun grammar activities are essential for older young learners, so include puzzles where learners
are encouraged to discover grammar rules for themselves, e.g., describing differences between
two pictures, which you can use to practise prepositions.
 As with all learning, recycling is critical for success. So, ensure you follow this up in later
lessons.
Learning grammar can be a tricky business for older young learners. It needs much meaningful
practice, recycling, and guidance in attending to language form. Good! Let’s now
explore lexis – a somewhat broader concept than vocabulary.
10.3 Lexis (Vocabulary, Chunks of

Language)
10.3.1. Lexis (Vocabulary; Chunks Of Language)
For Younger Young Learners
Let’s now explore how younger young learners typically learn and develop their lexis. The
word lexis is used to signify both the teaching of vocabulary and areas of grammar together.
Remember: Vocabulary is generally seen as individual words, whereas lexis is a somewhat
broader concept and consists of words, phrases, collocations, chunks, and formulaic grammatical
expressions.
These words, chunks, and patterns are now often called lexical items. Instruction focuses on
fixed expressions that frequently occur in dialogues.
Younger young learners love learning new words and chunks of language.
Remember that they will know lots of meanings of words in their L1. So, they know what a bird
is and that it flies. So, there is not always a struggle with meaning. The challenge is to get them
to say these words in English.
To embed words and meanings in their memory banks and recall them when they need them is
dependent on lots of factors, particularly the number of times they hear and come across a word
(frequency).
This is language recycling: meeting and using a word several times so that eventually it is
remembered and recalled naturally.
Some reasonably complex concepts are picked up early due to the amount of recycling that goes
on.
For example, the verb structures is/are and the articles the/a are likely to be remembered and
recalled easier than the word meerkat, due to the number of times is/are and the/a are being used
daily.
Learning and developing lexis is a continuous and dynamic process. Young learners continue to
encounter new words and phrases which are explained to them by you and, sometimes, their
parents/caregivers, with the young learners sometimes guessing the meaning.
When images and sounds accompany meaning, the form and meaning of the words and chunks
are better understood, better remembered, and better learned. At this stage, they enter the
learners’ short term memory.
The final key is usage. When the learners are then provided with lots of opportunities to use the
words and chunks, again and again, these words and chunks become embedded in their long-
term memory banks.
10.3.2. Teaching Lexis To Younger Young

Learners
1. You must introduce lexis to them in meaningful situations and contexts. Remember: Giving
them an isolated new word, which is not linked to a context/setting, will not work.
2. The lexis should be concrete and relate to things they can see, feel, play with, and experience
daily, e.g., doll, pen, school, door, bag, in the bucket.
3. Stories, songs, chants, and poems are dependable vehicles for teaching them lexis.
4. Use lots of repetition, rhyme, rhythm, and movement, e.g., clapping hands, miming actions.
5. Use lots of realia they are familiar with, e.g., dolls/puppets to act out a dialogue and classroom
objects such as a chair to act out sit and stand. Use realia they will be familiar with at home,
e.g., an apple, spoon, toothbrush, etc.
6. Younger young learners are easily distracted, so keep trying different types of presentations for
learning lexis. Build up their interest, curiosity, and anticipation.
7. To help them grasp new lexis, your approach needs to be dynamic, demonstrating that words
don’t stand alone, isolated from other words. Words interlink in different patterns. For example,
you need to show them and help them recognise that:
1. words link together, e.g., not just a hat, but a blue hat, a big hat, etc.
2. words can be grouped, e.g., a cow with other farm animals, a lion with other wild animals
3. words can have different meanings, e.g., a blue hat, out of the blue
4. different words can carry much the same meaning, e.g., great, awesome, wonderful
5. different words can have opposite meanings, e.g., cold and hot, good and bad
Using a dynamic approach is the route to success.
10.3.3. Presenting Lexis For Learning

To Younger Young Learners
Your ultimate goal is to ensure the words are embedded in their long-term memory banks.
When you present new lexis and chunks of words to learners, it is not useful to simply give them
definitions. Give an active presentation of the lexical item, which ensures that learners have a
better chance of being more motivated to learn and will increase the chances of them
remembering the word.
In a beginners’ class, you could convey the meaning of a lexical item visually (using a picture or
object) and get the learners to practise the spoken form. Then, you can write the form on the
board for reinforcement.
1. Select Appropriate, Relevant And Frequent Lexis

In some cases, you will be helped in the selection of new lexical items by the coursebook that
you use, if there is one. If there isn’t one, storybooks published in your learners’ native language
for their level should give you a fairly good idea.
However, to some degree, the selection of the lexis that you will teach will also rest with you and
will depend upon the needs and the ages of your learners.
Remember: One significant factor in the selection of lexis is the frequency of the word. There
would be little point in teaching words to the learners if they were rarely likely to need them or
use them.
2. Use A Variety Of Sources

Typical sources are storybooks, chats with the learners, songs, chants, rhymes, games, and
exercises. A variety of sources and plenty of fun are paramount.
3. Use A Range Of Techniques

You should use a range of techniques to help learners learn the meanings of new words and
chunks of language. For example, where the focus is on, say, kitchen-related
words, cup, tea, teapot, and pour, here are a range of ways this could be accomplished:
 A little bit of drilling, followed by some of the techniques below

 Demonstrating new words via actions, using realia, e.g., showing a real cup and pouring tea from
a real teapot into the cup
 Showing the same process via a picture of the action taking place in a tearoom
 Using a puppet to do the action
 Singing a song while doing the action, e.g., The Little Teapot
4. Also, Focus On Form

You also need to focus on the form of the new word – how it is pronounced and how it is written
(later, for those who are literate).
Pronunciation can be practised by drilling and simple and repeated questions to the learners
(What is this, Li?) until you are sure they have grasped the spoken form.
When learners are ready to write these new words, your focus on form will include the word’s
spelling, shape, initial and final letters, etc.
5. Keep Translation To The Minimum

Translation doesn’t push or motivate the learner to construct meaning, and there is much less
chance that the new words will be embedded in their memory banks. The new words may soon
disappear from their recall and memory mechanisms.
Use this technique only where you must. You may hear the younger learners speaking out the
words in their native language. If you know these words in their language, you can acknowledge
that they are on the right track, but your demonstration should be based on English.
6. Keep Recycling The Lexis

The learners need to frequently use the new words and chunks to enable learning to take place.
This recycling of the lexis is critical. Some research indicates that a new word or chunk needs to
be encountered at least six times or so for there to be any chance of it being learned and recalled
in the future.
7. Plan Additions And Connections

Learning opportunities should build on the first encounters of the word and aim to build on new
additions and relationships to the word.
For example, let’s focus on the word shower, meaning a device that releases drops of water
through a lot of tiny holes that you stand under to wash your whole body.
After several opportunities to meet the word shower per se, new additions and connections can
be made, through time:
 Take/have a shower
 A quick shower-not a fast shower
 A shower, in terms of a small burst of rainfall
 Related words, such as wash, spray, sprinkle, bathe, bath, etc.
You must plan carefully to ensure these additions and connections are made at the right time in
terms of the learners’ age and language level and that they are recycled frequently.
Embedding the new words in their long-term memory banks
This is the next stage in their learning of new words – ensuring the new words are embedded in
their longer-term memory banks.
This requires careful planning and repeated use of memorising activities to embed the learning in
their long- term memory so that the lexis is ‘learned’ and can be recalled and used pretty
seamlessly.
Memorising activities include:
1. Using Stories
Stories where, for example, the words cup, tea, teapot, and pour will be repeated or where a
situation arises in the story, which offers an appropriate link for you to use the words. For
example, the scene in the storybook may show animals drinking from a pool in a game park. You
could ask them:
 Do animals use a cup/teapot to drink the water?

 Why not?
 Would they be able to hold a teapot?
 Could some animals do this?
Learners also like lists in their stories. The Very Hungry Caterpillar lends itself to memorisation.
Most learners, through time, have little difficulty in recalling the ten items the caterpillar eats on
Saturday.
The amusing events in stories also help to embed as learners can often easily recall together.
2. Using Groupings Of Words

A useful memorising technique is putting words into groups. You could use:
 Lexical sets, e.g., drinks, drink containers, animals

 Rhyming sets, e.g., tea, sea, pea; pour, four
 Grammatical sets, e.g., things (nouns) such as cup, tea, teapot
 Colour sets, e.g., red teapot, red cup
 Words with only 3 letters, e.g., cat, bat, sat
 Words beginning with the same letter or sound, e.g., boy, bag, bit
 Words ending with the same letter or sound, e.g., hat, mat, rat
 More difficult words with the same letter in the middle of a three-letter word, e.g., boy, toy
3. Using Lexical Grids

Here your grid could be headed up Drinks. Then there could be three sub-headings in columns:
 What people drink
 What people put drinks in
 What they pour from
You might give them an example they can put under each sub-heading:
 Water
 A glass
 A tap
Then they try to add three or four more examples. You will remind them that they already have
an example they could use by prompting and eliciting:
Can anyone remember? We also sang a little song when we were doing it (you could hum the
tune to The Little Teapot). Remember, the drink sometimes comes in little paper bags. Yes, that’s
right – tea. See if you can add that one.
4. Drawing A Thematic Collage

 One group could do: What people drink, e.g., pictures and drawings of coffee, slushes, coke,
milk, etc.
 One group could do: What people put drinks in, e.g., glasses, milk jugs, bottles, etc.
 One group could do: What they pour drinks from, e.g., bottles, fruit juice packets, taps, etc.
Again, you can prompt and elicit cup, tea, teapot to reinforce their memory.
5. Singing While Acting And Moving

You could put the names of the songs they know in a box. Each group picks one at random from
the box. One of these will be The Little Teapot.
Their task is to use the realia you have brought to the classroom and mime the actions while
singing the song. You will have brought in a cup, tea, and teapot for The Little Teapot choice.
To embed the learning of cup, tea, teapot, and pour, the groups can then make another choice
until, eventually in that lesson or the next, they have all had a chance to do
the cup, tea, teapot, and pour activity.
6. Using Flashcards To Embed The Learning

Select four action pictures. Put the groups in pairs. Give all the pairs the same group of four
pictures, turned over so no-one can see the picture.
In all the sets of pictures, there will be a picture of someone pouring tea from a teapot into a cup.
Learner A in a pair picks up the first picture so that learner B cannot see it. Learner B has, say,
10 (or more) questions he can ask A to try and work out what the picture is. Then the roles are
reversed. Ensure that all learners do the cup, tea, teapot, and pour activity by placing it first in
the pile.
During the activity, you will be moving around observing and facilitating.
7. Games
There are a variety of games you could use to embed the learning of the target
lexis: cup, tea, teapot, and pour:
 Hangman, with the target lexis

 Small crosswords, with the target lexis
 An illustration of items dumped by the public refuse collectors, e.g., broken chairs, an old TV
and a cup, a branded tin of tea, and a teapot. Learners list what they have noticed and say what
they could use them for.
8. Use Opposites
Opposites are yet another excellent way to embed words in their memory. You could do this in
all kinds of ways:
 Showing flashcards of someone hot and cold

