UNIT 1.

STARTER ACTIVITIES
1. Read the text and comment on it:

THE POWER OF MUSIC

Can you think of a day without music? There's music everywhere: at home, in a
concert hall, in parks, at the seaside and even in the forest. People can't live without music.
They listen to music, they dance to music, and they learn to play musical instruments.
Nowadays it's almost impossible to escape from music, even if we want to. It thunders out of
every high-street shop, hisses horribly through other people's stereos on public transport, lulls
you in hotel and restaurants, blasts out of wound—down car and van windows.
But what is music? It's not only a combination of pleasant sounds. It is an art, which
reflects life, people's ideas and emotions. There are different musical genres: symphony,
concerto, chamber music, vocal music, opera, and ballet.
Though music accompanies us, very few of us have any real idea of the effect music has on
the human system. For many years it has been assumed that musical tastes are subjective, that one
person will like jazz while another prefers classical. Those who prefer classical music think that
it is always a complex of emotions, excitement; it contains the powerful appeal for listeners; it
creates a special spiritual world for the listener which immensely enriches his inner life and
makes him happy. But some people have an idea of classical music as of complicated art: they say
it’s difficult to find the way into it.
As a result of changing times many young people today are gravitating towards new
rhythms and new styles. The new rhythms are full of vigour and force; the times are happy and
easily caught. It's simple, cheerful, and up-to-date. While listening to such music you can dance
or just talk to friends.
But it has been scientifically proved in America and Australia that certain types of music
will have a particular effect on us, regardless of whether we like them or not. Some music will help
us feel relaxed, other types may be stimulating to the brain, encouraging curiosity, some music
promotes loving feelings, other—whip up hate, jealousy, violence. According to researcher Susan
Burghardt, all music can be divided into three types, and each one has profound effects on the
body and mind.
The first is low-energy music, the sort that makes you feel bad. Most rock music falls into
this category. In fact it has been discovered that rock music makes people feel hate instead of love.
The work of some classical composers, such as Debussy and Schoenberg, has also been found to
be harmful. The volume of sound produced by powerful music at some pop and rock concerts
does great damage both to the sense of hearing and the nervous system. In Australia taped pop
music is used to frighten the sharks off the public beaches. The next category is high-energy
music. This makes you feel better and it can help to normalize heart rate. J. S. Bach’ music is
exceptionally high energy. The third category is prayerful music. This is the most healing of all.
Much of the classical music written before 1600 falls into this category. It seems that most Jazz
and Country and Western is simply neutral, having neither a healing nor harming effect.
As a result, music is being used in hospitals, and doctors have found that 20 minutes of
soothing music is often far more effective than tranquillisers or sleeping pills. For example, after
a recent operation, Fiona Richmond, 15, was not allowed to listen to her favourite heavy metal
group. Instead, she was made to listen to baroque music because it was good for her.
Scientific work on the healing power of music started with plant research in the 1970s.
Many types of classical music speeded plant growth, whereas heavy metal caused plants to draw
away from the loud-speakers and die.
 2. Sort out the following musical instruments in three groups: a) string instruments;
b) woodwind instruments; c) brass instruments. Say which of them are played in a) an
orchestra; b) a brass band; c) a jazz band:
a violin, a cello, a flute, a horn, a saxophone (sax), a guitar, a trombone, an oboe, a trumpet, a
bagpipe, a harp, a clarinet

3. Say what the following people do:

1) a violinist, a flutist, a cellist, an accompanist, a pianist, a harpist, a trombonist, a saxophonist, a
guitarist, an oboist, a fiddler, a drummer, a trumpeter;
2) a choir-boy (girl), a soloist, an orchestral player, a band player;
3) a conductor, a bandmaster, a leader of a choir.

4. Find in the right-hand column a suitable definition for each word in the left-hand
column:

1) CONCERTO a) a group of singers trained to sing together

2) CONCERT b) a play or a concert performed in public
3) AIR c) a musical performance of one person
4) CHORUS d) a musical entertainment
5) CHOIR e) the music sung by a group of singers
6) CONSERVATOI f) the act of making a work of art
RE g) a tune or melody
7) CONDUCTOR h) a group of musical players in a theatre, concert hall
8) EXECUTION i) a number of persons who play music, especially outdoors
9) RECITAL j) the way in which a piece of music is done
10) PERFORMANCE k) the man who conducts an orchestra
11) BAND l) a school of music
12) ORCHESTRA

5. Choose the right word to fill in the blanks:

1. In the hall, the college (choir, chorus) was rehearsing for the next (concert, concerto). 2.
The last act of the “Queen of Spades” begins with a beautiful male (choir, chorus). 3. What is
on at the Concert Hall today? Tchaikovsky's piano (concert, concerto) and his 5th Symphony. 4.
Last week we attended a violinist's (concert, recital) and a variety (concert, recital). 5. The
curtain rose, and the (performance, execution) began.

6. Classical music.
Put each of the following words and phrases in its correct place in the passage
below:

musicians bow string conductor instruments

score keys concert hall audience baton bows

While the 1.______was filling up and the 2. ______ were taking their seats, the 3._____ were
tuning their 4._____. The famous 5.______ entered. He gave the audience a low 6._____,
picked up his 7._____, looked briefly at the 8.______ which lay open in front of him, and raised
his hands. The pianist placed her fingers ready over the 9.______of her piano. The 10._____
section of the orchestra (violinists, cellists etc.) brought their 11.______up, ready to play. The
concert was about to begin.

7. Popular music.
Instructions as above.

group vocalist live stage number one

fans concert lyrics top ten recording studio

After the Beatles, The Rolling Stones have probably been the most successful 1._____in
Britain. Most of their records have gone into the 2._____ and they've had many at 3._____.
But their records have usually been made in a 4._____and I always wanted to hear them
5._____at a 6._____. I wanted to see them perform on 7.______in front of thousands of
excited 8.______. And I did, at Earls Court in 1990. It was great. And Mick Jagger, the
9._______, sang all the old favourites. I couldn’t hear the 10._______ very well because of the
noise, but somehow it didn’t matter.

8. Do the English listen to music?

There are amateur orchestras, quartets, choirs and opera groups even in small country
towns. Many schools, too, now have orchestras. Their best players are chosen to play in the
county youth orchestras, and a few of the very best may be picked for the National Youth
Orchestra. The NYO is trained by distinguished conductors. It plays in the Festival Hall and
in other big concert halls, and it travels abroad. Some of the county youth orchestras also give
concerts abroad.
There are concert halls in most of the big cities, and in London there are opportunities
for listening to music unequalled in any other city in the world — as Culver Jones discovered
when he went to a booking agency in the West End.

Culver Jones: Have you any tickets for the Festival Hall tonight?
Girl: Which concert, sir?
Culver: Is there more than one?
Girl: Yes, sir. There's a concert with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in the main Festival
Hall. There's a concert of chamber music with the Nash Ensemble in the Queen Elizabeth Hall
next door, and there's a concert of Indian music in the Purcell Room — that's in the same
building as the Queen Elizabeth Hall.
Culver: Well! Well! Is that all you have to offer me?
Girl: Oh no, sir! There's a Promenade Concert with the BBC Symphony Orchestra at the
Albert Hall.
Culver: Promenade Concert? What's that?
Girl: Well, sir, it's a kind of concert where you have to stand — if you want a really cheap
ticket, that is. Promenade tickets are very cheap, but if you want one, you'll have to start
queuing this afternoon. Promenading is really for young people, sir.
Culver: Then it's not for me.
Girl: There are seats upstairs, sir, but they're more expensive and I'm afraid they're all taken
for this evening. Perhaps you'd like to go to the Wigmore Hall? There's a recital there by a
new English tenor.
Culver: No, I don't think so.
Girl: Well, there's opera, of course. There's Verdi's Falstaff at the Royal Opera House at
Covent Garden — with an international cast — or there's Benjamin Britten's A Midsummer
Night's Dream at the London Coliseum. It's very good, I've heard. Are you staying in Britain
long, sir?
Culver: About six months.
Girl: Well, sir, if you're really fond of music, perhaps you'd like to do a little trip round
Britain visiting all the festivals. Here's a list with all the dates.

9. Music Lovers' Discussion: Favourite Composers.

The discussion is not supposed to be focused just on definite musicians and their
works. The main theme of the discussion should be: What kind of classical music do I
prefer?
The following statements may be suggested:
a) I like music conveying indomitable strength, courage and willpower
(Beethoven, Wagner).
b) I prefer the romantic trend, a world of rich imagination and subtle emotions.
It is wonderful to dream and meditate to this music. Playing such music or
listening to it, one makes it part of one's own experience and shares the
artist's dreams, sorrows and happiness (Schumann, Schubert, and Berlioz).
c) The vigorous love of life and the sparkling gaiety of most pieces of Mozart
have the strongest appeal for me. His music is a wonderful cure for
pessimism or low spirits.
d) The marvellous world of Italian opera, with its rich melodious basis and
lovely singing, is what I like best of all in music. Opera combines drama,
beautiful singing, fine orchestra and striking visual effects: lovely scenery,
gorgeous costumes, and crowd scenes. Poignant dramatic situations find
expression in music and are enhanced by it (Verdi, Rossini, Bellini).
e) Speaking of opera, I think that our Russian classical opera is superior to
Italian. We have the wonderful historical musical dramas composed by
Mussorgsky, the fascinating musical fairy tales of Rimsky-Korsakov, the
deeply psychological operas of Tchaikovsky. All these works have a more
serious dramatic basis than Italian operas.
f) My favourite composer is Tchaikovsky. I love all his music, but especially
the sad tragic world of his symphonies and the solemn strains of the 1st
piano concerto.
g) Speaking of piano concertos, Sergei Rachmaninov is my favourite
composer. Etc.

UNIT 2. THE ROLE OF MUSIC

 THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON THE INDIVIDUAL

(From MUSIC FOR ALL OF US by L.Stokowsky)

Music can be an inspiring force only if it is itself inspired. A dull, routine mechanical
performance harms music; it gives the impression that music is a monotonous succession of
sounds, mechanical, commonplace, unimaginative.
Music influences us all variously because we all have different physical, mental, and
emotional tendencies. If a thousand persons hear the same music each will probably have
different impressions. Both their physical and psychological reactions will be different
because of the greatly varying characteristics they have inherited. Not only the kind, but the
intensity of the impression will differ in each person. Each person will absorb from the music
the kind of feeling natural to him. This emotional experience is a stirring of our inner nature
stimulated by music. As we absorb the feeling of the music our inner nature grows. This
growth of the personality through music is an enrichment of the psyche.
We have all had the experience of feeling differently about the same music on
different occasions. Our physical and psychological states are changing all the time, and our
impressions of music change with them. This variety of impression permits us to see different
phases of the same music, and stimulates different sides of our personality at different times.
Music can open up new phases of our inner life because the range of expression of
music is limitless. There may be tendencies and talents lying dormant within us which music
will stimulate into ever-increasing activity and vitality. Not only is the range of music
limitless, but we can be affected in many different ways by the same composer. For example,
Beethoven’s “Eroica Symphony” inspires heroic action; his “Moonlight Sonata” has a
sublime stillness of spirit which brings into play our deepest emotions and longing for the
Ideal; the first part of his “Appassionata Sonata” induces in many of us an overwhelming
agitation and turbulence of spirit.
Some kinds of music vitalize us - others depress and fill our hearts with melancholy.
Probably music can quicken our heartbeat and energize every physical function in us.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Match the words from the text with their definitions and synonyms

1. inspire a). take in, consume, assimilate

2. intense b). cause anxiety, stir
3. absorb c). intense wish, desire, yearning
4. lie dormant d). create, give rise to, bring about
5. sublime e). tumult, confusion, state of unrest
6. longing f). strong in quality or degree
7. induce g). causing awe and reverence
8. overwhelming h). temporarily inactive, at rest
9. agitate i). stimulate to activity, energize
10. turbulence j). astonishing, staggering, stunning

2. Say whether the statements are true or false. Correct the false ones

a). A dull, routine mechanical performance arranges music in a classical pattern.

 b). Music influences us all variously because we all have different physical, mental,
and emotional tendencies.
c). The growth of the personality through music is an enrichment of the psyche.
d). Our physical and psychological states are changing all the time, and our
impressions of music change with them.
e). Music can open up new phases of our inner life though the range of expression of
music is limited.
f). There may be tendencies and talents lying dormant within us which music will
never activate or vitalize.
g). The range of music is quite limited, but we can be affected in many different ways
by the same composer and we have all had the experience of feeling differently about the
same music on different occasions.
h). The first part of Beethoven’s “Appassionata Sonata” brings into play our deepest
emotions and longing for the Ideal.

