EC-816

LAB REPORT

Name : HIMANSU DUBEY

Roll no. : 19BTechECE20
Department : ECE
Experiment 1 :
Aim : Design a PCB layout for a RC-Coupled Amplifier.

Theory :

The RC-coupled amplifier is a basic amplifier configuration commonly used to amplify

small AC signals. It consists of multiple stages of amplification connected in series
through coupling capacitors (C) and resistors (R). The primary function of the capacitors
is to transfer the AC signal while blocking any DC bias. Here's a brief overview of how
an RC-coupled amplifier works:

1) Input Stage: The input stage is typically a transistor amplifier, such as a common-
emitter configuration. The input AC signal is applied to the base of the transistor
through a coupling capacitor (C1), which blocks any DC bias from the source.
The resistor (R1) connected in series with the capacitor provides proper biasing
for the transistor.

2) Coupling Stage: The output of the input stage is connected to the input of the
next stage through a coupling capacitor (C2). This capacitor allows the amplified
AC signal to pass through while preventing the DC bias from affecting the
subsequent stages. The resistor (R2) connected in parallel with the capacitor
provides a discharge path for any charge accumulated on the capacitor,
preventing distortion.

3) Intermediate Stages: If additional amplification stages are present, each stage

follows a similar configuration as the input stage. The output of one stage is
connected to the input of the next stage through coupling capacitors (C3, C4,
etc.) and resistors (R3, R4, etc.). This cascade of stages amplifies the signal
further while maintaining the AC coupling and blocking any DC bias.

4) Output Stage: The final stage of the RC-coupled amplifier is often a common-
collector (emitter follower) configuration. The output of the last intermediate stage
is connected to the input of this stage through a coupling capacitor (Cn). The
output stage provides low output impedance, enabling the amplifier to drive loads
with minimal signal degradation and maintaining the amplified AC signal.

The advantages of RC-coupled amplifiers include their wide frequency response and
voltage amplification capability. They are relatively simple and cost-effective circuits to
implement. However, there are limitations such as capacitor-related frequency
limitations and some signal degradation introduced by each coupling stage. Overall,
RC-coupled amplifiers serve as a fundamental building block for many audio and radio
frequency applications.

Schematic :

PCB Layout :

Experiment 2 :
Aim : Design a PCB layout for a Rectifier.

Theory :

Rectifiers are electronic devices used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC). They play a crucial role in numerous applications, including power
supplies, battery chargers, and various electronic systems. The primary purpose of a
rectifier is to convert the sinusoidal AC voltage into a unidirectional flow of current,
allowing devices to operate using DC power. Rectification is achieved by utilizing
semiconductor diodes, which are one-way electrical valves that permit current flow in
only one direction.

There are two main types of rectifiers: half-wave rectifiers and full-wave rectifiers.

1) Half-Wave Rectifiers: As the name suggests, half-wave rectifiers convert only

one-half of the AC input waveform into DC. They employ a single diode
connected in series with the load. During the positive half-cycle of the AC
waveform, the diode allows current to flow through the load, producing a positive
half-wave DC output. During the negative half-cycle, the diode blocks the current
flow, resulting in no output. Half-wave rectifiers are simple and inexpensive but
have limited efficiency and produce significant ripple in the output.

2) Full-Wave Rectifiers: Full-wave rectifiers convert both halves of the AC waveform

into DC. They use either a center-tapped transformer or a bridge rectifier
configuration. In a center-tapped transformer rectifier, two diodes are connected
in a configuration that allows the positive and negative halves of the AC input to
be rectified separately. In a bridge rectifier, four diodes are arranged in a bridge
configuration, providing full-wave rectification without the need for a center-
tapped transformer. Full-wave rectifiers produce a smoother output with reduced
ripple and are more efficient compared to half-wave rectifiers.

Rectifiers are essential in various electronic devices and power systems. They ensure a
stable and constant DC power supply, which is necessary for the operation of electronic
circuits and components. The rectification process allows for the extraction of useful DC
power from AC sources, enabling efficient energy conversion and utilization.