 Drawing stick figures on the board to represent, say, going up and down a ladder
 Miming happy and sad, or fast and slow
 Using realia – your glass of water full or empty
9. Encourage Guessing
Through all your lexis activities, you should encourage the learners to guess the meanings of
words they don’t know. You’ll introduce them to strategies that will help them, e.g., sounding
out the sounds of the word one at a time and then trying to link them.
Encouraging guessing will make them more self-confident, and this will encourage them to have
a go when there’s no adult around to help. These independent efforts will help them to remember
the words they have guessed.
10.3.4. Lexis (Vocabulary, Chunks Of Language)

For Older Young Learners
1. With older young learners, you’ll build on the foundations created already with
the younger young learners.
2. Don’t just focus on new words and chunks. Continue to recycle words they have met previously.
Not only will this help to ensure that words are embedded in their long term memories, but it will
also ensure that the learning of new lexis is a bit easier.
Let’s explore the word awesome.
Recycling this word will provide a solid foundation for introducing them to a variety of words
with somewhat similar meanings, e.g., amazing, wonderful, great, remarkable. The point is it’s
easier to introduce them to new lexis when they already have a base to work from.
The same could happen with a word such as nearly when teaching younger learners. When using
realia such as a glass of water to demonstrate degrees of fullness, e.g. full, half-full, the idea
of nearly full is likely to come up. This is a useful word for younger learners to know and use.
Later, you can use nearly as a base to introduce synonyms like almost, about, etc.
Of course, this doesn’t happen all the time. But it happens pretty frequently, and you will then
see the advantage of having done all your good recycling work.
With older young learners, your goal is to widen and deepen their word knowledge.
3. Older young learners are ready to handle more abstract issues and issues which are more distant
from the immediate, everyday experience of younger young learners.
Remember: They may have covered abstract topics already in their L1 lessons, so most likely
you will not be starting from scratch. Now they will be ready (to different degrees) to be
involved with topics which relate to abstract issues such as these human characteristics:
 Bravery
 Confidence
 Curiosity
 Determination
 Fear
4. With younger young learners, your primary technique was to help them notice and learn words.
Now you will move on to more constructed and deliberate practice of words via demonstration
and practice with exercises, linked, of course, with grammar.
This will ensure their learning can be recalled effectively from their memory banks.
Deliberate practice like this will encourage the learning of new lexis and grammar.
Ensure, though, that deliberate practice enables them to use the language learned in a meaningful
way in meaningful situations, i.e., the learning from practice can be used in everyday
communication.
5. Some may be ready to handle vague words. Inexperienced teachers often avoid this area of
words. It’s not a good idea to avoid this as language is full of vague words and terms which are
used in everyday language:
 Thing, a bit of, stuff, logical
 A few, a couple of, a lot of, plenty of, loads of
 Around, about, 300 or so, 300-odd people, more or less convinced
 Brownish hair, arrive around sixish, a tallish guy
 Sort of, kind of
 And so on, and the like
Introduce them to vague language, a bit at a time.

6. You should introduce them to dictionary work. This is an essential skill in itself. Gradually you
can guide them to all the different bits of information included in a dictionary entry, e.g., part of
speech, pronunciation, etc.
7. Gradually, you will introduce them to higher-level (higher than the younger young learners)
methods of learning words, e.g., synonyms, comparisons with their native language words,
definitions, and more complex functions when dealing with words, e.g., paraphrasing, explaining
And they will be ready to learn from you various learning strategies to help them memorise new
words, such as:
 Keeping a journal of new words and their meanings (with a sentence showing the usage of the
word), learning these and testing them out in the classroom in pairs
 Having a go at guessing the meaning by utilising all available information in the text or picture
 Having a go at predicting what the meaning of a new word in a story may be before it’s
explained in the text
 Noticing links to words in their L1
 Self-evaluation – listing new words at the end of a lesson and deciding which ones they need to
find out more about
Well done! Let’s now examine how to teach the 4 skills – listening, speaking, writing and
reading – and how to assess them.
10.4 Teaching and Assessing Young
Learners Skills: Listening, Speaking,
Writing and Reading
10.4.1. How To Approach Skills Learning
Thinking ‘projects’ is the key.
When you are teaching younger young learners, don’t just think about one-off events. Think about how you
can extend a particular learning event into a more substantial project, with the initial event providing a
springboard into other exciting areas of learning. The storybooks, The Very Hungry Caterpillar and The
Gruffalo, are excellent examples of this.
Younger young learners will love these stories and will want you to read them and (through time) will want to
read bits themselves, repeatedly. So, these stories will serve as an excellent catalyst for many learning
activities.
Here are just some of the activities that you could carry out, using The Very Hungry Caterpillar.
 Reading: e.g., spotting specific words and sounds (e.g., alliteration) and words that rhyme
 Speaking activities: asking and answering questions; rhyme; repetition of crucial bits of lexis and phrases (on
Monday, on Tuesday; but he was still hungry)
 Writing activities: labelling; lexical sets, e.g., about different types of food; mini-surveys of their classmates’
favourite foods; food diary of what the learners eat and compare this to each other and the Very Hungry
Caterpillar
 Listening activities: What did The Very Hungry Caterpillar eat on Tuesday, etc.?
 Grammar activities: noticing small grammar points raised by you (one apple, two pears); learning some
functions and structures (How many? and There is/are)
 Word classes activities, e.g., adjectives: tiny, big, fat, beautiful
 Pronunciation activities: rising and falling intonation in lists; individual sounds: [t ʃ ] as in cherry, cheese,
chocolate
 Singing and learning songs about butterflies
 Similar word beginnings activities: cherry, cheese, chocolate
 The theme of growth and change – an excellent opportunity for getting the learners to think about and talk
about this in relation to humans.
 The life-cycle of a butterfly – mapping the stages, making drawings, making wire butterflies to hang up in the
room, raising butterflies from caterpillars in the classroom, observing and noting their growth, identifying
differences in the butterflies
 Learning strategies such as:
 predicting
 guessing
 hypothesising
 sequencing (putting the days of the week in order or the life cycle steps in order)
 memorising (what he ate on Tuesday)
 researching (what caterpillars eat and drink), etc.
 Cross-curricular links:
 Science: the life cycle of a butterfly
 Maths: numbers, counting, sizes (e.g., wingspans), symmetry and shape (wings are symmetrical)
 Geography – where butterflies live and migrate to
 Environment and the planet – benefits (e.g., pollination) and drawbacks (e.g., larvae eating vegetables); some
in danger of extinction (learners gain awareness of values and citizenship)
 Art and design: making cardboard or cloth models of caterpillars, and making patterns and colouring
 Music, drama, and movement: singing songs and rhymes, reciting poetry and taking part in performances for
an audience, and moving like a caterpillar and butterfly
During cross-curricular activities, learners will practise several learner strategies, e.g., comparing, contrasting,
classifying, sequencing, problem-solving, and researching.
So, from this short story of just over 200 words, there are more than enough materials and ideas to run a
project for a whole term.
10.4.2. Key Listening Activities

For Younger Young Learners
There’s a wide range of activities you can use for enhancing the listening skills of younger young learners:
1. Non-verbal response activities such as Total Physical Response – in song or chant form.
Total Physical Response (TPR) activities are some of the best for younger young learners to practise listening,
speaking, and pronunciation. Initially, use them for listening practice and later for speaking and pronunciation
practice.
They are simple but effective, and they involve you in a lot of talking and singing. What’s essential in TPR
activities for listening is that the learners don’t need to give verbal responses. They only require to give non-
verbal responses. Their non-verbal actions help them to make sense of the content. Through time this will lead
to providing verbal responses.
Learners listen to rhymes songs or stories and mime to them without having to produce the language. TPR
links language learning to physical actions and ensures that learners hear lots of English in meaningful
contexts without having to say any words.
The critical principle of TPR is that learners have lots of opportunities to absorb the language before they have
to say anything.
Here are a couple of classic examples. If you’re not familiar with all the lyrics, you can get these easily from
the Internet.
 This is the way you wash your face

 Head and shoulders knees and toes
These will give you lots of opportunities to sing and talk and will provide the learners with lots of
opportunities to listen to new words, using familiar contexts, e.g., parts of the body.
First, you can model them on your own, then with a couple of learners, and then the whole class can join in
miming the actions.
Remember! There’s no obligation for them to speak at this time. Gradually, though, through repetition of the
activities, you’ll start to see the learners speaking some of the words or chunks of language.
Be more adventurous: Make up your songs or rhymes.
TPR is also associated with games like ‘Simon Says’, which adds the challenge of listening and understanding,
so you can eventually move on to these types of games where they practise their listening and decision-making
skills.
Lots and lots of listening practice in the early years can be built around the TPR approach.
 Rhymes
Don’t just choose rhymes that you like. Consider some of these questions:
 Is it right for their level of listening in English?

 Does it fit with their overall development to date, e.g., do they like physical action rhymes?
 Can some of the language be transferred into useful conversation (later)?
 Does the rhyme offer the opportunity to personalise it with other learners’ or siblings’ names?
 Does the rhyme fit with the content they are learning at that moment?
 Mimes based on action stories, rhymes, and songs
An excellent example of this is ‘The Gruffalo’. For instance, in ‘The Gruffalo’, the look on the mouse’s face
when he first meets the animals that want to eat him. And especially when he meets a real Gruffalo after it
being a figment of his imagination for so long.
 ‘Listen and do’ activities
There are lots of these activities where the learners listen to the teacher’s simple and concise explanation and
carry out the action:
Listen and draw or listen and colour. This is often used to help children focus on crucial nouns and on
adjectives that describe colour, size, shape, and so on: e.g., draw one more leg on the spider; colour the empty
square green, etc.
Listen and label. The learners are given a drawing or diagram. For example, they are given a sticktype drawing
of a person, and they have to put little sticky labels provided beside, say, the person’s arm, foot, ear, etc.
Listen and guess/identify. This is lots of fun. The teacher reads out a description of ‘something’, and the
learners have to guess/identify what it is. They can say what it is or draw it.
Listen and match. This is matching pictures to the teacher’s spoken words.
Listen and sequence. The teacher reads out a short, sequenced episode. The listeners have pictures matching
each step of the event and need to put them in order, e.g., Mum waved goodbye. I went in the car with Dad. He
drove me to school. I waved goodbye to him. Or, after reading a story several times, they need to put a set of
pictures in sequence, matching the sequence in the narrative.
Listen and classify. The learners listen to your description of say, fruits and vegetables. When they hear the
description, they have to choose a picture and put it in the appropriate set – either fruits or vegetables.
 Simple ticking exercises, e.g., true/false
There are lots of opportunities to check listening comprehension with simple tick-box or true/false exercises.
For example, after reading ‘The Gruffalo’ several times, these enlightening but straightforward true/false
questions could be asked:
 The mouse met a fish