3. Study the text, make its précis (in writing) and be ready to use it as an
introduction to some talk on music.

4. Comment on the main ideas suggested by the author of the text.

ALL SOUND CAN BE MUSIC

(From MUSIC FOR ALL OF US by L. Stokovsky)

All sounds can be music to some - to them every sound has some kind of design, no
matter how irregular. Some enjoy only formal music of the 18th century; others, romantic
music; still others respond only to the modern music of today. There are those who enjoy
none of this kind of music, but like the simple folk music of the countryside. There is no right
or wrong in this - it is simply a matter of varying sensitivity of different personalities to
various kinds of music.
There are some who respond to every kind and at the opposing pole there are those
who respond to only one or a few kinds of music. Between these two are many degrees and
variations. Apart from formal music there are those who find in the street sounds of great
metropolis an irregular but fascinating rhythm, which is to them a kind of music. The same is
true of a forest - where the rustling of leaves in the wind - the minute pattern of insect noises -
and perhaps the sound of a river or waterfall in the distance makes a complex design of
sounds which is music to some. The forest has still more beautiful sounds - the singing of
birds - which many find thrilling music. These songs are spontaneous blending of rhythm and
melody.
The sounds of the ocean have an immense range of rhythm and dynamics. On a calm
day, the lapping water against rocks and sand is a kind of lyrical music. Another day, great
waves will roll and crash on the shore - their rhythm is asymmetric but has something of the
same depth of sound and hypnotic fascination as great drums of Africa or Haiti.
Machinery sometimes makes cross-rhythms, accents and frequencies that form a
highly complex tapestry of sound. A fascinating kind of rhythmic sound is galloping,
cantering, or trotting of a horse... Trains have regular pulsations as the wheels pass over small
spaces between the rails.
One of the most beautiful sounds is the sound of a canoe gliding over the peaceful
surface of a lake - the dripping of the paddle - the lapping of the water against the side of the
canoe - the glockenspiel-like sound of globes of water dripping from the paddle. To me
almost all sound can have rhythmical and vibrational designs and patterns which are a kind of
music.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Paraphrase the following sentences using the words from the text.

a). Different people enjoy different kinds and types of music because it is simply a
matter of diverse perception of music and its sounds by different personalities.
b). The sounds of the rustling leaves in the forest or the sounds of a river or waterfall
make an intricate arrangement of vibrations, which is music to some.
c). The miniature patterns of insect noises, the delightful songs of birds are
involuntary blending of rhythm and melody.
d). The sounds of the ocean have something of the same depth of sound and
entrancing charm as great drums of Africa.
e). The sound of a canoe moving smoothly over the peaceful surface of a lake, the
liquid sounds of water falling in drops from the paddle make the most beautiful and soothing
music.

2. Say whether the statements are true or false. Correct the false ones.

a). There are people who find in the street sounds of great metropolis an irregular
rhythm, which is to them a kind of a disturbing noise.
b). The rustling of leaves in the wind, the minute pattern of insect noises, and perhaps
the sounds of a river or waterfall in the distance make a complex design of sounds which is
music to some.
c). On a calm day, the lapping water of the ocean against rocks and sand is a kind of
lyrical music.
d). The rhythm of the great waves rolling and crashing on the shore has something of
the same depth of sound and hypnotic fascination as great bells of European Catholic
cathedrals.
e). Nobody can hear music in the sounds produced by machinery, in the monotonous
sounds of galloping, cantering, or trotting of a horse, in the regular pulsations of the wheels of
a train.
f). The lapping of the water against the side of the canoe, the sounds of globes of water
dripping from the paddle remind us of a well-known musical instrument - the glockenspiel.
g). The author of the text believes that almost all sounds can have rhythmical and
vibrational designs and patterns which are a kind of music.

3. Comment on the main ideas suggested by the author of the text.

4. Study the text above and single out problems which can be treated differently. Get
ready and have a debate on the subject mentioned above. Let the discussion leader
summarize the results of this debate.

♫ 5. Listen to a piece of music. - What would you call the music you've heard?

- Oh, I enjoyed it very much, it's so...

agitated divine intimate penetrating splendid
alarming doleful invigorating pensive staggering
anxious dolorous inviting peremptory stirring
ardent elegant invocatory perturbing striking
austere enigmatic joyful perturbed stunning
authoritative exciting joyous placid stupendous
beaming exhilarated limpid plaintive sublime
beautiful exuberant liquid powerful subtle
bright fervent lively quiet superb
brilliant fickle lucid refined sweet
brisk flashing lyrical refreshing swift
calm forceful magic religious tender
capricious fretful magnificent reticent thoughtful
captivating glad majestic revealing thrilling
celestial gloomy melancholy rhythmical tranquil
cheerful graceful melodious riotous transparent
controlled gripping mighty sacred tremendous
courageous headlong mournful sad tuneful
dark heavenly mysterious serene uneasy
dazzling heroic nerve-racking shining vivacious
deep impassioned nice sombre vivid
dismal imperative original soulful wistful
disturbing imperious painful soul-stirring witty
disquieting impetuous passionate sparkling worried

2. What sort of feeling did you have while hearing the music? What are the feelings
aroused in you by the music you've heard?

to be to feel
amazed amazement
agitated agitation
alarmed excitement
anxious alarm
nervous anxiety
anguished uneasiness
shocked yearning for
sorrowful anguish
hopeless shock
desperate sorrow
exulted grief
weary serenity
depressed tranquility
elated hopelessness
euphoric despair
spell-bound tragedy
stunned harmony
overwhelmed greatness of spirit
moved to tears tension
 UNIT 3. THE ROLE OF INTERPRETATION
THE PROBLEM OF INTERPRETATION

(From THE HISTORY OF MUSIC IN PERFORMANCE by F.DORIAN)

 Music lives through interpretation. Between a musical work and the world stands the
interpreter who brings the score to life by his performance. The relationship between the
performing and the creative artist, however, has changed profoundly in the history of music
and continues to do so. This situation in music, as compared with the other arts, is unique.
Paintings in the gallery speak to the visitor without the help of a mediator; this is true
similarly of the works of sculpture and architecture. In reading poetry or prose, we act, as it
were, as our own interpreters. But in music, the score of the St.Matthew Passion, as such, has
meaning only for the intellect of the trained musician. The large mass of music lovers, in
order to hear masterworks, is dependent upon actual performance of them. Thus it becomes
obvious that in music, in contrast to the other arts, the interpreter is of paramount importance -
a factor sine qua non.
Our musical life has become more and more a cult of the interpreter. The present over-
emphasis on the interpreter’s role is sharply contrasted by the disregard of it in former
periods. The ecclesiastical spirit of the Middle Ages did not acknowledge interpretation in our
modern sense, as the individualized expression of the performer. The picture has gradually
changed in the last four hundred years, so that the interpreter, who was formerly very much in
the background, has now become the star of the performance. Small wonder, then, that the
musical world is disturbed by heated arguments over the rights and limits of interpretation.
What are the interpreter’s rights? Where are these limits?
Interpretation can be either objective or subjective. The subjective approach reflects
the interpreter’s individuality more than it does the world of the masterwork - not only in
details, but also in the delineation of the composition as a whole.
In opposition to such a subjective reading stands the objective treatment, where the
interpreter’s principal attitude is that of unconditional loyalty to the script. Setting aside his
personal opinion and detaching himself from his individual feelings, the objective interpreter
has but one goal in mind: to interpret the music in the way the author conceived it. For
instance, the objective interpreter of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony will perform the opening
measures according to metronomic and other objective determinations, as indicated by the
score and not by his personal feelings.
If we turn from the particular case of the Fifth Symphony to any classical score, in fact
to a score of any period, the inevitable question arises as to whether the score could be
interpreted literally or whether the performer should have carte blanche in general
interpretation, on the ground that, besides the script of the score, its background must also be
freely taken into consideration. If all this could be answered by a simple formula, the
continual argument about interpretation would not exist.
However, this problem of objectivity or subjectivity in musical interpretation is one of
great complexity. First of all, interpreters are all different human beings. Each one’s natural
impulse toward one and the same score is bound to differ. Each one’s personal background,
education, culture, and human and artistic experiences, are likewise different. In spite of this,
it would still be conceivable to insure what we call authenticity of interpretation, namely, the
objective realization of the author’s wishes, if the score as such were explicit enough to
protect the composer’s intentions against any misinterpretation on the performer’s part.
Even the modern score, however, frequently admired as one of the highest
achievements of the human spirit, is far from perfection. Of course, great composers have
superbly transformed their ideas into scores, making the best possible use of musical notation.
But it is this very notation that is imperfect and may remain so forever, notwithstanding
remarkable contributions to its improvement. There are certain intangibles that cannot be
expressed by our method of writing music - vital musical elements incapable of being fixed
by the marks and symbols of notation. Consequently, score scripts are incomplete in
representing the composers’ intentions. No score, as written in manuscript and published in
print, can offer complete information for its interpreter.
The performer’s first task (of setting the main tempo) becomes mere guesswork unless
he is thoroughly acquainted with certain fundamental facts concerning the style of the period
concerned. After all, time is relative in music, as elsewhere, and so the purport of the different
designations, from adagio to presto, has to be adjusted according to the peculiarities of the
composer and his work. And there are still numerous other questions confronting the
interpreter. In the scores written since the end of the 18th century, these are partly answered
by the marks of dynamics or phrasing.
Sketchy as the old score may seem to the modern performer, it fulfilled its function by
offering the necessary information in its own day, when the composer and the interpreter were
so often one and the same person. Palestrina conducted his own Masses, Handel his own
oratorios, Mozart his own operas, and Bach himself sat on the organ bench of the St. Thomas
Church in Leipzig, playing his fugues and chorales.
The composer knew what he wanted. He could not afford to write the score according
to his fancies and to design the pictures of his own script in lines that appear vague to us.
Should we infer from facts like these that the old master had greater trust in the capacity of his
fellow-interpreter to read and render his works? After all, the composer could not have
expected to be his own interpreter forever. One thing is certain: modern composers do not
have such faith in their interpreters. This becomes clear by comparing the manuscripts of the
scores of old and modern times. Today, the interpreter of contemporary works frequently has
little or no personal choice, as he is forced to follow the very strict directions of the composer.
Starting with the instructions of the Classicists, and increasing with those of the
Romanticists, we reach the height of direction in the modern score. In a work like Mahler’s
Second Symphony, written at the turn of the 20th century, the composer has given instructions
complete enough for a scenario. Players in the finale are told exactly when to enter and when
to leave the podium for the backstage music; they are also told in which position to hold their
instruments for better tone production. Again, in significant contemporary scores, particularly
in those of Schoenberg, letters help the performer to understand the polyphonic texture by
pointing out the relationship between principal part and accompanying part.
Stravinsky does not hesitate to compare a good conductor with a sergeant whose duty
it is to see that every order is obeyed by his player-soldiers. The question arises whether
through such a point of view the interpreter is not demoted to the role of nothing more or less
than a musical traffic policeman. He might find solace in this statement of Sibelius: “The right
tempo is the one the artist feels!” This dictum of Sibelius again opens the door to subjective
interpretation. What the artist feels becomes the decisive factor in the rendition. Obviously,
one cannot expect to set an inflexible, mathematical standard in art; if ideas of composers are
subjective and their directions relative (in spite of such mechanical aids as the metronome),
the interpreter’s knowledge is likewise subjective, and therefore his ways of performance are
subjective too. We conclude, then, that the ego of the interpreter and the score of the
composer provide the very combination through which creative inspiration may be translated
into musical reality.
Nothing is more difficult than the task of rethinking the old works, on the basis of the
original elastic score script, in terms of the great masters who wrote them. There are three
paths that will lead the interpreter out of this labyrinth. First, he must learn how to read the
script and to understand its language. Second, his fantasy must discover the musical essence,
the inner language behind the written symbols. Finally, the interpreter should be fully
acquainted with the background and the tradition of a work - with all the customs surrounding
the score at the time of its creation.
 This end can be accomplished only if the interpreter leans on the accumulated
knowledge of the trained historian as the true guardian of the authentic style. Of course, style
is not the only requisite for fidelity of performance, but it is certainly the framework. If music
lives through interpretation, then true interpretation can live only through the genuine style.