In summary, rectifiers are crucial components in the field of electronics, enabling the
conversion of AC to DC power. They come in different configurations and play a vital
role in ensuring the reliable and efficient operation of electronic systems and devices.

Schematic :
PCB Layout :

Experiment 3 :
Aim : Design a PCB layout for a 3-bit Synchronous Counter.
Theory :
A 3-bit synchronous counter is a digital circuit that counts in binary from 000 to 111,
cycling through all eight possible states. It is called a synchronous counter because the
flip-flops that make up the counter change states simultaneously, triggered by a
common clock signal.

The 3-bit synchronous counter consists of three flip-flops, typically D flip-flops, and
combinational logic that determines the inputs to these flip-flops. The output of each flip-
flop represents one bit of the counter.

The clock signal is connected to the clock inputs of all three flip-flops, ensuring that they
change states simultaneously. The outputs of the flip-flops are connected to the inputs
of the next flip-flop, forming a cascaded arrangement. This connection allows the carry-
out of each flip-flop to become the clock input of the next flip-flop.

The combinational logic determines the inputs to each flip-flop based on the current
state of the counter. It generates the necessary logic conditions to increment the
counter by one for each clock pulse. For a 3-bit counter, the combinational logic circuitry
is relatively simple since it only needs to generate the appropriate input conditions for
each flip-flop based on the current state.

The operation of the 3-bit synchronous counter can be visualized as follows:

1) When the counter is reset, all flip-flops are set to 0 (000).

2) On the first clock pulse, the counter increments to 001.
3) On the second clock pulse, it increments to 010.
4) This counting sequence continues until the counter reaches 111 (the maximum
count).
5) On the next clock pulse, the counter resets back to 000, completing one full
counting cycle.

Synchronous counters offer several advantages over asynchronous counters. Since the
flip-flops change states simultaneously, there is no risk of race conditions or glitches
that can occur in asynchronous designs. Synchronous counters also have better noise
immunity and are easier to analyze and design.

The 3-bit synchronous counter finds applications in various digital systems, including
frequency division, timekeeping, data processing, and control circuits. It is a
fundamental building block in digital electronics, forming the basis for larger counters
and more complex sequential circuits.
Block Diagram :

PCB Layout :

Experiment 4 :
Aim : Design a PCB layout for a 4-bit Asynchronous Counter.
Theory :
A 4-bit asynchronous counter is a digital circuit that counts in binary from 0000 to 1111,
cycling through all sixteen possible states. It is called an asynchronous counter because
the flip-flops that make up the counter change states independently, without relying on a
common clock signal.

The 4-bit asynchronous counter consists of four flip-flops, typically D flip-flops, and
combinational logic that determines the inputs to these flip-flops. The output of each flip-
flop represents one bit of the counter.

In an asynchronous counter, each flip-flop is triggered by the output of the previous flip-
flop, creating a ripple effect. The least significant bit (LSB) flip-flop is triggered by an
external clock signal, while the clock inputs of the subsequent flip-flops are driven by the
outputs of the previous flip-flops.

The combinational logic determines the inputs to each flip-flop based on the current
state of the counter. It generates the necessary logic conditions to increment the
counter by one when the appropriate conditions are met. For a 4-bit counter, the
combinational logic circuitry becomes more complex compared to a 3-bit counter since
it needs to generate the appropriate input conditions for each flip-flop based on the
current state.

The operation of the 4-bit asynchronous counter can be visualized as follows:

1) When the counter is reset, all flip-flops are set to 0 (0000).

2) On the first clock pulse, the LSB flip-flop increments to 1, causing the counter to
become 0001.
3) On the second clock pulse, if the least significant bit is 1, it changes to 0, and the
next bit (second least significant) increments. If the least significant bit is 0, it
changes to 1 and does not affect the subsequent bits.
4) This counting sequence continues until the counter reaches 1111 (the maximum
count).
5) On the next clock pulse, the counter resets back to 0000, completing one full
counting cycle.

The 4-bit asynchronous counter is widely used in digital systems where the speed
requirements are not critical, and the flexibility of independent counting is beneficial. It
serves as a fundamental component in various applications, including frequency
division, digital displays, sequencers, and control circuits.
Block Diagram :

PCB Layout :