 The mouse met a snake.
 The mouse first met a fox.
 The Gruffalo is called John.
 At the end of the story, the Gruffalo is afraid of the mouse.
 Listening to stories
Younger young learners love listening to stories, often the same story on many, many occasions. So, it’s an
area rich with possibilities for enhancing their listening ability.
It’s the most popular and authentic activity. The learners learn new language in an enjoyable, fun and often-
action packed environment (depending on the story, of course). Stories fire their imagination and drive their
interest.
They are highly motivating experiences and provide the ideal setting for picking up new language.
Remember this: The activities above not only offer excellent listening practice. They also provide
opportunities for ensuring that multiple intelligences are catered for, e.g., colouring, sticking labels, making
things, organising items into sets, and so on.
10.4.3. Key Listening Activities For Older Young

Learners
For older young learners, it will be much of the same, but with these modifications:
1. Make the activities more challenging.
You can make listening more challenging by increasing the lexis to match their increasing cognitive ability.
You could start to introduce riddles into some of the rhymes.
Also, you should use rhymes that can take them further out of their immediate context and environment, in line
with their developing knowledge of the world.
The labelling, guessing, and matching activities can be made a bit more complex in line with their increased
knowledge of the language and its words and chunks of language, and their increasing cognitive ability. As can
sequencing and classifying.
The simple ticking exercises can gradually be replaced with challenges that require more than a true/false
approach, e.g., more answer choices with, perhaps, some distractors they need to think about.
 Make the activities longer and a bit deeper.
For example, we mentioned an activity above: listen and guess/identify. For older young learners, you could
use a longer text which contains a group of people, and from listening to a passage and listening to their
descriptions, the learners have to identify a specific person, e.g., the policeman.
 Introduce more challenging stories and storytelling.
Older young learners also love listening to stories. The stories you choose will be more in-depth, e.g., include
more character development.
But you can also introduce them to storytelling, where you’re unlikely to have any props apart from a drawing
of the main character. These could be folk tales from their own country and the world outside.
Or they could just be abbreviated versions of some outstanding tales such as Moby Dick or Treasure Island. Or
again, they could be based on a film with an excellent story such as Braveheart.
You would familiarise yourself with the tale and relate it to them without any storybook. This is a bit of an
extension of what happened to them when they were younger, when one of the parents might just tell them a
bedtime story without following a storybook.
Of course, still in several cultures, this is the way that children hear about their forefathers and their
conquests. Older young learners like this approach and will likely hang on to your every word.
4. It’s time to give them other voices to listen to.
It’s time for them to listen to language from different sources on a recorder, CD, or the TV.
By listening to these other voices, they’ll notice differences in:
 The rate of speech

 Different tones
 More formal language
 Different accents
And even, perhaps, slightly different forms of English. Here it would be useful to find a comparison of two
speakers speaking similar content but using different words and structures, e.g., a comparison of some aspects
of British English and American English.
You will, of course, need to match the increase in difficulty to the output you are aiming for.
As older young learners progress, they’ll get better at predicting and guessing.
10.4.4. Key Speaking Activities

With Younger Young Learners
1. Formulaic language
Start first with language in the immediate and meaningful context, and which is often repeated, as with
listening. They will learn this quickly:
 Greetings: e.g., Hello! Bye!

 Routines in the classroom: e.g., Listen! Repeat! Close the door! Open your book!
 Social English: e.g., How are you! I’m fine. Have a nice time!
 Permission: e.g., Can I go to the toilet? Can I sit with Lucy? Can I help?
 Drilling
As you know, drilling means repetition. It involves the class, either individually or as a group, repeating
whatever you say. Drilling is a way for learners to practise new language, both lexis and grammatical
structures, in a controlled setting.
Remember this: it needs to be purposeful and meaningful.
As you tell them what to say, learning can also focus on usage and pronunciation. It can be as simple as
repeating a word or repeating entire sentences.
As it gives the learners a chance to become familiar with new terms, drilling is best used after the new
language has been introduced and explained.
In drilling exercises, rhythm, intonation, and stress are very important. You can illustrate this through gestures
or by over-emphasising certain features.
A simple repetition drill could focus on familiar chunks, such as:
 My name is …
 I live in …
 I like …
 Do you like …?
 No, I don’t like …
Remember! You should keep in mind that not all new language items may need to be, or can be, drilled.
3. Dialogue building
Initially, the dialogue will be personalised:
I am Lucy.
My name is Lucy.
Gradually you can build on this to introducing themselves:
I am Lucy.
I live in Shanghai I have a brother/sister.
I like apples.
Then you can move on to a bit of linking short sentences and introducing other familiar areas for practising
dialogues, e.g., their family, what they like best, etc.
 Look, listen and repeat
This technique is used to introduce new lexis. You show the learners a picture, say the word, and the learners
repeat the word back to you. You may ask for whole class repetition and then pick some learners at random:
Look at this! (pointing) A tiger. Repeat! (gesturing to them to repeat the word)
You continue until you are satisfied with the learners’ pronunciation. Then introduce other words in the same
context, e.g., lion, leopard. That is, it will be confusing if you then introduce the words tractor or computer.
Once other words have been introduced, you can then check by holding up pictures and asking: What’s this?
What’s it called? And the learners repeat the words they have learned.
 Listen and answer questions
Ask them lots and lots of simple questions to gauge their understanding and progress. These will ensure they
are participating in speaking and will promote their interest and motivation.
Who did the mouse meet first?
What colour is the mouse?
What is the mouse’s name? Where does he live?
Build up some anticipation: Mmm, who will I ask next? This technique doesn’t work so well with older young
learners and adults. Younger young learners, however, are less inhibited and more enthusiastic about
answering questions.
Remember this: Don’t always ask those whom you think will give the right answer. Ensure your questions are
addressed to all the individual learners.
If some learners are a bit less able at some stages, ensure you ask them more straightforward questions. Plan
for this.
6. Memorising short dialogues
I like apples. I like oranges. I don’t like pears.
There are lots of games that can give them practice in memorising, e.g., I went to the market and bought …
 Participating in lots of songs and rhymes
Bit by bit, they will start to utter partial and fixed chunks in repetitions in rhymes and songs and Total Physical
Response activities introduced at first for enhancing their listening skills. These are excellent tools for gauging
and helping them with pronunciation.
 Guessing games
Younger young learners love guessing games. Of course, they first need to have learned sufficient lexis to
make this work, e.g., colours, big/small, names of animals, etc.
Examples
1. One of the learners picks a known animal from your box and hides it in her hands. The other learners have to
guess what it is, using simple chunks:
Is it a dog?
Is it black?
Then the game can be repeated.
 The class all draw a picture of an animal. The pictures are put in a box. A learner selects a picture, and the
others guess what it is.
 One learner secretly chooses (in her mind) one of the learners in the class. She whispers the person’s name to
you so that you can help her if she gets into difficulty. The learner then gives the other learners some clues:
She is a girl.
She has long hair.
She has a red bag.
You can gradually speed up these games by introducing a timer.
9. Very simple surveys
As their language increases, younger young learners can be introduced to simple surveys. You need to supply
them with all the necessary templates and pictures they’ll need.
The survey needs to be meaningful, e.g., it could follow on from sessions where they have been learning the
names of locally available fruit.
First, of course, you need to:
 Model the question and response structures

 Guide them on how much to say
 Tell them what survey items they will focus on. These need to be items the learners are likely to know and
recognise.
You would supply them with their classmates’ names down the side – perhaps restricting their survey to, say,
Group 1.
Meanwhile, Group 1 will be surveying another group, say, Group 4. That is, limit the survey to a group and not
the whole class.
Along the top of the survey, you could have the names of different fruit, available locally, in each column.
They only need to ask the question: Do you like …?, listen to the response, and tick or circle ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ in
the box.
You could add an ‘Other’ column for those who like fruit that is not listed. At the end of their survey, each
group would tally up their total responses (with your help, if need be). Here is what it may look like:
Names Group 1 Apple Pear Peach Plum
Lucy yes no yes no yes no yes
Wang yes no yes no yes no yes
Chao yes no yes no yes no yes
Fang yes no yes no yes no yes
Feng yes no yes no yes no yes
Ming yes no yes no yes no yes

Total
This opens up several opportunities:
1. Each group reporting back their findings to the other groups

2. Q/A session:
1. Why they think some fruits are more popular than others
2. How many types of fruits the learners eat per day
3. When they eat them
4. How many chose ‘others’
3. Guessing/predicting what the most popular fruit will be. You can do a final tally for them, adding up all the
results. Build up anticipation as you reveal the winning fruit.
And, remember, all of the activities used for younger young learners’ listening can be adapted to use for
speaking practice.
10.4.5. Key Speaking Activities With Older Young

Learners
With older young learners, it will be more of the above but with more complex activity.
The more complex the task, the more preparation will be required.
1. Older learners are likely to be involved in:

1. More complex stories, sometimes set outside of their immediate world, e.g., fantasy/imagination-type stories
 Retelling a bit of a story

 Phonological and phonemic awareness – moving further along the continuum of awareness, including more
practice with linking, stress, and intonation. You studied this in Module 4.
Phonological awareness is the ability to focus on the sounds of the language. It’s about making your learners
aware that words are made up of individual and different-sized sounds.
Phonemic awareness relates to the correspondences between letters or groups of letters and the sounds they
represent. Learners with phonemic awareness can break up words into their different sounds. They can join
sounds together to make words. It helps beginning readers to see the links between the spoken and written
words. Once they grasp this, they can recognise familiar words quickly and can have a go at figuring out
unfamiliar words.
 Drama activity – learning short lines for their role and acting it out
 Longer dialogue practice
 Extended talk practice
 Language and structures for asking for and giving clarification, and checking meaning
 More language to manage interactive games and activities, e.g., It’s my/your turn.
 Pairs interviewing one another
 Role-plays
 More complex questionnaires and surveys
 Topic/theme-based projects
 More activities to enable them to negotiate meaning, i.e., making sure they understand each other in interactive
tasks and games
 Information gaps
For older young learners, tasks need to motivate them but must not overly challenge them. The tasks need to
be purposeful and meaningful. The tasks need to drive their motivation to speak. If they don’t, they may give
up, and it will be a challenge to rebuild their motivation.
Inexperienced teachers are often not aware of the linguistic and cognitive demands that some tasks place on
young learners. The teacher may have read that, say, information gap tasks are a common and valuable activity
in the classroom.
This is true, but we need to widen our thinking on the use of these.
Information gap activities are activities where a pair of learners have different information, and they both need
to find the missing information to complete the task. Here is an example of what seems a simple task.
Example: Filling gaps in a timetable
Learner A has a train timetable with some of the arrival and departure times missing. B has the same timetable
but with different arrival and departure times missing. The pair are not permitted to see each other’s timetables
and must fill in the blanks by asking each other appropriate questions.
The language goals could be:
 To practise wh- type questions: when, what time, where does it arrive, etc.
 To practise time expressions: at 6.15, at midnight
However, this seemingly simple task presents demands, such as the ability to :
 Understand what timetables are (there is a degree of abstraction in these)