ASSIGNMENTS

Questions on the text

1. What is the role of interpretation in music as compared with the other arts? What is
musical interpretation in a modern sense?
2. Find in the text a passage describing the difference between the subjective and
objective approach in a musical performance. Why does the argument about interpretation
continue?
3. What evidence does the author provide to show that modern musical notation is
imperfect?
4. Find in the text passages describing the relationship between the composer and the
performer. What was the performing practice in Palestrina’s time? How has it changed since
then? Why is it so difficult to perform old works?
5. How have theories of interpretation changed throughout the history of music? Give
examples of how twentieth-century composers have tried to limit the freedom of the
performer?
6. What are the three recommendations which the author makes to the performer?

CONDUCTING

(From COLLINS ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF MUSIC)

Conducting involves not only precise indication of speed, dynamics and phrasing, but
also careful preparation to ensure that the balance is correct and that the intentions of the
composer are adequately represented. These requirements are not always observed, but a good
performance is impossible without them. Unlike the singer or instrumentalist, the conductor
has to persuade others to accept his view of the music and so help him to shape it into a
unified and convincing whole. The method by which this is achieved varies according to the
individual. Some conductors make detailed annotations in the orchestral parts or vocal scores,
indicating details of bowing to the string-players or of breathing to the singers. Others rely on
verbal instructions at rehearsals and on the impress of a strong personality.
The use of a baton, though at least as old as the 15th century, did not become the
almost universal method of directing a performance until the second half of the 19th century.
Other methods before that time included the hand, a roll of paper, or a violin bow. When a
stick was employed it was sometimes used to beat time audibly, e.g. at the Paris Opera in the
17th and 18th centuries. Elsewhere in the 18th century it was normal for opera to be directed
from the harpsichord, which was in any case necessary for playing the recitative, and for
symphonies to be directed by the principal first violin (still known in Britain as “leader” of the
orchestra). When the baton was introduced to London by Spohr in 1820 and to Leipzig by
Mendelssohn in 1835, it was regarded as a novelty. The increasing complication of orchestral
writing and the growth of the forces employed made a clear and visible direction
indispensable, and the use of the baton soon became general. Even today, however, there are a
few conductors who prefer to dispense with it and use their hands.
 The original purpose of conducting was simply to keep the performers together, and
hence it was very necessary when large forces were employed for church or court festivals.
By the latter part of the 18th century, however, the growing subtlety of orchestral expression
called for something more than the mere indication of time. By the middle of the 19th century
the conductor had become an interpreter. Berlioz, Wagner, von Bulow and Richter showed
that a conductor needed to be a consummate musician, with an intimate understanding of
every detail of the score and the power to communicate his understanding to others. In the
20th century it resulted in the rise of the “star” conductor. He is worshipped as intensely as
the operatic singer in the 18th and 19th centuries.
The only satisfactory training for conducting is continual practice, which naturally
depends to some extent on opportunity. Among the other indispensable requirements are
practical familiarity with orchestral instruments and knowledge of their capabilities and
limitations, ability to read a full score and to hear it mentally, and an intimate knowledge of
the style of widely different composers and periods.

THE ART OF CONDUCTING

(From THE JOY OF MUSIC by Leonard Bernstein)

One of the first to recognize the artistic mission of the conductor was Felix
Mendelssohn, who dedicated himself to an exact realization of the score he was conducting,
through manipulation of the baton. There soon arrived, however, a great dissenter named
Richard Wagner who declared that everything Mendelssohn was doing was wrong and that a
conductor should personalize the score he was conducting by coloring it with his own
emotions and his own creative impulse. And so out of the clash of these two points of view
the history of conducting was born; and there arose all those great names in conducting, as
well as all the fights that go on about them right up to our own time. Mendelssohn fathered
the “elegant” school, whereas Wagner inspired the “passionate” school of conducting.
Actually, both attitudes are necessary, and neither one is completely satisfactory without the
other.
The ideal modern conductor is a synthesis of the two attitudes, and this synthesis is
rarely achieved. In fact, it’s practically impossible. Almost any musician can be a conductor,
even a pretty good one; but only a rare musician can be a great one. This is not only because it
is so hard to achieve the Mendelssohn-Wagner combination, but also because the conductor’s
work encompasses such a tremendous range. Unlike an instrumentalist or a singer, he has to
play on an orchestra. His instrument is one hundred human instruments, each one a thorough
musician, each with a will of his own; and he must cause them to play like one instrument
with a single will. Therefore, he must have enormous authority, to say nothing of
psychological insight in dealing with this large group - and all this is just the beginning. He
must be a master of the mechanics of conducting. He must have an inconceivable amount of
knowledge. He must have a profound perception of the inner meanings of music, and he must
have uncanny powers of communication. ...
The qualities that distinguish great conductors lie far beyond and above what we have
spoken of. We now begin to deal with the intangibles, the deep magical aspect of conducting.
It is the mystery of relationships - conductor and orchestra bound together by the tiny but
powerful split second. How can I describe to you the magic of the moment of beginning a
piece of music? There is only one possible fraction of a second that feels exactly right for
starting. ...
This psychological timing is constantly in play throughout the performance of music.
It means that a great conductor is one who has great sensitivity to the flow of time; who
makes one note move to the next in exactly the right way and at the right instant. For music
exists in the medium of time. It is time itself that must be carved up, molded and remolded
until it becomes, like a statue, an existing shape and form. This is the hardest to do. ...
These are the intangibles of conducting, the mysteries that no conductor can learn or
acquire. If he has a natural faculty for deep perception, it will increase and deepen as he
matures. If he hasn’t he will always remain a pretty good conductor. But even the pretty good
conductor must have one more attribute in his personality, without which all the mechanics
and knowledge and perception are useless; and that is the power to communicate all this to his
orchestra - through his arms, face, eyes, fingers, and whatever vibrations may flow from him.
But the conductor must not only make his orchestra play; he must make them want to
play. He must exalt them; lift them, either through cajoling or demanding or raging. He must
make the orchestra love the music as he loves it. It is not so much imposing his will on them
like a dictator; it is more like projecting his feelings around him so that they reach the last
man in the second violin section. And when this happens - when one hundred men share his
feelings, exactly, simultaneously, responding as one to each rise and fall of the music, to each
point of arrival and departure, to each little inner pulse - then there is a human identity of
feeling that has no equal elsewhere. It is the closest thing I know to love itself. On this current
of love the conductor can communicate at the deepest levels with his players, and ultimately
with his audience.
And perhaps the chief requirement of all is that the conductor be humble before the
composer; that he never interpose himself between the music and the audience; that all his
efforts, however strenuous or glamorous, be made in the service of the composer’s meaning -
the music itself, which, after all, is the whole reason for the conductor’s existence.

ASSIGNMENTS

Questions on the texts

1. Describe the main functions of the conductor of a great orchestra nowadays. Why is
a conductor necessary?
2. What was the original purpose of conducting? How has the practice of conducting
changed since the 17-18th centuries? How has the role of the conductor changed through the
centuries? Give examples.
3. Why cannot a modern orchestra of highly-trained professional musicians perform
without a conductor? Why do they need a person beating time for them? Cannot the
concertmaster, the principal violin, indicate the movement of the work with his bow?
4. Who was the first to recognize the artistic mission of the conductor? Name the
schools of conducting mentioned by Bernstein.
5. What distinguishes great conductors from mere time-beaters? What makes a
conductor great?
6. Speak about the relationship between the conductor and the orchestra. By what
means can a conductor persuade the members of the orchestra to accept his interpretation?
7. What qualities does Bernstein especially value in a conductor? Do you share his
view on the ideal modern conductor?
8. Music for the public has always been dependent upon the performer (conductor or
singer or instrumentalist). His role in the present organization of concert-giving is so
emphasized that he often overshadows the composer himself. What do you think of this? Do
you agree? If not, give your reasons.

♫ LISTENING
 Jane Glover is a famous English conductor. After taking her degree in music at
Oxford University, she spent four years travelling between Oxford and Venice while working
on her doctorate in Venetian Opera, and she began her conducting career by performing her
own editions of long-forgotten Italian operas that had not been heard for
now not only well known for her work at the Glyndebourne Opera and as principal conductor
of the London Mozart Players, but also for her frequent appearances as a presenter of so many
musical programs on British television. She has, in her time, conducted concertos and operas
with world-renowned soloists.

1. Listen to the interview with Jane Glover, one of the most successful woman
conductors in Europe, and answer the questions:

1. How does Jane Glover regard her role as a conductor?

2. Does she expect a soloist to follow her lead?
3. How does she prepare for the performance?
4. What does she do if her interpretation of music does not coincide with the one
suggested by the solo musician?
5. What's the difference between conducting an opera and a concerto?
6. What does she consider to be a team performance?
7. How does she evaluate her cooperation with solo singers?
8. Choose the words from the box Jane Glover uses to characterize soloists:

committed painstaking dedicated sacrificial emotional temperamental

captivating vulnerable generous adorable selfish wonderful moody

USE OF ENGLISH

1. Use the words in capitals to form a word that fits in the space (1-7).

MUSIN: THE CONDUCTORS' MAESTRO

Musin did not come from a musical family but in 1919, at the age of 16, 1. PIANO
he entered the St. Petersburg Conservatory. He went in as a (1)... but
injured his hands practicing in the cruel cold of the (2)... Conservatory. 2. HEAT
As a result, he became the first student in the Conservatory's first
conducting class, led by the (3)... Nikolay Malko. A year later, Yevgeny 3. LEGEND
Mravinsky, with whom Musin was to develop an intense (4)..., also
completed the course. At the time, they were seen as (5)... equals and both 4. RIVAL
became assistant conductors of the Leningrad Philarmonic. In 1937, Musin
accepted an invitation to become music director of the Minsk 5. ART
Philharmonic. Just one year later, a (6)... for the position of principal
conductor of the Leningrad Philharmonic came up. Mravinsky got the job. 6. VACANT
Was it bad luck, bad (7)... or something else?
7. TIME
 UNIT 4. THE ORCHESTRA
FROM THE THEORY OF MUSIC

Acoustics is the science of sound. We hear a note being played or sung because sound
waves reach our ears. The sound waves are caused by the vibrations of a stretched string when
it is plucked or a column of air when it is blown into, or of the surface of a drum when it is
hit. The number of vibrations per second is called the frequency. The higher the frequency,
the higher the note will be. The lowest note on the piano is about 30, the highest is about
4000.
In acoustics, a note has three characteristics: pitch, loudness, and quality.
 Loudness depends on the amount of energy used to produce the vibration: the greater
the amount of energy, the louder the sound will be. The quality of a note is what makes us
able to recognize the characteristic sound of the different instruments, even when we cannot
see the players. Frequency and pitch are different aspects of what is basically much the same
thing. Frequency is Nature-given, - pitch, man-conceived. Pitch is the difference in our
sensations caused by high or low tones - frequency is the rapidity of vibrations which cause
this difference of our sensations. The frequencies audible to the human ear are only a part of
the frequencies existing in Nature. All the frequencies of which we are conscious - which are
from about 30 vibrations to about 15,000 vibrations per second - make up our tonal spectrum.
A “beat” is the name given to the pulse that we feel when we are singing or playing or
listening to music. When a conductor is “beating time” he is indicating the pulse of the music.
Beats can be quick or slow according to the speed, or tempo, of the music. Tunes can have a
variety of quick and slow notes while keeping to the same regular pulse. These various
lengths of notes are called note-values.
The first of the seven alphabetical letter-names, from A up to G, are used to describe
seven definite levels of sound in music. Each level of sound is a note, or a tone.
Sol-fa is the system in which the notes of the musical scale or gamut are represented
by seven short words used especially in singing.