 Often say things creatively on the spot
 Describe with precision
 Initiate questions
 Seek clarification
 Respond appropriately
 Repeat or paraphrase a message
 Volunteer information
 Pay attention
 Check understanding
 Monitor the progression of the task (what information is still needed)
To support them in this task, you would first need to ensure:
 They can select the linguistic forms they need to complete the task.
 They can establish clearly what the other person has got, and have the language to do so.
 They pay attention, can memorise information, and can carry out some reasoning.
 They understand interactional demands, e.g., turn-taking, negotiating meaning
So, remember this:
 Don’t choose tasks at their face value or just because another teacher recommends it. A task may require some
very complex skills.
 Reflect well before choosing a task, even if it’s in a coursebook. Only you can tell if it meets the needs and
demands facing your learners. You owe this to your older young learners.
 Consider any linguistic or cognitive demands the task may place upon the older young learners.
 Failure to do so will lead to confusion during the task and the possibility that the learners will give up.
10.4.6. Writing Activities For Younger Young

Learners
1. Key points to reflect on
Remember: Young children are keen on learning to write and need the mechanical practice of copying and
joining letters together. But, just as with adults, the same old routine of mechanical practice will lead to
boredom eventually. Even at their early stage, there needs to be more in it for them.
So, always consider variety and purpose.
Ask yourself:
 Am I adding enough variety to make this engaging and fun, and motivational?
 Can I make the exercise more enjoyable by, for example, adding in silly words, e.g., the green horse ate the
blue tomato?
 Can I construct the activity so that other purposes can be served, e.g., spelling, lexis, grammar, and punctuation
purposes, if the learners are ready for some of this?
For example, after they have been copying singular words, you may start to introduce some plural words.
Here you can demonstrate that the s sound at the end of cats means that there is more than one cat, and this is
often what we do to show this. You write examples on the board and help them to read these.
This activity could lead to a game where you read out a list of words, and they have to put their hands up
quickly when they hear a word ending in s, which generally means there are more than one of the item. And
they have to repeat the word. Now they have started a journey to understanding plurals. Of course, you
wouldn’t use the word ‘plural’ at this stage.
Importantly, this is an example of integrating all the language skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing,
and a touch of grammar. This is what teaching young learners is all about.
2. Needs analysis
Remember this: There’s no point in doing the same activities with everyone if some of your learners are still
struggling with a learning issue which will affect their performance in the activity. They’ll just continue to
struggle.
You may have a set syllabus to follow. This may or may not be linked to a coursebook. If you are an
inexperienced teacher, there’ll be some comfort in having a route to follow.
Unfortunately, life in the classroom is not as simple as that. Everything doesn’t always fit nicely into place.
Your learners are individuals and have their individual needs. Sometimes the progress not achieved in one
need will hamper the whole progression in later needs.
If you are inexperienced, don’t be disheartened by this. There are always solutions. The key to ensuring that
it’s time to move on to the next learning challenge is to draw up a needs analysis table from Day 1. This is a
simple aide-memoire of what each learner has or hasn’t achieved.
Remember this: It’s impossible to remember everything about your younger young learners’ progress,
especially if you have, say, a class of 30 learners. It’s just the same for experienced teachers.
All this takes is a bit of planning to make up a template and the discipline to tick boxes regularly to map
whether or not each individual has achieved to the required level.
It’s as simple as that.
Example: Writing Skills Achievement Checklist
Here’s a checklist you could use for younger young learners. It’s not a definitive list. It’s just to show you a
simple method of tracking your learners’ individual writing needs.
You may need to adapt this depending on the level you will be teaching or if you want to add further elements.
This will help you track their progress throughout the year.
Alway
Writing elements Sometimes Never
s
Can recognise writing in books and in the environment
Enjoys playing and doodling with writing tools
Shows adequate muscle control when using thin crayons,
pencils or markers
Shows adequate muscle control when using thick pencils,
markers or crayons
Draws and makes marks, letters or number shapes on drawings

Makes marks and says this is writing – ‘reads’ the writing to
another person
Makes marks and gives them specific meanings and purposes,
e.g., a list of soccer teams
Mentions words, sentences, stories she wants to write
Copies letters and words
Uses invented spellings
Uses correct, standard spellings in the main
Can write name accurately
Collaborates with others in writing
Independently attempts writing to convey meaning
Writes for different purposes
Note that this doesn’t mean that you will not move forward to the next area in the syllabus if everyone hasn’t
met the ‘Always’ requirement.
What it does mean is that you’ll be able to easily identify those who are still struggling with a specific
element.
Let’s say 25 are ready to move forward, but 5 are still struggling a bit with some element. When you move
forward to the next syllabus step, you will still need to find time to address the issues of those 5 who still have
an outstanding need.
This is not as challenging as it sounds. With proper planning and unnoticed by the other 25, you’ll put the
group of 5 together and carry out further work with them. Meanwhile, the other 25 will be doing some other
activity, e.g., recycling some other language element.
Also, you can give some additional homework to the group of 5, again unnoticed by the other 25.
3. Activities
1. Tracing And Copying

To begin with, your young learners will need varying degrees of help with the mechanics of handwriting. Start
with tracing and copying.
Use a range of activities to add variety and fun. You could give out a list of common words and allow them to
copy:
 Words that they choose from the list

 Only words they can eat or smell or drink, from the words on the list
 Only words for animals from a list that contains other categories
 Only words that have a letter s which generally means there will be more than one of them (without
mentioning the word ‘plural’)
 Only words which include a specific letter, e.g., the letter e
 Only words which they have heard in the story you have been reading to them
More proficient learners could try and write other new words which are similar to a few words on your list; for
example, if you have car on your list, they could attempt to write bus.
2. Finger Writing
Concurrently, you could introduce them to finger writing. This involves writing on a different surface, often
away from their chair, e.g., on the classroom wall. They can copy and ‘write’ in the air and be encouraged to
do this in the play areas outside.
3. Word Level Writing

Then you can progress to word-level writing, using a variety of games and activities, for example:
a. Creating word snakes. This is good fun and can be challenging. It may be best to do this in groups, so more
suggestions come out. A word snake is a chain of words where the following word starts with the last letter of
the previous word. Example: word snake: animals
Giraffe – elephant – tiger – rat – turtle

At first, you could give them lists of words to work with to get to the solution. Later, you could leave some
linking word out or give no suggestions at all.
In the end, they need to write the words in order. You could give them an illustration of a ‘bendy’ snake, and
they have to write the words on the snake and around its bends.
 Working out words where the letters have been mixed up and writing the correct word out in full
 Working out words where the letters run backward and writing the correct word out in full
 Again, choosing only words that have a letter s at the end which generally means there will be more than one
of them (without mentioning the word plural)
 Solving simple 3, 4, or 5-word crossword puzzles (with pictures). Once they have the hang of this, they will be
keen to develop their crosswords for their classmates to solve.
4. Using The Coursebook

Normally (but not guaranteed in some schools), you will be using a coursebook which will be accompanied by
an activity book. The activity book will include written lexis and grammatical exercises at word and basic
sentence level.
These activities will provide further written practice, e.g., gap-fill exercises or matching pictures with words or
short sentences.
5. Guided Writing
Depending on their level, your learners can be introduced later to guided writing. When the guidelines given to
them control in detail what the learners write, it is called controlled writing.
When the learners have less support and more opportunities to choose their own words, it is called guided
writing or guided composition.
Guided writing usually offers a frame or model they can follow for specific genres of writing. They can
personalise bits of the model with their own words.
Examples of guided writing for younger children include cards, posters, invitations, short letters, and short
stories, which they can compose individually or in groups.
It’s essential to introduce them to a range of genres like these so that they can begin to see that we write
differently depending on what we are writing for and to whom we are writing.
Guided writing activities are generally very motivating because younger young learners enjoy writing longer
pieces of text by substituting their messages into the frame. And the finished pieces can be pinned up in the
classroom and/or taken home, which adds to their sense of achievement.
6. Spelling Activities
You can speak a word, and they have to write it down. Or they can work in pairs and give each other a word to
spell.
You mustn’t over-correct invented spellings. Your learners are experimenting here. It’s a developmental
process during which learners acquire ideas about spelling as they hear, speak, read, and write. Through time,
most learners’ spelling will progress positively.
Instead of over-correcting invented spellings, praise the learners for making themselves understood in writing.
7. Adding A Bit Of Competition

Get the learners to write as many words as they can in their notebooks in, say, five minutes, e.g., names of
people they know, objects labelled in the room, etc.
At the end of five minutes, the learners exchange notebooks with their partner, and they count how many
words they were each able to write. Inspect the notebooks and keep track of these totals.
You could even inspire them to do even better by telling them that next week’s list for the competition will be,
say, words starting and ending with the same letter. You’ll be surprised how many will begin to look for words
in preparation for the competition day.
10.4.7. Writing Activities For Older Young

Learners
With older young learners, it will be more of the above plus introductions to more complex activity. The more
complex the task, the more preparation will be required.
Remember this: When older young learners are involved in more complex activity, they may want to use
their native language briefly to, say, clarify some points with the rest of the group when planning some group
project. This is fine.
1. Continue to give them practice in word and sentence level writing.

2. Start to place more emphasis on writing as a medium for communicating messages and ideas.
As a result, they will need help with:
 Using specific structural patterns to form sentences

 Organising descriptions
 Planning layout, e.g., a letter or poster.
 Introduce, in simple terms, the ideas of context and audience.
Context refers to the occasion, or situation, that informs the reader about why a document was written and how
it was written.
For example, you could tell them that you want them to write a quiz or riddle for younger young learners. This
would be a good start for getting over the idea of audience.
 Start to introduce different text types and their purpose.
For example, introduce descriptions, menus, instructions, poems, etc. The more able learners can be introduced
to more of these while the less able are focussing on one or two of the essential types.
 They can be introduced to a short and straightforward re-telling of a story.
This could advance to writing a different ending, which they can share with the whole class. They would need
to have lots of support, such as models to follow and relevant lexis.
 Encourage collaboration, which will be essential for them in all their future studies and later life.
In their groups, for example, they could do a group written project. To achieve this, they will need to discuss
how they will approach this, who’s doing what, plan and revise their work, etc.
 It’s time to have a sturdier approach to spelling.
This is especially for those who are still in the inventive spelling stage that younger young learners go through.
Give this more importance. Spelling can be difficult for L2 learners. Some native learners find this to be a
constant challenge.
Employ the practical tips we outlined above for younger young learners.
 Encourage freer writing.
Some of your older learners may now be ready for some freer writing, which is not necessarily edited or
worked on further. Freer writing activities include:
 Filling in captions in speech bubbles, usually in groups

 Writing instructions, e.g., how to get from home to school, so that others can follow the instructions easily
 Shopping lists, perhaps to emphasise skills in grouping the shopping items
 Letters, perhaps to a TV company telling them what programme they like watching best, and why
 Recipes, perhaps practising the order of the items to be added if they want the mix to be right or the yeast to
react. They can then make the cake.
 Constructing their puzzles, crosswords or word searches for an appropriate audience
The introduction of various written genres will enhance the learners’ awareness and appreciation of different
audiences, and they will hopefully begin to understand the reasons for writing differently in different genres to
a different audience.
 Older learners should also be encouraged to use writing for record-keeping.
They can write lists of new words, short phrases, and everyday dialogues in their notebooks as a record of what
has been learned.
They can also be encouraged to keep a simple personal diary or journal to reflect on and evaluate their progress
in learning. If need be, these entries could be in their first language, to begin with.
1. If your situation allows it, encourage word processing work.
With the permission of the parents and the school leaders, you could set up email accounts for the whole class
and encourage communication within the group.
You could even set up your website where they can go to get your tips on some project they are working on.
1. Introduce more homework.
Although it’s easy to pick exercises from the class activity book, try to be a bit more adventurous if the
workbook lacks fun.
Introduce your worksheets with pictures and puzzles and add in silly descriptions such as the blue dog chased
the yellow cat to get them smiling.
Ensure you always allocate time to check over the homework with the class. Also, seek ways to encourage
parents/caregivers to provide help and support with the homework.
10.4.8. Reading Activities With Younger Young
Learners
Manage your expectations!
There’s a lot of work to be done before your younger young learners can read or write a particular word,
chunk, or sentence. You can’t just launch into reading. Your focus at first is on a whole range of sub-skills,
e.g., decoding and matching spoken and written forms.
In the early stages, your focus will usually remain for some time at the letter and word level, where letters and
words can be reinforced by activities/games, such as SNAP and other word pairing games.
1. Print awareness
Spend the necessary time to help them with their print awareness. This is not as easy as it sounds. For example,
let’s imagine you are about to make younger young Thai learners aware of print features. It would be wise to
do your research on Thai print first. You would find that generally:
 There are no spaces between words

 There are no capital letters
 There are no punctuation marks
 Proper nouns do not require a capital letter
Of course, at the early stages, you wouldn’t be covering all of these points but, certainly, spaces between
words be a priority.
 Highlight the written forms of words they can speak
Show them written words representing words they can already speak. This will achieve two aims. It will:
 Demonstrate that words they can already speak can be represented in writing
 Widen their knowledge of printed materials
An excellent way to demonstrate that words they speak can be represented in writing is by labelling objects in
the classroom, e.g., desk, table, board, door, etc.
They will be curious about these labels, and this will be the start of you helping them to understand the link
between speaking and writing and, later, the link to reading what has been written.
This tactic can also continue with new words. You could add new labels now and again, and to make it fun and
engaging, you could challenge them to find your new label as quickly as they can.
You’ll remember that we said that the best words to use when learning speaking are familiar and repetitive
words and chunks that you use, e.g., sit down. To help them link the spoken and written word, you could have
laminated cards with your common phrases written on them.
Once they have grasped the spoken word, you can start to hold up the written words, e.g. sit down.
You can also deliberately introduce word card activities, where the younger young learners match a picture
with the word on a card.
 Introduce the English alphabet
Learning the alphabet will help them to spell. And It opens up lots of opportunities for them to get used to
written words which will match the spoken words they can say (excluding exceptions), e.g.:
 Spelling their name

 Spelling out mum, dad, etc. and their friends’ names
 Playing games like Hangman
 Matching letters
 Working out missing letters
 Phonological and phonemic awareness
At the same time, through rhymes, songs, and chants, you will introduce concepts such as rhyme and syllables.
You studied this in Module 4.
Also, you’ll be introducing some phonics work, e.g., categorising words in line with the sounds they begin
with. Your intention will be to get them to grasp the regular patterns in words they already know.
The more words they already know, the easier it will be to recognise the patterns. Familiar songs and rhymes
that you have already been using to enhance their listening and speaking skills will provide many opportunities
for phonics work.
 Letter and word-level reading
Again, at the same time, you will help them to recognise letterforms, letter combinations, and whole words.
You can use lots of activities to enhance word recognition:
1.Memory games: e.g., matching a word with a flashcard. A flashcard is a laminated picture of, say, a house
with the word ‘house’ below it or on the back of the picture, that you can hold up for all to see.
It’s good to intersperse showing the word with also writing it on the board, to get their minds thinking further
that spoken words can be written down.
It’s a good idea to colour your flashcards from the start, e.g., nouns in pink, adjectives in blue, verbs in green,
etc. You would typically start with nouns. Of course, you won’t use the metalanguage with them. You would
just call it a thing or animal etc.
With ‘showing’ activities like holding up flashcards, always plan to do some other activity after this to
consolidate the learning. For example, once they have learned some simple words, they can practise in pairs,
reading words to their partners.
 Concentration-type games: where learners pick up two cards from a pile to see if they match
 SNAP: where the aim again is to spot two word cards that are the same
 Simple teacher-made cards: for matching, categorising, etc.
 Who can find? Type of games: such as spotting specific letters or small words in a storybook or other simple
text.
 Listen and identify: with this, you could hand out a list of familiar words. In pairs, they have to read through
the list and tick off each word when they hear it.
 Read and draw: straightforward instructions are given at the top of their worksheet. They need to read these
and, if understood, they will be able to draw what’s required.
 Read and sequence: a typical example of this would be to give them cards or labels with numbers on them.
They have to read the cards/labels and put them in sequence, say, 1-5.
Again, though, always think of how you can take an activity to the next level. If they are ready for the concept
of size, you could have a size sequence.
So, here they are not just putting them in a sequence which they have memorised, e.g., as with numbers. Here
you are getting them to read and asking them to use their cognitive ability.
Assuming the words and the ‘things’ are familiar, you could have, say, these words on a sheet that they need to
read and put in sequence: mouse, chair, man. Through time, you could make the list a bit longer.
1. Labelling: labelling lots of objects in the room, as mentioned previously. You can advance this through time by
giving them sets of labels (later removable), which can be attached to laminated worksheets you hand out.
For example, you could hand out a laminated worksheet with illustrations of familiar objects in the classroom
or everyday objects in their homes. They then have to read the labels you have given them, pick them off their
sheet, and stick them beside the illustration.
1. Classifying (categorising) words into word families: when they are ready for this. These could be, say,
classifying familiar fruits and vegetables, everyday sports activities, familiar objects from a particular area
(e.g., the classroom, their bedroom).
It’s best to start this with ‘Odd one out’ type activities, so that they can identify that, say, an apple doesn’t go
with the other illustrations, e.g., dog, cat, mouse. Then you could make it more challenging with them having
to read more examples for two categories and, later, three categories.
Even with a simple activity like this, take care not to confuse them. For example, your aim may be to get them
to classify living things and inanimate objects. You choose to illustrate this with familiar words: living things
– man, lion, goldfish; inanimate things – chair, table, cup, but you don’t tell them what you are looking for.
Most young learners will categorise them as you have done. However, a few children may not see it your way.
They may see goldfish as a separate category as it lives in water. So, take care.
12. Pronunciation Practice

 Using SNAP or Rhyming Dominoes to practise rhyming words
 Matching two halves of a sentence, or whole sentences, which both have a rhyming word at the end
 Simple reading aloud activity, using familiar and meaningful text, e.g., short lines from a story
 Sentence level reading
Through time, they will be ready for sentence-level reading to different degrees. Again, stick with common
words in English, which are meaningful to them. If you don’t, you may spend more time on explaining new
words than it takes for them to do a sentence activity.
First, use chunks of language and patterns they are familiar with in making sentences, e.g., chunks from songs
and rhymes they have learned in the classroom.
For reading practice:
 Jumble up the words in a simple sentence and see if they can put them back together in the right order, e.g., a
mouse small is.
 With familiar songs and rhymes, jumble the words up and also omit words to see if they can guess what’s
missing for it to make sense.
For reading (and writing) practice, there are lots of tried and tested exercises:
 Gap-fill activities
 Matching words
 Copying a short personal sentence and reading it aloud, e.g., my name is Lucy, and gradually, you can build
this up to I like … where they fill in the blank and copy the whole sentence out again.
 Ensure it’s a multi-sensory process
They and you will have greater success if you ensure that the activities you do with them relate to all their
senses. For example, while or after learning to read bits of ‘The Very Hungry Caterpillar’, you should involve
them in speaking, listening, and writing activities where these are possible.
10.4.9. Reading Activities With Older Young

Learners
With older young learners, it will be more of the above but with more complex activity. The more complex the
task, the more preparation will be required.
Older young learners are likely to be involved in:
1. Further word and sentence level practice, depending on their proficiency

2. Reading for meaning
Introduce activities that encourage them to skim and scan texts to get at the meaning.
Skimming involves the learner in letting his eyes run rapidly over the text to discover what the text is about in
general. Scanning is when the reader quickly searches through a text looking for specific pieces of information.
 Older young learners can be taught to search for cues (help, clues)
Research has shown that older young learners can use meaning or context cues to help them work out words
and chunks of language. Here are some examples:
1. Semantic Cues
Semantic cues are meaning cues. For example, when reading a story about lions, good readers develop the
expectation that it will contain words associated with lions, such as attack, pounce, eat, roar, king (of the
jungle), den
In the sentence, A lion likes to _____, given the sentence context and what most of us know about lions, words
like roar, attack, pounce, and eat seem reasonable possibilities.
2. Syntactic Or Word Order Cues

Using the same example, A lion likes to _____, the order of the words in the sentence and knowledge of what
an infinitive is indicates that the missing word must be a verb, e.g., roar, attack, pounce and eat.
Other word classes, such as nouns or adjectives, make no sense and won’t result in a meaningful sentence.
3. Picture/Illustration Cues
Illustrations can often help with the identification of a word. In the example, if there is a picture of a lion
moving through the air towards an impala, attack, and pounce and eat seem good possibilities.
4. Word Structure Cues

Many groups of letters occur frequently in words, for example:
 prefixes (un-, dis-, in-, im-, il-, ir-)

 suffixes (-ful, -less, -ness, -est)
 inflectional endings (-ed, -ing, -es)
The ability to associate sounds with a cluster of letters leads to quicker identification of words
4. Older young learners can be taught the benefits of dictionary work
This could be for:
 Checking important, new words

 Checking spelling
 Finding synonyms and antonyms – thesaurus-type activities
 Finding native language equivalents
In addition to helping them comprehend new words and chunks, dictionary work lends itself to lots of tasks
that will benefit their reading in the long run; for example, team competitions choosing a correct definition for
a word, selecting the correct synonyms and antonyms for a given word, etc.
10.4.10. Assessing Young Learners

In recent years, some remarkably effective ‘alternative’ assessment techniques have gradually made their way
into the EYL classroom.
They offer great opportunities for widening the assessment scope, while at the same time ensuring that the
learning and assessment taking place is dynamic, motivational, and engaging for the learners.
These include:
1. Self- and peer-assessment
 Portfolios
 Project work
 Dialogue journals
1. Self- and peer-assessment
Self-assessment is an alternative assessment technique that is coming to the fore in the learnercentred EYL
classroom.
In self-assessment, the learners are asked to reflect and rate themselves on their performances.
To be successful, self-assessment requires:
 Step-by-step training for the learners, demonstrating its usefulness and how to do it
 Step-by-step instruction in familiarising the learners with some basic assessment models and checklists they
can use to assess their learning
 Restricting it to well-known and repeated activities that the learners are familiar with
Note that some learners, often the youngest of all, may have difficulty with this. It may not work for everyone.
There are several benefits which derive from encouraging self-assessment:
1. Learners get a better grasp of the language learning process.
 Learners can be motivated towards more involvement in their learning.