C is do (doh)
D is re
E is me (mi)
F is fa
G is so (sol)
A is la (lah)
B is ti (si)
In written music, which is called notation, the clef is the clue to the pitch of a note. In
order to be able to indicate the other notes above or below these clefs, musicians use five
parallel horizontal lines called the stave or staff. The pitch of the notes placed on this staff is
fixed by a clef, which indicates the position of a particular note associated with the clef in
question. The three most commonly used clefs are:
The C clef
The G clef (or treble clef)
The F clef (or bass clef)
A musical note that has been raised one semitone above the note written is called
sharp. A musical note that is one semitone lower than a particular note is called flat.
(Compare: If you sing or play music flat or sharp, you sing or play slightly lower or higher
than the correct note so that the sound is unpleasant). The “black” note a semitone above C is
C sharp. The “black” note a semitone below B is B flat. A natural sign indicates that the note
is to be played in its “natural”, that is, white key, form. This sign is used most often to cancel
a sharp or a flat. The collective name for sharps, flats and natural signs is “accidental(s)”. An
accidental retains its force throughout the rest of the measure in which it occurs.
Tone is air vibration. The quicker the vibrations are the higher is the tone. Vibrations
of tone travel in waves.
Rhythm is mainly duration. The basic feature of rhythm is the interval of time
between the pulsations and this interval of time is one aspect of duration.
Basically speaking, melody is a combination of frequency and duration. All music is
extended in time. Duration in music includes rhythm - the interval of time between pulsations
or beats - and the speed or tempo of the flow of music - how long it takes for each tone to
develop its complete fullness of sound and how long it takes tones to die away completely in
reverberation. A melody moves up and down in pitch - the tones which compose a melody are
varied in their length.
Harmony is the sounding together of several tones at the same time. Roughly
speaking, there may be anything from two to sixteen tones in any particular harmony. So we
may conclude that harmony is a combination of frequency relations.
Timbre is another name for tone colour. If we hear a flute playing in the next room
and later a trumpet and still later a snare drum, we know which instrument is playing by the
character or timbre of its tone. It is not necessary for us to see the instrument. Tone can sound
thin, piercing, and shrill in the upper register and rich, round, and full in the lower register.
These differences of timbre are unlimited in number. Timbre is a combination of frequency
and intensity. By intensity is meant the amplitude of the sound waves - the volume or degree
or loudness of the tone.
If we wish to discover what underlies tone, rhythm, melody, harmony, and timbre, we
shall find that the three basic elements of music are -
Frequency
Intensity
Duration

From a physical standpoint, these three elements, which seem so dry and abstract,
make up the infinite scope of every kind of music - the most passionate, the most tranquil, the
most melancholy, the most lively and joyful. They underlie and cause the four aspects of
which we are conscious when listening to music - rhythm, melody, harmony and timbre.

INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA

From the group of approximately twenty that Bach had at his disposal or of the thirty
odd that Mozart knew the modern orchestra has grown into an ensemble that may call for
more than a hundred players. These musicians, many of artist stature, give their full time to
rehearsal and performance, achieving a precision of ensemble playing unknown in former
times.
The orchestra is constituted and arranged with a view to securing the best balance of
tone, effective blending and contrast. The softer ones are placed in front, the louder sit further
back.
The ensemble is directed by the conductor, who beats time and indicates the entrances
of the various instruments, the shadings in the volume of tune, the principal and subordinate
lines, and a host of related details that serve to make clear the structure of the work. It is the
conductor’s task to bring the ensemble to life, to impose upon it a unifying conception, and to
mould the group into a perfectly coordinated body.
The conductor has before him the score of the work. This consists of from a few to as
many as twenty-five or more lines, each representing an instrumental part. All the staves
together comprise a single composite line. What is going on at any moment in the orchestra is
indicated at any given point straight down the page.
The performers are divided into four sections. Approximately two-thirds are strings
players, one-third are wind players. From three to five men take care of the percussion. The
following distribution is typical of our larger orchestras:

Strings, about 65 (18 first violins, 16 second violins, 12 violas, 10 violoncellos, 10

double basses);
woodwinds, about 15 (3 flutes, 1 piccolo, 3 oboes, 1 English horn, 3 clarinets, 3
bassoons, 1 double bassoon);
 brass, about 11 ( 4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, 1 tuba);
percussion, about 5 (2 kettle drums, 3 players for bass and side drum, glockenspiel,
celesta, xylophone, triangle, cymbals, tambourine, chimes, etc.).

THE STRING SECTION

The string section of the orchestra includes four instruments - violin, viola,
violoncello, and double bass. These correspond roughly to soprano, alto, tenor, and bass.
The violin was brought to its present form by the brilliant school of instrument makers
that flourished in Italy from around 1600 to 1750. Most famous among them were the Amati
and Guarneri families; in those dynasties the secrets of the craft were transmitted from father
to son. But the master builder of them all was Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737).
The violin is universally admired for its singing tone, which brings it of all
instruments closest to the human voice. Pre-eminent in lyric melody, it is capable too of
brilliance and dramatic effect. It has a wide range, achieves subtle shadings from soft to loud,
commands the outmost rhythmic precision, and is endowed with great agility in rapid
passages.
The viola is somewhat larger than the violin. Its strings are longer, thicker, heavier; it
is lower in range. The tone is husky in the low register, somber and eloquent in the high. The
viola is an effective melody instrument, particularly for themes of a mournful or passionate
nature. It serves as a foil for the more brilliant violin by playing a secondary melody; fills in
the harmony, or doubles (reinforces by duplication) the other parts.
The violoncello is notable for its lyric quality which takes on a dark resonance in the
low register. Composers value highly its expressive tone. In the orchestra the cellos carry
melody, enrich the sonority with their full-throated songfulness, accentuate rhythm, and
together with the double basses supply the harmonic foundation for the string choir.
The double bass, known also as contrabass or bass viola is the lowest in range of the
string group. It is about six feet high and its player either stands up or sits on a stool. Its deep
indistinct tones come into focus when they are duplicated an octave higher, usually by the
cello. When this is done, double-bass tone assumes great carrying power and furnishes basic
support for the entire orchestra.
In these instruments the strings are set vibrating by the action of the bow. The player
stops the string by pressing down a finger of his left hand at a particular point, thereby
changing the length of that portion of the string which is free to vibrate, and with it the rate of
vibration and the pitch.
The string instruments are pre-eminent in playing legato (smooth and connected),
though they are capable too of the opposite quality of tone, staccato (short and detached). A
special effect, pizzicato (“plucked”) is executed by the performer’s plucking the string with
his finger instead of playing with the bow, thereby producing a guitar-like tone. Vibrato refers
to the throbbing tone which the violinist achieves by moving his finger slightly away from
and back to the resonance. In glissando the player moves his hand rapidly along the string,
sounding all the pitches of the scale. Tremolo, the rapid repetition of tone through a quick up-
and-down movement of the bow, is associated in the popular mind with suspense and
excitement. The less important is the trill, a rapid alteration between a tone and its neighbour,
giving a birdlike effect. Double-stopping involves playing on two strings simultaneously. It is
possible too to sound three or four notes together. Thereby the violin, essentially a melody
instrument, becomes capable of harmony. The mute is a three-pronged clamp which is slipped
onto the bridge of the instrument to muffle the tone.
The string section is the backbone of the orchestral ensemble. Its versatility and
general usefulness have earned it the title of “the heart of the orchestra”. The violin, viola and
cello also figure prominently as solo instruments, and in chamber music, in duets, trios,
quartets, quintets, and the like.

THE WOODWIND SECTION

The woodwind section of the orchestra consists of four principal instruments - flute,
oboe, clarinet, and bassoon. Each of these is supplemented by at least one instrument of the
same family; the flute by the piccolo, the oboe by the English horn, the clarinet by the bass
clarinet and the bassoon by the contra bassoon. Saxophones too are included in this group,
although made of metal. Besides being prominent in the orchestra, the woodwinds possess a
solo literature and are widely used in chamber music.
The tone is produced by a vibrating column of air within a pipe, in whose sides holes
are cut. When one or another of these holes is opened or closed, the length of the vibrating air
column within the pipe is changed. The woodwind instruments are capable of remarkable
agility by means of an intricate mechanism of keys arranged so as to suit the natural position
of the fingers.
The woodwinds add a variety of striking timbres to the orchestral palette, and are
invaluable in creating atmosphere and in presenting novel ideas. However, the woodwinds
cannot be used as extensively as the more neutral strings; for the more distinctive the colour
of an instrument, the sooner the ear tires of it.
The flute is the coloratura soprano of the woodwind choir. It possesses an
unmistakable timbre ranging from the poetic to the brilliant. Its tone is cool and velvety in the
expressive low register, and smooth in the middle. In the upper part of the range the timbre is
bright, bird-like, and stands out against the orchestral mass. The present-day flute, made of a
silver alloy rather than wood, is a cylindrical tube stopped at the upper end and held
horizontally, the player blowing across a mouth hole out in the side of the pipe. The flute is
much prized as a melody instrument and is most agile in playing repeated notes, scales, and
trills.
The piccolo (from the Italian flauto piccolo, “little flute”) has a piercing tone. In its
upper register it takes on a shrillness that is easily heard even when the orchestra is playing
full blast. For this reason the instrument contributes to many an orchestral climax. On the
other hand, composers are coming more and more to make use of the limpid singing quality
of its lower register.
The oboe is made of wood. The double reed in the mouthpiece consists of two slips of
cane so shaped as to leave between them an extremely small passage for air. Because of this
compression, the tone is focused and intense in all registers. Oboe timbre is generally
described as plaintive, nasal, and reedy. The instrument is associated with pastoral effects and
with nostalgic melodies. The pitch of the oboe, once correctly established, is not readily
subject to change, for which reason it is chosen to sound the A for the other instruments when
the orchestra tunes up.
The English horn is in the nature of an alto oboe. Its wooden tube is wider and longer
than that of the parent instrument and ends in a pear-shaped bell. The instrument would be
well named were it not for the fact that it is neither English nor a horn. Its expressive, gently
poignant tone made it a favourite with nineteenth-century romantics.
The clarinet has a single reed, a small elastic piece of cane fastened against its
mouthpiece. The instrument possesses a beautiful liquid tone, clear and powerful in the high
register, relaxed in the middle, cool and almost spectral in the low. It has a remarkably wide
range from low to high and from soft to loud. The clarinet is a favourite instrument when it
comes to playing melody. Almost as agile as the flute, it has an easy command of rapid scales,
trills, and repeated notes.
 The bass clarinet’s range is one octave lower. Its rich singing tone, its flexibility and
wide dynamic range make it an invaluable member of the orchestral community.
The bassoon belongs to the double-reed family. Its tone is weighty and thick in the
low register, dry and sonorous in the middle, reedy and intense in the upper. It is one of the
most flexible and useful of the bass instruments. Capable of a hollow-sounding staccato and
wide leap that creates a humorous effect, it had been named “the clown of the orchestra”. The
designation is unfortunate, as it obscures the bassoon’s highly expressive character.
The double bassoon, known also as contrabassoon, produces the lowest tone in the
orchestra. Its tube, over sixteen feet in length, is folded four around to make it less unwieldy.
Its function in the woodwind section may be compared to that of the double bass among the
strings, in that it supplies a foundation for the harmony. In recent times the double bassoon
has been much used for special effects and colours.
The saxophone is of fairly recent origin, having been invented by Adolphe Sax of
Brussels in 1840. It was created by combining the features of several other instruments - the
single reed of the clarinet, the conical tube of the oboe, and the metal body of the brass
instruments. The saxophone blends well with either woodwinds or brass. In the 1920’s it
became the characteristic instrument of the jazz band. French composers have been partial to
it from the first; but, although it figures prominently in a number of important modern scores,
it has not yet established itself as a permanent member of the orchestra.
The woodwinds are a less homogeneous group than the string section. They are not
necessarily made of wood; and they represent several methods of setting up vibration: by
blowing across a mouth hole (flute family); by means of a single reed (clarinet and saxophone
families); by means of a double reed (oboe and bassoon families). They do, however, have
features in common; first, the holes in the side of the pipe; and second, their timbres, which
are such that composers think of them and write for them as a group.

THE BRASS SECTION

The brass section is the “heavy artillery” of the orchestra. Its four members - trumpet,
horn, trombone, and tuba - are indispensable for melody, for sustaining harmony, for
rhythmic accent, for the weight of their massed tone, and for the flame like sonority they
contribute to climaxes. These instruments have a cap-shaped mouthpiece. The column of air
within the tube is set vibrating by the tightly stretched lips of the player, which act a s a kind
of double reed. To go from one pitch to another requires not only mechanical means such as a
slide or valves, but also variation in the pressure of the lips and breath, which demands great
muscular control. Fatigue of lip muscles will cause even an expert player to go off pitch.
Although the brass instruments are not as agile as either the woodwinds or strings,
succeeding generations of players have learned to handle them with ever greater virtuosity.
Besides playing an important role on the orchestra, the members of the brass choir have come
to figure prominently in twentieth-century chamber music and in the jazz band.
The trumpet, soprano of the brass choir, possesses a firm, brilliant timbre that lends
radiance to the orchestral mass. It is associated with martial pomp and vigour. Played softly,
the instrument commands a lovely round tone. The muted trumpet is much used; the mute, a
pear-shaped device of metal or cardboard, is inserted in the bell. When the muted tone is
forced, it results in a harsh snarling sound that is not soon forgotten. Jazz trumpet players
have experimented with various kinds of mutes, and these are gradually finding their way into
the orchestra.
The horn, known also as French horn, is a romantic instrument. Descending from the
hunting horn, the instrument was a favourite with nineteenth-century composers, who
identified its sound with nature. Its golden resonance lends itself to a variety of uses: it can be
mysteriously remote in soft passages, and nobly sonorous in loud. The timbre of the horn
blends equally well with woodwinds, brass, and strings, for which reason it serves as the
connecting link among them. Although capable of considerable agility, the horn is at its best
in sustained utterance. The muted horn has a poetic faraway sounding; if the muted tone is
forced, however, the result is an ominous rasping quality.
The trombone - the word in Italian means “large trumpet”- has a grand sonorousness
that combines the brilliance of the trumpet with the majesty of the horn. In place of valves it
has a movable U-shaped slide that alters the length of the vibrating air column in the tube.
Composers consistently avail themselves of its orotund tone to gain effects of nobility.
The tuba is the bass of the brass choir. Like the string bass and contrabassoon, it
furnishes the foundation for the harmonic fabric. It is surprisingly agile for so unwieldy an
instrument. To play it requires good teeth and plenty of wind. The tuba adds body to the
orchestral tone, and a dark resonance ranging from velvety softness to a growl.
Mention should be made, too, of the brass instruments used in military and outdoor
bands. Most important of these is the cornet, which was developed early in the nineteenth
century from the post-horn. The cornet has a shorter body than the trumpet and possesses
greater agility; its tone is rounder but less brilliant. Because of the comparative ease with
which it is played, it has become the mainstay of brass bands and small orchestras of the
music-hall type. The bugle, originally a hunter’s horn, has a powerful tone that carries in the
open air. As it is not equipped with valves, it is able to sound only certain tones of the scale.

THE PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

The percussion section comprises a variety of instruments that are made to sound by
striking or shaking. Certain ones consist of an elastic material such as metal or wood. In
others, such as the drums, vibration is set up by striking a stretched skin.
The percussion section of the orchestra is sometimes referred to as “the battery”. Its
members accentuate the rhythm, add body to the sound, generate excitement in climatic
moments, and inject splashes of colour into the orchestral timbre. Like seasoning in food, they
are most effective when used sparingly.
The percussion instruments fall into two categories, those of definite and those of
indefinite pitch. In the former class are the kettledrums, or timpani, which are used in sets of
two or three.
The kettledrum is a hemispheric copper shell across which is stretched a “head” of
calfskin held in place by a metal ring. Adjustable screws or a pedal mechanism enable the
player to change the tension of the calfskin head and with it the pitch. The instrument is
played with two padded sticks. Its dynamic range extends from a mysterious rumble to a
thunderous roll. The muffled drum frequently figures in passages that seek to evoke an
atmosphere of mystery or mourning.
The glockenspiel (German for “a set of bells”) consists of a series of horizontal steel
plates of various sizes that are struck with two hammers and produce a bright metallic sound.
The celesta, which in appearance resembles a miniature upright piano, is a kind of
glockenspiel that is operated by a keyboard: the steel plates are struck by small hammers and
produce an ethereal sound.
The xylophone consists of blocks of wood which produce a dry, crisp timbre when
struck. Expert xylophone players attain dazzling speed and accuracy.
The marimba, a xylophone of African and South American origin, is associated with
exotic dance music.
 Chimes consist of a set of metal tubes of various lengths suspended from a frame and
struck with a hammer. They have a broad dynamic range, from a metallic tinkle to a sonorous
clang, and are frequently called upon to simulate church bells.
Among the percussion instruments of indefinite pitch are the bass drum, the side
drum, also known as snare drum, the tambourine and castanets (or bones), the triangle,
cymbals, and the gong.

OTHER INSTRUMENTS

The harp is one of the oldest of musical instruments. It appears in its earliest form on
Babylonian inscriptions of over four thousand years ago. It was the traditional instrument of
the bards of ancient Britain and Ireland, and became the national emblem of the latter country.
Its strings are played by plucking and produce a crystalline tone that blends well with the
orchestral timbres.
Chords on the harp are frequently played in broken form; that is, the tones are sounded
one after another instead of simultaneously. From this circumstance comes the term arpeggio,
which means a broken chord (arpa is the Italian for “harp”).
Arpeggios occur in a variety of forms on many instruments. By breaking up the chord
instead of sounding it in block formation, composers are able to extend a harmony over a
period of time and to arrange it in diverse rhythmic figures.
The piano, a most popular instrument, is widely used in the home as well as on the
concert stage. Whereas the violinist or clarinetist needs someone to accompany him, the
pianist is able to play both melody and harmony. This self-sufficiency makes the piano an
extremely useful instrument. It is indispensable for accompanying and in small instrumental
ensembles, and is of great assistance to musicians in the study of operatic and orchestral
scores.
The full name of the instrument is pianoforte, the Italian for “soft-loud”, which
indicates its wide dynamic range and its capacity for nuance. Its strings are struck with little
hammers controlled by a keyboard mechanism. The piano is pre-eminent for brilliant scales,
arpeggios, and trills, rapid passages and octaves. It has a wide range from lowest to highest
tone and commands great rhythmic vitality. Nineteenth-century piano writing leaned toward
sensuous beauty and lyricism. Present-day composers have found a new use for the piano as a
rhythmic percussion instrument of a crisp sonority, both solo and as a member of the
orchestra.
The organ, once regarded as “the king of instruments”, is a wind instrument into
whose pipes the air is fed by mechanical means. The pipes are controlled by two or more
keyboards and a set of pedals. Gradations of tone are made possible by means of swell boxes.
The organ possesses a multicoloured sonority and majestic harmonies that fill a huge space.

Exciting stuff! But, before we go on with our focus on the instruments and characteristics
of the orchestra, let's have a light break and take a look at what the musicians themselves think
about each other. For some reason, violists - that is, people who play the viola - are traditionally the
object of disrespect by fellow members of the orchestra. They may be considered incompetent
players and impossible soloists, as these jokes suggest:
1. - How is lightning like a violist's fingers?
- I don't know. You tell me.
- Neither one strikes the same place twice.
2. - Why don't violists play 'Hide and Seek?'
-Why don't they? I've no idea.
- Because nobody would look for them.
3. - How do you get a dozen violists to play in tune?
 - How do you?
a) Shoot eleven of them.
b) Shoot all of them.
c) Who the hell wants a dozen violists anyway?
4. - What's the difference between a violin and a viola?
- Hm... a violin and a viola.. You tell me.
- Well, firstly the viola burns longer; secondly, the viola holds more beer
and thirdly, you can tune a violin.
5. - What's the difference between a viola and an onion?
- Go on... tell us the answer.
- Nobody cries when you cut up a viola.
Violinists, however, are also the object of orchestral humour:
6. - What's the difference between a violinist and a dog?
- I don't know. What is the difference between a violinist and a dog?
- The dog knows when to stop scratching.
Drummers also suffer at the hands of other musicians, as these two jokes illustrate.
7. Heard backstage: 'Would the musicians and the drummer please come to the stage?'
8. And another:
- What do you call someone who likes to hang out with musicians?
- I don't know. Tell us.
- A drummer.
Even the piano doesn't manage to escape:
9. - Why was the piano invented?
- So the musician would have a place to put his beer.
And the man waving his baton on the podium is another target:
10. A conductor and a violinist are standing in the middle of the road.
- Now, which one do you run over first?
- I don't know. You tell me.
- It's easy... the conductor. Business before pleasure!
ASSIGNMENTS

1. From the texts above make up a list of names of musical instruments. Supply
their Russian equivalents and transcription forms.

2. Complete the chart:

What is the Describe the

instrument made Describe the way What role does it peculiarities of its
of? Describe its the sounds are play in the sound (its tone,
shape and produced. orchestra? timbre, range).
appearance.

3. Give a talk on any section of the orchestra. Try to find some extra information.
Music illustrations would be welcome.
 4. The following extract from “Angel Pavement” by J.B. Priestley describes a
symphony concert through the impressions of a man for whom classical music is new and
unfamiliar. With humour and kind understanding, the author shows how an unprejudiced
person can gradually find his bearings in the seeming chaos of sound and even come to
enjoy the new experience.

Mr Smeeth Goes to a Symphony Concert

...As the elderly foreign woman on his right happened to be examining the
programme, he had a peep at it and had just time to discover that it was a symphony,
Brahms'* First Symphony in fact they were about to hear. It would probably be clean above
his head, but it could not possibly be so horrible to listen to as that modern stuff in the first
half of the programme.
It was some time before he made much out of it. The Brahms of this symphony
seemed a very gloomy, ponderous, rumbling sort of chap, who might now and then show a
flash of temper or go in a corner and feel sorry for himself, but for the most part simply went
on gloomily rumbling and grumbling. There were moments, however, when there came a
sudden gush of melody, something infinitely tender swelling out of the strings or a ripple of
laughter from the flutes and clarinets or a fine flare up by the whole orchestra, and for these
moments Mr Smeeth waited, puzzled and excited, like a man catching glimpses of some
delectable strange valley through the swirling mists of a mountain side. As the symphony
went on, he began to get the hang of it more and more, and these moments returned more
frequently, until at last, in the final section, the great moment arrived and justified everything,
the whole symphony concert.
It began, this last part, with some muffled and doleful sounds from the brass
instruments. He had heard some of those grim snatches of tune earlier on in the symphony,
and now when they were repeated in this fashion, they had a very queer effect on him, almost
frightened him. It was as if all the workhouses and hospitals and cemeteries of North London
had been flashed past his eyes. Those brass instruments didn't think Smeeth had much of a
chance. All the violins were sorry about it; they protested, they shook, they wept; but the
horns and trumpets and trombones came back and blew them away. Then the whole orchestra
became tumultuous, and one voice after another raised itself above the menacing din, cried in
anger, cried in sorrow, and was lost again. There were queer little intervals, during one of
which only the strings played, and they twanged and plucked instead of using their bows, and
the twanging and plucking, quite soft and slow at first, got louder and faster until it seemed as
if there was danger everywhere. Then, just when it seemed as if something was going to burst,
the twanging and plucking was over, and great mournful sounds came reeling out again, like
doomed giants. After that the whole thing seemed to be slithering into hopelessness, as if
Brahms had got stuck in a hog and the light was going. But then the great moment arrived.
Brahms jumped clean out of the hog, set his foot on the hard road, and swept the orchestra
and Mr Smeeth and the whole Queen's Hall along with him, in a noble stride. This was a great
tune! Ta tum ta ta tum, tum, ta tum ta-ta tum ta tum. He could have shouted at the splendour of
it. The strings in a rich deep unison sweeping on, and you were ten feet high and had a
thousand glorious years to live. But in a minute or two it had gone, this glory of sound, and
there was muddle and gloom, a sudden sweetness of violins, then harsh voices from the brass.
Mr Smeeth had given it up, when, back it came again, swelling his heart until it nearly choked
him, and then it was lost once more and everything began to be put in its place and settled
abruptly, fiercely, as if old Brahms had made up his mind to stand no nonsense from anybody
or anything under the sun. There, there, there, there. There. It was done. They were all
clapping and clapping and the conductor was mopping his forehead and bowing and then
signalling to the band to stand up, and old Brahms had slipped away, into the blue.
There was a cold drizzle of rain outside in Langham Place, and it was a long and
dreary way to Chaucer Road, but odd bits of the magic kept floating back into his mind, and
he felt excited and happy. Ta tum ta ta — now how did that go? All the way from the High
Street to Chaucer Road, as he hurried down the darkening streets and tried to make his
overcoat collar reach the back of his hat, he was also trying to capture that tune. He could feel
it still beating and glowing somewhere inside him.
(Abridged)

*Brahms J. (1833—1897) - a famous Hungarian composer, the author of symphonies

and concertos. His «Hungarian Dances» are especially popular with the public.

a) Explain what is meant by:

«It would probably be clean above his head».