 You and the learners may have an equal relationship.
 It drives more learning autonomy and self-regulation.
 Learners can be motivated to set small, exciting language goals.
Peer assessment is also on the increase in the EFL arena, including the EYL classroom.
This is mainly due to the drive to develop the learners’ ability to work (and learn) cooperatively with others in
groups.
It’s easy for detractors to find flaws in this process. However, if it is well planned and prepared, it offers
another beneficial assessment technique.
Your prime role is to:
1. provide guidance on the assessment process and assessment criteria
 explain precisely to the learners what they should assess in one another’s work
 help them identify and apply correctly the assessment criteria
 ensure they have an evaluation/observation sheet to keep them on track
Peer assessment often produces positive results with learners contributing good, evaluative, and encouraging
comments and notes for each member of their group, emphasising their positive contribution to teamwork.
Peer assessment can have a positive effect on classroom dynamics and can help to train learners in skills they
need to become autonomous.
Remember! The youngest of learners, though, are not able to give very detailed peer feedback because they
are not yet able to think about their classmates’ work in depth.
 Portfolios
Another alternative assessment technique is the portfolio.

A portfolio is a collection of the learner’s work and provides evidence of the learner’s achievement over a
period. All the evidence is placed in individual folders, one for each learner.
A portfolio can include all kinds of things – drawings, different pieces of writing, revisions, and drafts,
completed tests and quizzes, self-assessments, craftwork, lists of books read, and even any videos of oral
performances.
The learner selects the best pieces of work, aided by you. Your involvement is imperative; otherwise, the
learner may wish to put everything in it. Importantly, your role is to help her differentiate when there are, say,
several pieces of writing against set criteria.
So, what are the benefits of portfolios as an assessment tool?
1. They hold concrete evidence of what a learner has achieved and can do.
 They provide you with a detailed picture of a learner’s language performance in a variety of different tasks,
over a period.
 They show all stakeholders what the learner is learning and regularly doing in the classroom.
 They integrate teaching and assessment in a continuous process.
 They can enhance learners’ self-image as they participate in the decisions about content and can help them
identify their strengths and weakness in the target language.
 The learners learn how to differentiate. Differentiation is an essential skill that can be applied by the learner in
the future to many other language activities.
 The learners are encouraged to reflect on their work. If you can encourage the learner to reflect on her portfolio
work, then there is an excellent chance that the learner will use this skill in her future learning.
 It gives the learners some element of ownership, making decisions as to which pieces of their work should be
assessed. This, in turn, promotes independence.
 Learners can take these pieces home to show their parents/caregivers, and this event in itself will provide
further learner motivation from interested parents/caregivers.
1. Portfolios can be used at all levels and in all stages of development.
 Project work
Project work is another excellent tool for assessment. It offers many opportunities for evaluation in a group
situation.
The benefits of project work as an assessment tool are:
1. It provides opportunities for systematic observation.
 It combines all four language skills.

 It involves the joint effort of several learners.
 It is motivating, particularly for weaker learners who can learn from their peers.
 It is motivating for stronger learners who can contribute their knowledge and skills.
 It works well with mixed ability classes, so long as the groups and roles are carefully defined.
 It offers opportunities for the learners to display other non-linguistic strength skills such as organisational
skills, acting, or drawing.
Project work is popular in young learners’ classrooms. You will see that the learners find the projects
motivating and enjoyable, and they enjoy the opportunities for self-reliance and autonomy.
And, importantly, they provide learners with real-world tasks that have value beyond the language classroom.
 Dialogue journals
Another alternative assessment tool is the dialogue journal. This would be explicitly used for assessing writing
ability over a period, but it is also useful for gaining insight about the learner’s views, goals, motivation, and
attitude to learning.
A dialogue journal is an ongoing written dialogue between the learner and you, akin to writing notes or short
letters to each other.
The notes could contain anything. Where these are in use, the results have been positive, with learners finding
this enjoyable and motivating, and they are free from any anxiety about their writing being marked.
Summary
So long as there are no institutional restrictions on what you can or cannot do in terms of assessment, e.g.,
having to carry out traditional competitive paper and pencil tests as the primary testing tool, these alternative
assessment vehicles add dynamism to the assessment process.
Give them a try!
Good job, as they say! Our final Section explores an element which ignites the most significant interest
and enthusiasm throughout the young learner classroom – stories.
10.5 Stories for Young Learners

Out of all the activities in the young learners’ classroom, stories ignite the most significant interest and
enthusiasm throughout the classroom. In other words, they are a bit special.
10.5.1. What Makes A Good Story?

Key factors
In our description of the typical story features below, you’ll notice in particular that we mention a plot, i.e., a
problem and resolution. A plot will fire the young learners’ imagination.
However, in the very early years, there are excellent little texts which help the learners in the first stages of
English language development. To save them being too complicated, there may not be a plot; instead, there
may simply be a sequence of events or activities.
In essence, they’re more of a text than a story, but the tendency is to call them all stories. That’s fine for
the younger young learners.
The features we have set out below are those where young learners are ready to grasp the idea of
a straightforward plot with a simple problem and a simple resolution.
What makes a good story is an adherence, to a degree, to the typical features in good fairy tales, some passed
down over the centuries.
For example, there are written examples of stories similar to Cinderella in Chinese manuscripts from as early
as 850 AD. Charles Perrault (1628-1703) is credited as the author of Cinderella, as well as of Sleeping Beauty,
Little Red Riding Hood, and Bluebeard.
Time to reflect
What do you think are the critical elements of a good story for young learners? Try and do this without
looking at the next Section. Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this. Then
you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.
Well done!
No doubt, you will have thought of some, if not all, of these elements:
1. A formulaic opening, creating anticipation
This opening is often formulaic and builds anticipation in young learners, e.g., Once upon a time …
2. Description of the setting
3. Introduction of the characters – often contrasting
This often immediately sets contrasts. For example, we quickly find out that Cinderella is pretty, wears rags,
and must do all the chores. Cinderella’s stepsisters are ugly, wear beautiful clothes and force Cinderella to do
all the chores.
So, very quickly in the story, elements of good and bad are introduced.
4. Introduction of a problem
In the fairy tale Little Red Riding Hood, the little girl leaves the path despite her mother’s warnings.
5. A series of events, heightening the suspense and anticipation, which lead to the resolution of the
problem
In Little Red Riding Hood, the little girl is about to be eaten by the wolf when, just in time, her father arrives
and kills the wolf.
6. A closing which, like the opening, is often formulaic: They lived happily ever after.
7. A moral or morals
The moral(s) may be explicit or implied.
Little Red Riding Hood has two clear morals:
1. Children should learn from their parents/caregivers and do what they are told.
2. Wickedness will eventually be overcome.
These then are the typical features we would expect to see. However, there are some other features which may
be found in good stories, to different degrees:
 Repetition of phrases and patterns

 Dramatic irony
 Predictability
 Sense of inevitability
 Rich lexis
 Alliteration
 Metaphors
 Surprise or twists at the end
10.5.2. Choosing A Good Storybook

You need to reflect on several factors when selecting a storybook. We have listed the key elements below, in
the form of questions that you should ask yourself. Not all storybooks will contain all these elements, but they
should at least include a fair number of them.
Key considerations
1. Linguistic level
 Will it be too easy, too stretching, or just about right, with an appropriate level of challenge for your learners?
Remember this: It’s essential that learners can recognise a good part of the lexis in a story. Research has
shown that learners should know around 75% of the lexis to understand a story/text.
2. Content
 Are you enthusiastic about the story?

 Will this story help you meet the language goals you have set for your young learners?
 Will the story engage your learners?

 Will it stir their imagination?
 Will it be memorable so that they’ll remember it in time to come, and you can refer back to it?
 Will they be familiar with the story? Familiar stories help them to use their prior knowledge and make some
predictions.
 Is it interesting enough to motivate them and hold their concentration?
 Is there some humour in the story, where they can laugh together?
 Is it an appropriate length? Can it be broken into parts, if need be?
 Does it contain interesting characters that they can empathise with?
 Do the characters do things that your learners understand?
 Does it have a clear storyline, so that your learners can get along with the bulk of the story without being
dependent on your or parent/caregiver input most of the time?
 Is the plot clear, and does it, perhaps, have a surprise ending?
 Does the story offer plenty of opportunities for participation, e.g., guessing, anticipation, discussion of
illustrations, repetition of phrases along with the character, etc.?
 Does the story provide lots of opportunities for follow-up activities?
3. Structure
 Does it have a structure in line with the typical fairy tale structure we have already explored? Such stories are
likely to be most accessible to most children.
 Is there some element of surprise or unpredictability in the story that will keep their interest and involvement at
a high level?
4. Balance
 What is the balance of dialogue and narrative?
Where there are lots of pieces of dialogue, this will be relevant for learning conversational phrases and role-
plays.
Where there are lots of pieces of narrative, this will hopefully offer repeated patterns of language, which will
help grammar and lexis learning.
The best option may be to look for a roughly equal balance, which will offer more opportunities for learning
and assessment activities.
5. Illustrations
 Are the illustrations clear and not cluttered?

 Are they attractive and colourful?
 Do they depict life in the English-speaking cultures?
 Are the illustrations appropriate, i.e., not frightening or culturally-inappropriate, and appropriate for the age of
the learners?
 Do the illustrations support the meaning and understanding of the text or not?
 Is there only going to be one big storybook used by you; if so, will all the learners be able to see the
illustrations clearly?
6. Values and attitudes
 Are the values and attitudes expressed in the story acceptable?

 Does the story address some universal themes, e.g., diversity, disability, human rights, gender, race, right and
wrong, good and evil, tolerance, the strength of family, protecting the environment, etc.?
 Will it help to give them a broader view of the world and promote intercultural understanding?
 Will it encourage the learners to collaborate and share emotions?
 Will it help the learners to develop a better understanding of themselves?
7. Language and literary devices
 Is there sufficient language in the story that children have met before and will be able to recycle?
 Does the story contain examples of rich lexis?
 Is there sufficient new language which will be useful and relevant for all?
 Is the language authentic?
 Is the language appropriate, and is it representative of spoken English?
Is there plenty of repetition of some grammatical structures and phrases, e.g., in Goldilocks and the Three
Bears: Someone’s been eating my porridge. Someone’s been sitting in my chair.
 Are there adequate literary devices that the young learners can be helped to notice and can learn from, e.g.,
rhythm, rhyme, predictability, the building of suspense, anticipation, onomatopoeia, alliteration, hyperbole,
metaphor, simile, etc. – depending, of course, on their language level?
8. Cognitive and social aspects
 Does the story introduce and reinforce concepts?