«It was some time before he made much out of it».
«…he began to get the hang of it».
«Those brass instruments didn't think Smeeth had much of a chance».
«…odd bits of the magic kept floating back into his mind…»

b) Find in the text:

the extracts that reflect Mr Smeeth's somewhat naive perception;

the extracts given on behalf of the author.

c) Give your opinion on musical education in a family. At what age should it

begin? Should every child be taught to play some musical instrument? How should
children be taught to listen to music and to appreciate it?
UNIT 5. GREAT COMPOSERS
Giovanni Palestrina 1525-1594 Italian motets, masses
Claudio Monteverdi 1567-1643 Italian operas, vocal music
Henry Purcell 1659-1695 English vocal music, operas
Antonio Vivaldi 1678-1741 Italian concertos, chamber music
Georg Frideric Handel 1685-1759 German oratorios, operas, orchestral music
Johann Sebastian Bach 1685-1750 German keyboard, choral music, concertos
Joseph Haydn 1732-1809 Austrian symphonies, oratorios, chamber music
Wolfgang Amadeus 1756-1791 Austrian symphonies, operas, chamber music
Mozart
Ludwig van Beethoven 1770-1827 German symphonies, chamber music, opera
Carl Maria von Weber 1786-1826 German operas, concertos
Gioacchino Rossini 1792-1868 Italian operas
Franz Schubert 1797-1828 Austrian songs, symphonies, chamber music
Hector Berlioz 1803-1869 French operas, symphonies
Felix Mendelssohn 1809-1847 German symphonies, concertos
Frederik Chopin 1810-1849 Polish piano music
Robert Schumann 1810-1856 German piano, vocal music, concertos
Franz Liszt 1811-1886 Hungarian piano, orchestral music
Richard Wagner 1813-1883 German operas
 Giuseppe Verdi 1813-1901 Italian operas
Bedrich Smetana 1824-1884 Czech symphonies, operas
Johann Strauss II 1825-1899 Austrian waltzes, operettas
Johannes Brahms 1833-1897 German symphonies, concertos
Camille Saint-Saens 1835-1921 French symphonies, concertos operas
Modest Mussorgsky 1839-1881 Russian operas, orchestral music
Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky 1840-1893 Russian ballet music, operas, symphonies
Antonin Dvorak 1841-1904 Czech symphonies, operas
Edvard Grieg 1843-1907 Norwegian concertos, orchestra music
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov 1844-1908 Russian operas, orchestral music
Edward Elgar 1857-1934 English orchestral music
Giacomo Puccini 1858-1924 Italian operas
Gustav Mahler 1860-1911 Czech symphonies
Claude Debussy 1862-1918 French operas, orchestral music
Richard Strauss 1864-1949 German operas, orchestral music
Jean Sibelius 1865-1957 Finnish symphonies, orchestral music
Sergei Rachmaninov 1873-1943 Russian symphonies, concertos
Arnold Schoenberg 1874-1951 Austrian operas, orchestral and chamber music
Maurice Ravel 1875-1937 French piano, chamber music
Igor Stravinsky 1882-1971 Russian ballets, operas
Sergei Prokofiev 1891-1953 Russian symphonies, ballets
George Gershwin 1898-1937 American musicals, operas
Dmitri Shostakovich 1906-1975 Russian piano music
Benjamin Britten 1913-1976 English vocal music, opera

BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN (1685-1750)

Johann Sebastian Bach was a Leipzig composer of the Baroque era, the most
celebrated member of a large family of northern German musicians. Although he was admired
by his contemporaries primarily as an outstanding harpsichordist, organist, and expert on
organ building, Bach is now generally regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time
and is celebrated as the creator of the Brandenburg Concertos, The Well-Tempered Clavier,
the Mass in B Minor, and numerous other masterpieces of church and instrumental music.
Appearing at a propitious moment in the history of music, Bach was able to survey and bring
together the principal styles, forms, and national traditions that had developed during
preceding generations and, by virtue of his synthesis, enrich them all. He was a member of a
remarkable family of musicians who were proud of their achievements, and about 1735 he
drafted a genealogy, Ursprung der musicalisch-Bachischen Familie (“Origin of the Musical
Bach Family”), in which he traced his ancestry back to his great-great-grandfather Veit Bach,
a Lutheran baker (or miller) who was driven from Hungary to Wechmar in Thuringia, a
historic region of Germany, by religious persecution late in the 16th century and died in 1619.
There were Bachs in the area before then, and it may be that, when Veit moved to Wechmar,
he was returning to his birthplace. He used to take his cittern to the mill and play it while
grinding was going on. Johann Sebastian remarked, “A pretty noise they must have made
together! However, he learnt to keep time, and this apparently was the beginning of music in
our family”. Until the birth of Johann Sebastian, his was the least distinguished branch of the
family; its members had been competent practical musicians, but not composers, such as
Johann Christoph and Johann Ludwig. In later days the most important musicians in the
family were Johann Sebastian's sons, Wilhelm Friedemann, Carl Philipp Emanuel, and Johann
Christian (the “English Bach”).

Early years

J.S. Bach was born at Eisenach, Thuringia, on March 21, 1685, the youngest child of
Johann Ambrosius Bach and Elisabeth Lammerhirt. Ambrosius was a string player, employed
by the town council and the ducal court of Eisenach. Johann Sebastian started school in 1692
or 1693 and did well in spite of frequent absences. Of his musical education at this time,
nothing definite is known; however, he may have picked up the rudiments of string playing
from his father, and no doubt he attended the Georgen Church, where Johann Christoph Bach
was organist until 1703. By 1695 both his parents were dead, and he was looked after by his
eldest brother, also named Johann Christoph (1671-1721), organist at Ohrdruf. This Christoph
had been a pupil of the influential keyboard composer Johann Pachelbel, and he apparently
gave Johann Sebastian his first formal keyboard lessons. The young Bach again did well at
school, until in 1700 his voice secured him a place in a select choir of poor boys at the school
at the Michaels Church, Luneburg. His voice must have broken soon after this, but he
remained at Luneburg for a time, making himself generally useful. No doubt he studied in the
school library, which had a large and up-to-date collection of church music; he probably heard
Georg Bohm, organist of the Johannis Church; and he visited Hamburg to hear the renowned
organist and composer Johann Adam Reinken at the Katharinen Church, contriving also to
hear the French orchestra maintained by the Duke von Celle. He seems to have returned to
Thuringia in the late summer of 1702. By this time he was already a reasonably proficient
organist. His experience at Luneburg, if not at Ohrdruf, had turned him away from the secular
string-playing tradition of his immediate ancestors; thenceforth he was chiefly, though not
exclusively, a composer and performer of keyboard and sacred music. The next few months
are wrapped in mystery, but by March 4, 1703, he was a member of the orchestra employed
by Johann Ernst, Duke von Weimar (brother of Wilhelm Ernst, whose service Bach entered in
1708). This post was a mere stopgap; he probably already had his eye on the organ then being
built at the New Church in Arnstadt; for, when it was finished, he helped to test it, and in
August 1703 he was appointed organist - all this at the age of 18. Arnstadt documents imply
that he had been court organist at Weimar; this is incredible, though it is likely enough that he
had occasionally played there.

The Arnstadt period

At Arnstadt, on the northern edge of the Thuringian forest, where he remained until
1707, Bach devoted himself to keyboard music, the organ in particular. While at Luneburg, he
had apparently had no opportunity of becoming directly acquainted with the spectacular,
flamboyant playing and compositions of Dietrich Buxtehude, the most significant exponent of
the north German school of organ music. In October 1705 he repaired this gap in his
knowledge by obtaining a month's leave and walking to Lubeck (more than 200 miles). His
visit must have been profitable, for he did not return until about the middle of January 1706.
In February his employers complained about his absence and about other things as well: he
had harmonized the hymn tunes so freely that the congregation could not sing to his
accompaniment, and, above all, he had produced no cantatas. Perhaps the real reasons for his
neglect were that he was temporarily obsessed with the organ and was on bad terms with the
local singers and instrumentalists, who were not under his control and did not come up to his
standards. In the summer of 1705 he had made some offensive remark about a bassoon player,
which led to an unseemly scuffle in the street. His replies to these complaints were neither
satisfactory nor even accommodating; and the fact that he was not dismissed out of hand
suggests that his employers were as well aware of his exceptional ability as he was himself
and were reluctant to lose him. During these early years Bach inherited the musical culture of
the Thuringian area, a thorough familiarity with the traditional forms and hymns (chorales) of
the orthodox Lutheran service, and, in keyboard music, perhaps (through his brother, Johann
Christoph) a bias toward the formalistic styles of the south. But he also learned eagerly from
the northern rhapsodists, Buxtehude above all. By 1708 he had probably learned all that his
German predecessors could teach him and arrived at a first synthesis of northern and southern
German styles. He had also studied, on his own and during his presumed excursions to Celle,
some French organ and instrumental music. Among the few works that can be ascribed to
these early years with anything more than a show of plausibility are the Capriccio sopra la
lontananza del suo fratello dilettissimo (Capriccio on the Departure of His Most Beloved
Brother, 1704, BWV 992), the chorale prelude on Wie schon leuchtet (How Brightly Shines,
c. 1705, BWV 739), and the fragmentary early version of the organ Prelude and Fugue in G
Minor (before 1707, BWV 535a). (The "BWV" numbers provided are the standard catalog
numbers of Bach's works as established in the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis, prepared by the
German musicologist Wolfgang Schmieder.)

The Muhlhausen period

In June 1707 Bach obtained a post at the Blasius Church in Muhlhausen in Thuringia.
He moved there soon after and married his cousin Maria Barbara Bach at Dornheim on
October 17. At Muhlhausen things seem, for a time, to have gone more smoothly. He
produced several church cantatas at this time; all of these works are cast in a conservative
mold, based on biblical and chorale texts and displaying no influence of the “modern” Italian
operatic forms that were to appear in Bach's later cantatas. The famous organ Toccata and
Fugue in D Minor (BWV 565), written in the rhapsodic northern style, and the Prelude and
Fugue in D Major (BWV 532) may also have been composed during the Muhlhausen period,
as well as the organ Passacaglia in C Minor (BWV 582), an early example of Bach's instinct
for large-scale organization. Cantata No. 71, Gott ist mein Konig (God Is My King), of Feb.
4, 1708, was printed at the expense of the city council and was the first of Bach's
compositions to be published. While at Muhlhausen, Bach copied music to enlarge the choir
library, tried to encourage music in the surrounding villages, and was in sufficient favour to
be able to interest his employers in a scheme for rebuilding the organ (February 1708). His
real reason for resigning on June 25, 1708, is not known. He himself said that his plans for a
“well-regulated [concerted] church music” had been hindered by conditions in Muhlhausen
and that his salary was inadequate. It is generally supposed that he had become involved in a
theological controversy between his own pastor Frohne and Archdeacon Eilmar of the Marien
Church. Certainly, he was friendly with Eilmar, who provided him with librettos and became
godfather to Bach's first child; and it is likely enough that he was not in sympathy with
Frohne, who, as a Pietist, would have frowned on elaborate church music. It is just as
possible, however, that it was the dismal state of musical life in Muhlhausen that prompted
Bach to seek employment elsewhere. At all events, his resignation was accepted, and shortly
afterward he moved to Weimar, some miles west of Jena on the Ilm River. He continued
nevertheless to be on good terms with Muhlhausen personalities, for he supervised the
rebuilding of the organ, is supposed to have inaugurated it on Oct. 31, 1709, and composed a
cantata for Feb. 4, 1709, which was printed but has disappeared.

The Weimar period

 Bach was, from the outset, court organist at Weimar and a member of the orchestra.
Encouraged by Wilhelm Ernst, he concentrated on the organ during the first few years of his
tenure. From Weimar, Bach occasionally visited Weissenfels; in February 1713 he took part
in a court celebration there that included a performance of his first secular cantata, Was mir
behagt, or the Hunt Cantata (BWV 208). Late in 1713 Bach had the opportunity of succeeding
Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow at the Liebfrauen Church, Halle; but the duke raised his salary,
and he stayed on at Weimar. On March 2, 1714, he became concertmaster, with the duty of
composing a cantata every month. He became friendly with a relative, Johann Gottfried
Walther, a music lexicographer and composer who was organist of the town church, and, like
Walther, Bach took part in the musical activities at the Gelbes Schloss (Yellow Castle), then
occupied by Duke Wilhelm's two nephews, Ernst August and Johann Ernst, both of whom he
taught. The latter was a talented composer who wrote concertos in the Italian manner, some of
which Bach arranged for keyboard instruments; the boy died in 1715, in his 19th year.
Unfortunately, Bach's development cannot be traced in detail during the vital years 1708-14,
when his style underwent a profound change. There are too few datable works. From the
series of cantatas written in 1714-16, however, it is obvious that he had been decisively
influenced by the new styles and forms of the contemporary Italian opera and by the
innovations of such Italian concerto composers as Antonio Vivaldi. The results of this
encounter can be seen in such cantatas as No. 182, 199, and 61 in 1714; 31 and 161 in 1715;
and 70 and 147 in 1716. His favourite forms appropriated from the Italians were those based
on refrain (ritornello) or da capo schemes in which wholesale repetition - literal or with
modifications - of entire sections of a piece permitted him to create coherent musical forms
with much larger dimensions than had hitherto been possible. These newly acquired
techniques henceforth governed a host of Bach's arias and concerto movements, as well as
many of his larger fugues (especially the mature ones for organ), and profoundly affected his
treatment of chorales. Among other works almost certainly composed at Weimar are most of
the Orgelbuchlein (Little Organ Book), all but the last of the so-called 18 “Great” chorale
preludes, the earliest organ trios, and most of the organ preludes and fugues. The “Great”
Prelude and Fugue in G Major for organ (BWV 541) was finally revised about 1715, and the
Toccata and Fugue in F Major (BWV 540) may have been played at Weissenfels. On Dec. 1,
1716, Johann Samuel Drese, musical director at Weimar, died. He was then succeeded by his
son, who was rather a nonentity. Bach presumably resented being thus passed over; and in
due course he accepted an appointment as musical director to Prince Leopold of Kothen,
which was confirmed in August 1717. Duke Wilhelm, however, refused to accept his
resignation - partly, perhaps, because of Bach's friendship with the duke's nephews, with
whom the duke was on the worst of terms. About September a contest between Bach and the
famous French organist Louis Marchand was arranged at Dresden. The exact circumstances
are not known; but Marchand avoided the contest by leaving Dresden a few hours before it
should have taken place. By implication, Bach won. Perhaps this emboldened him to renew
his request for permission to leave Weimar; at all events he did so but in such terms that the
duke imprisoned him for a month (November 6-December 2). A few days after his release,
Bach moved to Kothen, some 30 miles north of Halle.

The Kothen period

There, as musical director, he was concerned chiefly with chamber and orchestral
music. Even though some of the works may have been composed earlier and revised later, it
was at Kothen that the sonatas for violin and clavier and for viola da gamba and clavier and
the works for unaccompanied violin and cello were put into something like their present form.
The Brandenburg Concertos were finished by March 24, 1721; in the sixth concerto - so it has
been suggested - Bach bore in mind the technical limitations of the prince, who played the
gamba. Bach played the viola by choice; he liked to be “in the middle of the harmony”. He
also wrote a few cantatas for the prince's birthday and other such occasions; most of these
seem to have survived only in later versions, adapted to more generally useful words. And he
found time to compile pedagogical keyboard works: the Clavierbuchlein for W.F. Bach
(begun Jan. 22, 1720), some of the French Suites, the Inventions (1720), and the first book
(1722) of Das Wohltemperierte Klavier (The Well-Tempered Clavier, eventually consisting of
two books, each of 24 preludes and fugues in all keys and known as the Forty-eight). This
remarkable collection systematically explores both the potentials of a newly established
tuning procedure - which, for the first time in the history of keyboard music, made all the
keys equally usable - and the possibilities for musical organization afforded by the system of
“functional tonality”, a kind of musical syntax consolidated in the music of the Italian
concerto composers of the preceding generation and a system that was to prevail for the next
200 years. At the same time, The Well-Tempered Clavier is a compendium of the most
popular forms and styles of the era: dance types, arias, motets, concertos, etc., presented
within the unified aspect of a single compositional technique: the rigorously logical and
venerable fugue. Maria Barbara Bach died unexpectedly and was buried on July 7, 1720.
About November, Bach visited Hamburg; his wife's death may have unsettled him and led
him to inquire after a vacant post at the Jacobi Church. Nothing came of this, but he played at
the Katharinen Church in the presence of Reinken. After hearing Bach improvise variations
on a chorale tune, the old man said, “I thought this art was dead; but I see it still lives in you”.
On Dec. 3, 1721, Bach married Anna Magdalena Wilcken, daughter of a trumpeter at
Weissenfels. Apart from his first wife's death, these first four years at Kothen were probably
the happiest of Bach's life. He was on the best terms with the prince, who was genuinely
musical; and in 1730 Bach said that he had expected to end his days there. But the prince
married on Dec. 11, 1721, and conditions deteriorated. The princess - described by Bach as
“an amusa” (that is to say, opposed to the muses) - required so much of her husband's
attention that Bach began to feel neglected. He also had to think of the education of his elder
sons, born in 1710 and 1714, and he probably began to think of moving to Leipzig as soon as
the cantorate fell vacant with the death of Johann Kuhnau on June 5, 1722. Bach applied in
December, but the post - already turned down by Bach's friend, Georg Philipp Telemann -
was offered to another prominent composer of the day, Christoph Graupner, the musical
director at Darmstadt. As the latter was not sure that he would be able to accept, Bach gave a
trial performance (Cantata No. 22, Jesu nahm zu sich die Zwolfe [Jesus Called unto Him the
Twelve]) on Feb. 7, 1723; and, when Graupner withdrew (April 9), Bach was so deeply
committed to Leipzig that, although the princess had died on April 4, he applied for
permission to leave Kothen. This he obtained on April 13, and on May 13 he was sworn in at
Leipzig. He was appointed honorary musical director at Kothen, and both he and Anna were
employed there from time to time until the prince died, on Nov. 19, 1728.

Years at Leipzig

As director of church music for the city of Leipzig, Bach had to supply performers for
four churches. At the Peters Church the choir merely led the hymns. At the New Church,
Nikolai Church, and Thomas Church part singing was required; but Bach himself conducted,
and his own church music was performed, only at the last two. His first official performance
was on May 30, 1723, the first Sunday after Trinity Sunday, with Cantata No. 75, Die
Elenden sollen essen. New works produced during this year include many cantatas and the
Magnificat in its first version. The first half of 1724 saw the production of the St. John
Passion, which was subsequently revised. The total number of cantatas produced during this
ecclesiastical year was about 62, of which about 39 were new works. On June 11, 1724, the
first Sunday after Trinity, Bach began a fresh annual cycle of cantatas, and within the year he
wrote 52 of the so-called chorale cantatas, formerly supposed to have been composed over the
nine-year period 1735-44. The “Sanctus” of the Mass in B Minor was produced at Christmas.
During his first two or three years at Leipzig, Bach had produced a large number of new
cantatas, sometimes, as research has revealed, at the rate of one a week. This phenomenal
pace raises the question of Bach's approach to composition. Bach and his contemporaries,
subject to the hectic pace of production, had to invent or discover their ideas quickly and
could not rely on the unpredictable arrival of “inspiration”. Nor did the musical conventions
and techniques or the generally rationalistic outlook of the time necessitate this reliance, as
long as the composer was willing to accept them. The Baroque composer who submitted to
the regimen inevitably had to be a traditionalist who willingly embraced the conventions.

Symbolism

A repertoire of melody types existed, for example, that was generated by an explicit
“doctrine of figures” that created musical equivalents for the figures of speech in the art of
rhetoric. Closely related to these “figures” are such examples of pictorial symbolism in which
the composer writes, say, a rising scale to match words that speak of rising from the dead or a
descending chromatic scale (depicting a howl of pain) to sorrowful words. Pictorial
symbolism of this kind occurs only in connection with words - in vocal music and in chorale
preludes, where the words of the chorale are in the listener's mind. There is no point in
looking for resurrection motifs in The Well-Tempered Clavier. Pictorialism, even when not
codified into a doctrine, seems to be a fundamental musical instinct and essentially an
expressive device. It can, however, become more abstract, as in the case of number
symbolism, a phenomenon observed too often in the works of Bach to be dismissed out of
hand. Number symbolism is sometimes pictorial; in the St. Matthew Passion it is reasonable
that the question “Lord, is it I?” should be asked 11 times, once by each of the faithful
disciples. But the deliberate search for such symbolism in Bach's music can be taken too far.
Almost any number may be called “symbolic” (3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, and 41 are only a few
examples); any multiple of such a number is itself symbolic; and the number of sharps in a
key signature, notes in a melody, measures in a piece, and so on may all be considered
significant. As a result, it is easy to find symbolic numbers anywhere, but ridiculous to
suppose that such discoveries invariably have a meaning. Besides the melody types, the
Baroque composer also had at his disposal similar stereotypes regarding the further
elaboration of these themes into complete compositions, so that the arias and choruses of a
cantata almost seem to have been spun out “automatically”. One is reminded of Bach's
delightfully innocent remark “I have had to work hard; anyone who works just as hard will
get just as far”, with its implication that everything in the “craft” of music is teachable and
learnable. The fact that no other composer of the period, with the arguable exception of
Handel, even remotely approached Bach's achievement indicates clearly enough that the
application of the “mechanical” procedures was not literally “automatic” but was controlled
throughout by something else - artistic discrimination, or taste. “Taste”, a most respected
attribute in the culture of the 18th century, is an utterly individual compound of raw talent,
imagination, psychological disposition, judgment, skill, and experience. It is unteachable and
unlearnable. As a result of his intense activity in cantata production during his first three years
in Leipzig, Bach had created a supply of church music to meet his future needs for the regular
Sunday and feast-day services. After 1726, therefore, he turned his attention to other projects.
He did, however, produce the St. Matthew Passion in 1729, a work that inaugurated a
renewed interest in the mid-1730s for vocal works on a larger scale than the cantata: the now-
lost St. Mark Passion (1731), the Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248 (1734), and the Ascension
Oratorio (Cantata No. 11, Lobet Gott in seinen Reichen; 1735).

Nonmusical duties

In addition to his responsibilities as director of church music, Bach also had various
nonmusical duties in his capacity as the cantor of the school at the Thomas Church. Since he
resented these latter obligations, Bach frequently absented himself without leave, playing or
examining organs, taking his son Friedemann to hear the “pretty tunes”, as he called them, at
the Dresden opera, and fulfilling the duties of the honorary court posts that he contrived to
hold all his life. To some extent, no doubt, he accepted engagements because he needed
money; he complained in 1730 that his income was less than he had been led to expect (he
remarked that there were not enough funerals); but, obviously, his routine work must have
suffered. Friction between Bach and his employers thus developed almost at once. On the one
hand, Bach's initial understanding of the fees and prerogatives accruing to his position -
particularly regarding his responsibility for musical activities in the University of Leipzig's
Pauliner Church - differed from that of the town council and the university organist, Johann
Gottlieb Gorner. On the other hand, Bach remained, in the eyes of his employers, their third
(and unenthusiastic) choice for the post, behind Telemann and Graupner. Furthermore, the
authorities insisted on admitting unmusical boys to the school, thus making it difficult for
Bach to keep his churches supplied with competent singers; they also refused to spend enough
money to keep a decent orchestra together. The resulting ill feeling had become serious by
1730. It was temporarily dispelled by the tact of the new rector, Johann Matthias Gesner, who
admired Bach and had known him at Weimar; but Gesner stayed only until 1734 and was
succeeded by Johann August Ernesti, a young man with up-to-date ideas on education, one of
which was that music was not one of the humanities but a time-wasting sideline. Trouble
flared up again in July 1736; it then took the form of a dispute over Bach's right to appoint
prefects and became a public scandal. Fortunately for Bach, he became court composer to the
elector of Saxony in November 1736. As such, after some delay, he was able to induce his
friends at court to hold an official inquiry, and his dispute with Ernesti was settled in 1738.
The exact terms of the settlement are not known; but, thereafter, Bach did as he liked.

Instrumental works

In 1726, after he had completed the bulk of his cantata production, Bach began to
publish the clavier Partitas singly, with a collected edition in 1731, perhaps with the intention
of attracting recognition beyond Leipzig and thus securing a more amenable appointment
elsewhere. The second part of the Clavierubung, containing the Concerto in the Italian Style
and the French Overture (Partita) in B Minor, appeared in 1735. The third part, consisting of
the Organ Mass with the Prelude and Fugue [“St. Anne”] in E-flat Major (BWV 552),
appeared in 1739. From about 1729 to 1736 Bach was honorary musical director to
Weissenfels; and, from 1729 to 1737 and again from 1739 for a year or two, he directed the
Leipzig Collegium Musicum. For these concerts, he adapted some of his earlier concertos as
harpsichord concertos, thus becoming one of the first composers - if not the very first - of
concertos for keyboard instrument and orchestra, just as he was one of the first to use the
harpsichordist's right hand as a true melodic part in chamber music. These are just two of
several respects in which the basically conservative and traditional Bach, as is becoming
increasingly recognized, was a significant innovator as well. About 1733 Bach began to
produce cantatas in honour of the elector of Saxony and his family, evidently with a view to
the court appointment he secured in 1736; many of these secular movements were adapted to
sacred words and reused in the Christmas Oratorio. The “Kyrie” and “Gloria” of the Mass in
B Minor, written in 1733, were also dedicated to the elector, but the rest of the Mass was not
put together until Bach's last years. On his visits to Dresden, Bach had won the regard of
Count Hermann Karl von Keyserlingk, the Russian envoy, who commissioned the so-called
Goldberg Variations; these were published as part four of the Clavierubung about 1742, and
Book Two of the “Forty-eight” seems to have been compiled about the same time. In
addition, he wrote a few cantatas, revised some of his Weimar organ works, and published the
so-called Schubler Chorale Preludes in or after 1746.