 Does the story help them become aware of some basic learning strategies?
 Does the story provide content which links with other subjects in the curriculum?
 Does the story cater to different intelligences and learning preferences?
 Will the story arouse their curiosity about language and language learning?
 Will the story provide a positive learning experience?
 Will the story help to build their confidence, both linguistically and socially?
 Will the story encourage their desire for more learning?
10.5.3. A Storybook Plan

It’s easy to pick up a storybook and read it to your young learners. However, to get the best out of the
experience for them and you, it needs proper planning.
1. Decisions to be made before the lesson
Before introducing any storybook, there are some critical decisions you need to make. The first is: How will I
deliver this story the first time?
When introducing the story to young learners for the first time, some teachers like to keep up the long-standing
tradition of storytelling by narrating the story to the children without the storybook.
This method has shown to be popular with young learners. They will have your full attention and won’t be
pointing to the illustrations or discussing them with their friends.
This requires much preparation on your part, just as you would do for any presentation. It will need lots of
rehearsal, perhaps in front of a mirror or in front of your friends or family, to get it right first time.
But the benefits are significant:
 You will not be constricted by looking at the storybook and holding it. As a result, you will be able to maintain
full eye contact with the children and have the opportunity to be much more animated with your expressions
and gestures.
 You may, of course, occasionally show an illustration of what the character looks like, e.g., the Gruffalo.
 By telling and not reading the story and looking at them every second, you will be more aware of all the
children’s reactions, which helps you to make swift decisions on pace or repetition of a phrase or the
heightening of the volume.
 By only pointing to a few illustrations on this occasion, you will whet their appetite and anticipation for more
illustrations during your next reading.
Whether you opt for telling or reading the story when introducing it, you will still need to do some dry-runs
yourself to identify:
 areas where you will change your pace or volume

 where you may stop to ask any questions (although you may wish to leave this till the second reading)
 words or phrases or sentences which need to be simplified
 any bits which are long-winded or peripheral and which need to be adapted or removed.
2. During the lesson

There are usually three stages in reading or telling a story: the pre-storytelling stage, the duringstorytelling
stage, and the after-storytelling stage.
Pre-Storytelling Stage
In the pre-storytelling stage,you:
 prepare the young learners so that they can better comprehend the story
 raise their interest and motivation, so that their attention is focussed on the storytelling episode
set the scene and create the context for the story so that the young learners can draw on their existing
knowledge and experiences, where possible, to better understand and meld with the story
 explain any new and critical lexis to make it easier for them
Sometimes it will be helpful to show them an illustration before you read the story. For example, the Gruffalo
is not quite like any other animal, so it’s probably better to let them see what he looks like upfront.
A Gruffalo puppet would be even better, and you could show him upfront and use him during your reading. A
puppet would activate interest and motivation.
During-Storytelling Stage
Sometimes some teachers like to do a straight telling or reading of the story the first time. That’s fine. They
will then often say: Would you like to hear it again, children? The answer is almost always: Yes!
In this second reading, the aim is to ensure they are active participants in the process and not just passive
listeners.
Here you will have prepared a range of techniques and activities, all designed to help them understand the
story better, and all designed to maintain their interest and attention.
These could include:
 Asking the young learners to guess or predict what comes next

 Identifying the characters and their prominent traits
 Looking at big illustrations (or copies you have handed out to them) to discuss characters or the setting
 Why did she do that? types of questions
On some occasions, your questions or help will be to ensure they get pleasure from the story.
On other occasions, you will also be helping them to understand the story. However, you may also be doing
some assessment work, e.g., who noticed what and who didn’t, who chose the right word and who didn’t, who
had difficulty pronouncing a word or uttering a sound and who didn’t, etc.
For example, you may feel it is the right time to introduce them to alliteration, so you might show them an
example and explain what it is and later read out another example to see who notices it and who doesn’t.
Children love humour, so ensure you ask them some silly things too: Have you ever seen a Gruffalo on the
school bus? Why not?
Moreover, stories are excellent vehicles for getting them to notice little bits of grammar. For example, in The
Very Hungry Caterpillar, there are excellent opportunities for helping them to spot the letter s at the end of
words when there is more than one of them (plurals, of course, but you wouldn’t mention the word plurals):
On Monday, he ate through one apple
On Tuesday, he ate through two pears
The excellent illustrations help them to notice the difference.
There are other activities you can do, which involve movement and action. These activities encourage them to
listen very carefully.
In The Very Hungry Caterpillar, lots of types of fruit and other food are mentioned. You could give each
learner a card which represents one type of fruit or one kind of food.
When they hear their item mentioned, they stand up quickly, run to your desk, put their card in a box, and run
back fast to their position.
Or you can get them to mime out certain parts of a story. Once you have read the story several times, and they
know the actions of the characters, they will be very willing to act out the story as you read it.
After listening to the story or a part thereof, you should always encourage the learners to express their feelings
and emotions as best they can. Keep your reflection questions simple:
 What do you like best? Why?

 What do you think of the Gruffalo? Why?
 Do you like the Gruffalo? Why? Why not?
 Would you like a Gruffalo as a pet?
 Do you like the same food as the Very Hungry Caterpillar? Why? Why Not?
 So, you like eating a leaf too?
You can use the same types of activities with older young learners. Lots of older young learners like the
telling of a story by you as opposed to you reading it.
Older learners can also read stories on their own at times, and here you can assist them with activities such as
story timelines, predictions, lists of character traits, etc.
Post-Storytelling Stage
After the storytelling has finished, it’s time for some consolidation work. The activities you choose will
depend on what language learning goal you are aiming to achieve.
Generally, during this period, you will undoubtedly want to check their understanding. Still, you will also want
to engage them with issues in the story that might relate to their own lives or other activities that reinforce and
expand on the content.
Remember! You can use the story as a catalyst or springboard for a wide range of curricular-related activities.
10.5.4. Activities
Here are some general examples which may not apply to all levels, but which should apply to all good
storybooks:
1. Discussions About Likes And Dislikes

The Very Hungry Caterpillar mentions various kinds of fruit. This could lead to a discussion on fruit and likes
and dislikes. The learners could then choose their three favourite fruits (whether in the story or not), put them
in order of the most favourite being Number 1, and draw each fruit.
Where language allows, you could then ask them to say why.
The Gruffalo lends itself well to a discussion about animals. You could follow the same procedure as above
with animals.
2. Mini-Surveys
To reinforce the point that good storybooks almost always offer similar useful opportunities for activities, you
could do the following activity for both The Gruffalo and The Very Hungry Caterpillar.
You could get the learners to work in groups. Their task is, say, to find out the three most favourite fruits or
animals which they and their classmates like.
You could give them a list of all the learners’ names, and they survey all the classmates asking and then noting
what each’s top three fruits or animals are.
All the other groups do the same. In the end, each group produces a similar list, but in their own way. It
doesn’t matter if any of the results are different.
There’ll be a bit of a carfuffle (an excellent Scottish word for ‘disorder’). Still, it helps to teach them many
skills of planning, organising, asking appropriate questions, noting data, analysing data, counting, etc.
3. Drawing
A simple but essential follow-up activity would be to get the young learners to draw a picture of the main
character, perhaps showing some emotions; for example, the look on the faces of the fox, snake, and mouse
when they do see the Gruffalo.
Alternatively, the look on the face of the Very Hungry Caterpillar when he is hungry, has a stomach ache and
then eats a tasty, green leaf.
4. New Words And Chunks

Another significant activity is adding new lexis to their learning bank. You could get them to choose four or
five new words that they like and want to learn.
You can anticipate this by printing out some sheets that have, say, a picture of the Gruffalo with several words
printed and arrows pointing to specific characteristics of the Gruffalo. For example, the mouse in the story
repeats several times that the Gruffalo has:
Terrible tusks, and terrible claws, and terrible teeth in his terrible jaws. So, to start with, you have tusks,
claws, teeth, and jaws
The narrator tells us that:
He has knobbly knees, and turned-out toes, and a poisonous wart at the end of his nose.
His eyes are orange, his tongue is black; he has purple prickles all over his back.
So, there are plenty of other words you can put on the sheet that the young learners can choose.
Ensure you practise the sound of the words with them. Then they can take the sheet home to show their
parents/caregivers, with their specific words underlined, and they can get help to practise them. Even where the
parent is a non-English speaker, the encouragement will be valuable.
Remember this: Non-English speaking parents/caregivers can access websites that help with the English
pronunciation of words. Most of the words in the excerpts above can be heard by accessing, for
example, www.howjsay.com. There will be other sites.
This will help them to help their children. Next time they are in class, you can pair the learners up with friends
and get them to say to each other the words they have learned. You will go around the class monitoring this.
This is an excellent example of self-directed learning.
5. Making A Recording
A superb task that requires a bit of organisation is making a recording of the story that they can take home with
them. You would do the reading. In this way, particularly for very young learners, they hear your voice, the
same voice as they hear in class.
The only real issue is the cost of giving all of them a copy, e.g. a copy on CD or MP3 player or USB stick.
Perhaps the parents/caregivers can be encouraged to help pay for these or can send in a memory stick to enable
you to record the story.
This opens up a host of opportunities. You could set them simple tasks for homework, one or two at a time,
ensuring beforehand that they know what to do. The tasks could include:
 How many times does the mouse in The Gruffalo say: He has terrible tusks, and terrible claws, and terrible
teeth in his terrible jaws?
 Try and learn this: He has terrible tusks, and terrible claws, and terrible teeth in his terrible jaws.
 Which animal slid away?
 Which animal sped away?
 Which food does the Gruffalo like to roast?
 Which food does the Gruffalo like to scramble?
 In the story, there are sometimes two words together that start with the same letter; for example, the words
terrible teeth begin with the same letter t. Can you find any other examples?
Next time in class, you can check and praise their efforts by playing your recording.
This is an excellent way to enhance their listening to detail skills.
6. Acting, Retelling, And Recording

Young learners can be helped to improve their discourse skills by:
 Learning as best as they can the dialogue and acting out the story. Children love this. You can simplify the
dialogue if necessary and give them picture prompts to remind them of the bit they are acting out (with or
without words as needs be).
 Retelling a tiny bit of the story. Again, you can give them picture cards to focus on and the written words if
they can read all the words. You could give the whole class a tiny bit to do individually.
After all the practice is done, the final event would be a recording of every one of the learners doing their bit in
order. They will be delighted listening to the story, listening avidly, of course, to their contribution. They’ll
want to take a copy home to their parents/caregivers.
We’ve used tiny bit to emphasise that retelling a story in a foreign language situation isn’t easy. Never set your
expectations too high. Make it easier for them by reducing and simplifying what they have to learn and aim, in
this activity, for a shared experience.
7. Writing
Writing activities based on a story offer up, as the cliché says, endless possibilities. Activities from The
Gruffalo could include:
1. The children could pretend they are any of the animals, say, the mouse, and could write to a mouse friend
telling them how frightened they were when they saw the Gruffalo.
2. They could describe the Gruffalo using the repeated phrase: He has terrible tusks, and terrible claws, and
terrible teeth in his terrible jaws or any other words or phrases from the text. This makes the activity a bit
easier, while at the same time further embedding these phrases in their memory banks.
3. They could take on the persona of the mouse, writing to a friend to tell her how he fooled the Gruffalo.
4. They could take on the persona of the Gruffalo, writing to a friend to tell her how afraid he is of the mouse.
5. They could write a dialogue about the mouse returning home and telling his partner about the narrow escape he
has just had and how he fooled the Gruffalo.
6. They could write a short piece on why they like or dislike the snake or the fox.
And so on. There are so many activities you could develop.
8. Reading
Finally, depending on their level, the storybook can be used for reading practice. With beginning readers, the
focus will be on areas such as:
 Letter/sound recognition
 Concepts of print (letters, words, spaces, simple punctuation, front and back of books, etc.)
 Phonological awareness: recognising a word in a sentence, recognising a rhyme, recognising a syllable, etc.
Those who are more advanced in reading can listen to and follow your reading, then perhaps join you and read
as you read, culminating in the ability to read aloud on their own.
The more you use familiar stories that they have listened to many times, the better their reading skills will
become.
Above, we mentioned that after reading The Very Hungry Caterpillar, there could be a discussion on fruit and
likes and dislikes, and a drawing activity based on their favourite foods. And with the Gruffalo, there could be
a discussion and similar activities centred on animals.
What we are seeing here is the potential for a story to lead into more in-depth project-based activity
based on the content in the story. What is happening here is that the story is providing you with a theme
for further exploration by the learners.
The story is the catalyst for launching into a theme-based project.
Well done! What you have learned here will help you better understand young learners and will have
demonstrated what to do and what not to do.
You’ve finished your studying! Well done! You’ve learned a huge amount. It wasn’t too difficult, was it?
You’re nearly there!
Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at the final Quiz: Quiz 10. Again, it’s not too
demanding. Good luck! Then we’ll move on to the Conclusion. After that, you’ll take your Final
Assessment. It includes some questions you have answered before but they may be constructed a bit
differently. Take your time and get through it successfully. Then, you’ll receive your Certificate, proving
that you are a competent and effective EFL Teacher. It sounds good, doesn’t it?
Good Luck!
Conclusion
Well done so far! Before you take your Final Assessment, here are some information points
to ponder on for the future, whether you secure a position with TEFL Universal or not.
Once you receive your TEFL certificate, you will be fully qualified as a competent and effective
EFL teacher. So, what next?
Here lies the answer:
1. Reflection
2. Research
1. Reflection
Before you consider elements such as your preferred situation, your preferred choice of learners
and your preferred salary, it would be wise to first reflect on the types of language programmes
available.
Some recruiters make some inadequate and vague comments: ‘You’ll be teaching English to
adults.’ or ‘You’ll be helping young adults with their communication skills in English.’ They’re
not trying to trick you; they’re just not explicit enough.
The point is that there are different and specific aims for language programmes and you need to
reflect on whether the aim of the programme meets your needs.
You’ll be carrying out your role for a year at least, probably, maybe several years, maybe until
you retire, so you want to make sure you’ll be happy doing it. You come first!
Here are a couple of examples:
1. Developing young learners’ English communication skills

 This is often cited as the aim of most language programmes.
 The emphasis is on communicating in English, mostly speaking. Depending on the extent of the
programme, it may lead to teaching written skills.
 The main aim is to get the young learners to communicate with each other, to understand basic
instructions and respond to them, to talk about themselves and to talk about their immediate
environment.
You may be fine with this. It certainly isn’t linguistically stretching. Is this enough for you?
2. Preparing learners for a national language exam

 This too is likely to be presented as the main aim of the programme.
 This is much different from the communication skills programme above. In many countries,
children are obliged to take regional or national exams. There can be various reasons for these,
but often it’s to determine the next step, e.g. the child being competent enough to take the subject
in high school.
 Although this is a communication skills programme, the teaching approach is much different.
There is likely to be set words, sentences and structures that will be tested in the exam. In lots of
cases, they will be expected to be rote-learned.
 Private schools, in particular, will want to show the best results so that there is a continuous
stream of new business. So, repetition, lots of drilling and rote-learning are unlikely to be
frowned upon; they’re more likely to be welcomed.
You may be fine with this. Again, this isn’t linguistically stretching. Is this enough for you?
So, you need to reflect well on the real aims of language programmes available so that you can
better set your expectations and decide whether the role is or isn’t for you.
So, reflect, find out more, and decide as to what teaching situation you feel you’ll be most
comfortable in.
Then research.
2. Research
Here’s what you need to do:
1. Ask specifically what the goals and intentions of the programme are. What is the primary aim?
2. Ask specifically what you will be required to do, over the year. What is your primary task?
3. Where several aims are cited, ask how the teaching time is proportioned. How much time is
allotted to each aim?
4. Again, where there are several aims, ask whether the parents or caregivers are fully aware of the
various aims and the time which will be allotted to each aim.
5. Check on the internet, or ask to see the school literature, so that you are sure about your role and
what it entails.
Two critical reasons for carrying out this in-depth exploration are:
1. Is the programme really what you want to do? For example, a programme with the primary aim
of preparing children for a national language exam can be pretty repetitive and based on a lot of
rote-learning. Is that what you want to do? You’ll decide.
2. Parents/caregivers may well be paying good money for enrolling their child in your programme.
Parents/caregivers often have unrealistic expectations of their child’s progress, and it is a wise
idea to ensure the expectations are clear and transparent.
3. Continuing Professional Development

If you decide to make TEFL your long-term career, Continuing Professional Development
(CPD) is paramount. CPD is a lifelong process of you nurturing, shaping and improving your
knowledge, ability, skills and habits in EFL to ensure their maximum effectiveness and
adaptability. It’s a way of life.
A CPD plan results from you:
 establishing what you want to achieve and where you want to go, in the short or long term
 identifying what you need to do in respect of your knowledge, ability, skills and habits
It also helps you to decide on the appropriate development required to meet those perceived
needs.
We believe that there are myriad benefits which arise from a well – structured CPD programme.
Adopting a constructive approach to CPD provides a schedule to work to, facilitates motivation,
and offers a framework for monitoring and evaluating achievements. Benefits will arise for both
you and the educational institution.
Benefits for you
1. Ensures better performance in your job, through maintenance and enhancement of your
knowledge, ability, skills and habits
2. Expands your portfolio to enable entry into other TEFL roles
3. Provides you with improved job satisfaction
4. Gives you the confidence to face change
5. Keeps your professional qualifications up to date
6. Helps you develop new skills
7. Makes you more marketable
8. Raises your profile within the organization
9. Enables you to reassess your goals
10. Assists you in your career direction
Join professional associations and organizations, sign up to professional journals, attend TEFL
conferences, read some relevant textbooks, discuss TEFL-related processes and tasks with
experienced people you know, utilize online resources such as good TEFL forums … the list
goes on.
4. Work Opportunities
1. Jobs
Your first step should be to contact us to find out what we can do to help you.
2. Critical Questions to Ask during the Recruitment Process

Ensure you find out, at the minimum:
1. Teaching schedule: How many teaching hours does the position involve?
2. Preparation time: How much prep time will you have to put in?
3. Class size: What is the typical class size?
4. Syllabus materials: Is there a set syllabus or main coursebook?
5. Teaching aids: What sorts of audio-visual and computer equipment are available?
6. Teacher resources: What are the available resources for teachers?
7. Student body: Who are the students and why are they studying English?
8. Benefits: What benefits does the school provide their teachers?
9. Accommodation (in-class teaching overseas): Does the school provide accommodation or
assistance in finding it?
10. Visa requirements (for an overseas post): What are the visa requirements for the job?
11. Salary: What is the pay? Is this taxed?
Ensure any job offer covers the job’s terms and conditions in writing.
5. Finally …
We feel that TEFL Universal have provided you with a substantial, accredited, high-quality
training program that will allow you to succeed as a competent and effective EFL teacher, in any
role, whether this is with TEFL Universal or some other TEFL Provider. We hope you feel the
same!
It has been a pleasure having you here!
By completing this substantial, accredited course, you’ve shown the dedication and commitment
required to teach.
If you’re already teaching, hopefully you found this course a productive way to continue your
professional development. When we stop developing as teachers, we stop being effective
teachers.
Whatever your ultimate teaching goal is, we wish you the best of luck on your TEFL journey!
Time for a final little break. Then, come back and have a go at your Final Assessment.
It’s not difficult. It will include some of the questions you have tackled already throughout
the course, but they’ll be reworded a bit.
Take your time and get it right first time. Good luck!

Tefl - Module 6 - 10 + Conclusion

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6.

1 Teaching Listening ( REVISE )

1. Listening must be integrated with the other three skills.

6.1.2. Helping Learners To Overcome Barriers To

 they may not be able to distinguish particular sounds adequately

Authentic speech creates problems for the listener

6.1.3. Listening Sub-Skills

6.1.4. How To Structure An Effective Listening

6.1.5. Effective Listening Strategies, Exercises And

Questions And Answers

Using Humour To Develop Listening Skills

6.2.2. Key Features Of Spoken English

6.2.3. Stimulating Learner Speaking

If there is no purpose or outcome, why are they doing this?

 Is it productive? How much speaking will it generate?

6.2.4. Recognising A ‘Good’ Speaker

6.2.5. How To Structure An Effective Speaking

6.2.6. Effective Speaking Strategies, Exercises And

1. Using Minimal Responses

3. Using Clarification And Comprehension Responses

For comprehension check:

 Sorry, I don’t understand.

By encouraging learners to use clarification and comprehension phrases in class and by

2. Some Speaking Activities

 Don’t make the tasks too complicated or difficult.

Here are some practical ideas:

6.3.2. The Mechanics Of Writing

6.3.3. Punctuation And Spelling Issues When

 i comes before e except after c (ceiling, receive)

6.3.5. Writing Approaches And Processes

 text/visual is simply a resource

 imitation of model text

More than likely, you will be teaching writing as a process.

6.3.6. Macro And Micro Skills A Learner Must

6.3.7. How To Structure An Effective Writing

 Is there a communicative purpose to the task?

1. Communicative: Is it a communicative task? Note that a writing task is communicative if it requires

 Rewriting spelling patterns to embed the word structure in their mind

2. Some writing activities

1. Copying text (for beginners)

her children day.

 Thomas …… swimming in the clear, blue sea every morning. (enjoy)

They decided to walk to the top of the hill.

On reaching the top, they saw the haunted house.

6.4 Teaching Reading ( REVISE )

6.4.2. Reading Sub-Skills

6.4.3. Who Does The Reading?

6.4.4. How To Structure An Effective Reading

 By transferring reading skills and strategies to other texts

6.4.5. Effective Reading Strategies, Exercises And

 Matching/contrasting – e.g. matching/contrasting the characteristics of two individuals in the story

2. Some reading activities

 Module 2: Section 2.9. Example Lesson Plan

So, you have made an excellent start.

7.1 Lesson Objectives and Goals

 seeking advice from those who have run a marathon before

 Specific: Is it clear what I aim to do?

 A function (e.g. refusing a request)

7.3 Purpose and Principles of Lesson

7.4 Deciding What to Present for Learning

What it could look like

ASSESSMENT. How will you prove that your