Last years

In May 1747 he visited his son Emanuel at Potsdam and played before Frederick II the
Great of Prussia; in July his improvisations, on a theme proposed by the king, took shape as
The Musical Offering. In June 1747 he joined a Society of the Musical Sciences that had been
founded by his former pupil Lorenz Christoph Mizler; he presented the canonic variations on
the chorale Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her (From Heaven Above to Earth I Come) to
the society, in manuscript, and afterward published them. Of Bach's last illness little is known
except that it lasted several months and prevented him from finishing The Art of the Fugue.
His constitution was undermined by two unsuccessful eye operations performed by John
Taylor, the itinerant English quack who numbered Handel among his other failures; and he
died on July 28, 1750, at Leipzig. His employers proceeded with relief to appoint a successor;
Burgomaster Stieglitz remarked, “The school needs a cantor, not a musical director - though
certainly he ought to understand music”. Anna Magdalena was left badly off. For some
reason, her stepsons did nothing to help her, and her own sons were too young to do so. She
died on Feb. 27, 1760, and was given a pauper's funeral. Unfinished as it was, The Art of the
Fugue was published in 1751. It attracted little attention and was reissued in 1752 with a
laudatory preface by Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg, a well-known Berlin musician who later
became director of the royal lottery. In spite of Marpurg and of some appreciative remarks by
Johann Mattheson, the influential Hamburg critic and composer, only about 30 copies had
been sold by 1756, when Emanuel Bach offered the plates for sale. As far as is known, they
were sold for scrap.Emanuel Bach and the organist-composer Johann Friedrich Agricola (a
pupil of Sebastian's) wrote an obituary; Mizler added a few closing words and published the
result in the journal of his society (1754). There is an English translation of it in The Bach
Reader. Though incomplete and inaccurate, the obituary is of very great importance as a
firsthand source of information. Bach appears to have been a good husband and father.
Indeed, he was the father of 20 children, only 10 of whom survived to maturity. There is
amusing evidence of certain thriftiness - a necessary virtue, for he was never more than
moderately well off and he delighted in hospitality. Living as he did at a time when music was
beginning to be regarded as no occupation for a gentleman, he occasionally had to stand up
for his rights both as a man and as a musician; he was then obstinate in the extreme. But no
sympathetic employer had any trouble with Bach, and with his professional brethren he was
modest and friendly. He was also a good teacher and from his Muhlhausen days onward was
never without pupils.

Reputation and influence

For about 50 years after Bach's death, his music was neglected. This was only natural;
in the days of Haydn and Mozart, no one could be expected to take much interest in a
composer who had been considered old-fashioned even in his lifetime - especially since his
music was not readily available, and half of it (the church cantatas) was fast becoming useless
as a result of changes in religious thought. At the same time, musicians of the late 18th
century were neither so ignorant of Bach's music nor as insensitive to its influence as some
modern authors have suggested. Emanuel Bach's debt to his father was considerable, and
Bach exercised a profound and acknowledged influence directly on Haydn, Mozart, and
Beethoven.

Revival of music

After 1800 the revival of Bach's music gained momentum. The German writer Johann
Nikolaus Forkel published a Life, Genius and Works in 1802 and acted as adviser to the
publishers Hoffmeister and Kuhnel, whose collected edition, begun in 1801, was cut short by
the activities of Napoleon. By 1829 a representative selection of keyboard music was
nonetheless available, although very few of the vocal works were published. But in that year
the German musician Eduard Devrient and the German composer Felix Mendelssohn took the
next step with the centenary performance of the St. Matthew Passion. It and the St. John
Passion were both published in 1830; the Mass in B Minor followed (1832-45). The Leipzig
publisher Peters began a collected edition of “piano” and instrumental works in 1837; the
organ works followed in 1844-52.Encouraged by Robert Schumann, the Bach-Gesellschaft
(BG) was founded in the centenary year 1850, with the purpose of publishing the complete
works. By 1900 all the known works had been printed, and the BG was succeeded by the
Neue Bach-Gesellschaft (NBG), which exists still, organizing festivals and publishing popular
editions. Its chief publication is its research journal, the Bach-Jahrbuch (from 1904). By 1950
the deficiencies of the BG edition had become painfully obvious, and the Bach-Institut was
founded, with headquarters at Gottingen and Leipzig, to produce a new standard edition (the
Neue Bach-Ausgabe, or NBA) expected to comprise 84 volumes. In retrospect, the Bach
revival, reaching back to 1800, can be recognized as the first conspicuous example of the
deliberate exhumation of old music, accompanied by biographical and critical studies. The
revival also served as an inspiration and a model for subsequent work of a similar kind.
Among the biographical and critical works on Bach, the most important was the monumental
study Johann Sebastian Bach (2 vol., Leipzig, 1873-80), by the German musicologist Philipp
Spitta, covering not only Bach's life and works but also a good deal of the historical
background. Although wrong in many details, the book is still indispensable to the Bach
student.

Editions of Bach's works

The word Urtext (“original text”) may lead the uninitiated to suppose that they are
being offered an exact reproduction of what Bach wrote. It must be understood that the
autographs of many important works no longer exist. Therefore, Bach's intentions often have
to be pieced together from anything up to 20 sources, all different. Even first editions and
facsimiles of autograph manuscripts are not infallible guides to Bach's intentions. In fact, they
are often dangerously misleading, and practical musicians should take expert advice before
consulting them. Editions published between 1752 and about 1840 are little more than
curiosities, chiefly interesting for the light they throw on the progress of the revival. No
comprehensive edition is trustworthy throughout: neither Peters nor the BG or even the NBA.
Nevertheless, it is advisable to begin by finding out whether the music desired has been
published by the NBA.

ASSIGNMENTS
 1. Complete the profile of the composer:

Epithets to
The most The most The most characterize his Phonetic
important important famous and music, transcription of
dates in his life events in his spectacular compositional the most
and career life and career works achievements important
and proper nouns
peculiarities

2. Match the words and their synonyms or synonymous expressions:

1. PROPITIOUS A. BRAWL
2. TO KEEP TIME B. FLAWLESS, RELIABLE
3. TO SECURE C. AUSPICIOUS, FORTUNATE
4. RENOWNED D. SKILLED, COMPETENT
5. TO CONTRIVE TO DO SOMETHING E. TO ARRANGE INTO A CODE
6. PROFICIENT F. CHAOTIC, FRANTIC
7. STOPGAP G. HOLDING OF OFFICE
8. FLAMBOYANT H. TO BE HAMPERED
9. EXPONENT I. TO USE THE RIGHT RHYTHM AND
10. SCUFFLE SPEED OF MUSIC
11. TO BE CAST IN MOLD (MOULD) J. ANIMOSITY, CONFLICT
12. TO BE HINDERED K. TEMPORARY SUBSTITUTE
13. DISMAL L. CELEBRATED, EMINENT
14. TENURE M. MASS, PACK, MULTITUDE
15. HOST N. SUMMARY, COLLECTION OF
16. TO EMBOLDEN INFORMATION
17. COMPENDIUM O. TO OBTAIN
18. VENERABLE P. ONE WHO FAVOURS A SPECIFIED
19. HECTIC IDEA, BELIEF OR THEORY
20. REGIMEN Q. TO ENCOURAGE
21. TO CODIFY R. TO BE SHAPED
22. FRICTION S. TO SUCCEED IN DOING SMTH
23. TO FLARE UP T. GLOOMY, SOMBRE
24. INFALLIBLE U. TO GET ANGRY, OR TO GET WORSE
V. FLASHY, SHOWY
W. WAY OF LIFE
X. REVERED, WORSHIPPED

3. Say whether the statements are true or false. Correct the false ones.

1. J.S. Bach was able to survey and bring together the principal styles, forms, and national
traditions that had developed during preceding generations.
2. Bach's great-great-grandfather, a Lutheran baker (or miller), was driven from Hungary to
Wechmar in Thuringia, a historic region of Germany, by religious persecution late in the 16th
century.
3. During his early years J.S. Bach stood a good chance to develop the string-playing tradition
of his immediate ancestors; thenceforth he was chiefly, though not exclusively, a composer
and performer of secular music.
4. Bach was appointed organist at the New Church in Arnstadt at the age of 22.
5. Bach studied, on his own and during his presumed excursions to Celle, some French organ
and instrumental music.
6. While at Muhlhausen, Bach worked hard to encourage the development of music in the
region and was involved in musical enlightenment in the surrounding villages.
7. Bach didn’t want to stay on at Weimar because the duke refused to raise his salary.
8. The Well-Tempered Clavier, a remarkable collection of preludes and fugues, systematically
explores the potentials of a newly established tuning procedure - which, for the first time in
the history of keyboard music, made all the keys equally usable.
9. Bach's favourite forms appropriated from the French concerto composers were those based
on refrain schemes in which wholesale repetition - literal or with modifications - of entire
sections of a piece permitted him to create coherent musical forms with much larger
dimensions than had hitherto been possible.
10. Bach was a profligate: he never used money carefully and wisely.
11. Bach was known as an extremely obstinate man and musician.
12. Bach’s health was undermined by two unsuccessful stomach operations.
13. For about two centuries after Bach’s death his music was neglected.
14. Nowadays it’s quite easy to find exact reproductions of what Bach once wrote.
15. Bach’s music influenced directly some composers of the Classical period.

MOZART, WOLFGANG AMADEUS

Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus (1756-1791), was an Austrian composer, who is

considered one of the most brilliant and versatile composers ever. He worked in all musical
genres of his era, wrote inspired works in each genre, and produced an extraordinary number
of compositions, especially considering his short life. By the time Mozart died at age 35, he
had completed 41 symphonies, 27 piano concertos, 23 string quartets, 17 piano sonatas, 7
major operas, and numerous works for voice and other instruments.
As a child prodigy Mozart toured Europe and became widely regarded as a miracle of
nature because of his musical gifts as a performer of piano, harpsichord, and organ and as a
composer of instrumental and vocal music. The famous series of concert tours that began in
his sixth year continued until he was twenty five – Vienna, London, Paris, the chief cities of
Europe. His extensive travels were to give Mozart a wide familiarity with Europe and a good
working of its culture and sophistication. His mature masterpieces begin with the Piano
Concerto No. 9 in E-flat Major (Jeunehomme, 1777), one of about a dozen outstanding
concertos he wrote for piano. Also successful as an opera composer, Mozart wrote three
exceptional Italian operas to texts by Italian librettist Lorenzo da Ponte: Le Nozze di Figaro
(The Marriage of Figaro, 1786), Don Giovanni (1787), and Così fan tutte (All Women Do
So, 1790). They were followed in 1791 by his supreme German opera, Die Zauberflöte (The
Magic Flute).
Mozart’s works were catalogued chronologically by Austrian music bibliographer
Ludwig von Köchel, who published his catalog in 1862. The numbers he assigned, which are
called Köchel numbers and are preceded by the initial K, remain the standard way of referring
to works by Mozart. The Jeunehomme Concerto, for example, is K. 271.
Mozart was born in Salzburg. At three he was plucking chords from the piano and
memorizing music he had heard. At five he wrote a Piano Concerto too difficult for anyone to
play off at sight. From his father, violinist and composer Leopold Mozart, he received his
early musical training. By age six he had become an accomplished performer on the clavier,
violin, and organ and was highly skilled in sight-reading and musical improvisation. In 1762
Leopold took his six-year-old son on his first concert tour through the courts of Europe. The
young Mozart absorbed the musical styles of the time through travel to Austria’s capital,
Vienna; the German cities of Munich and Mannheim; Paris, France; London, England; and
various centers in Italy. From 1762 to 1766, while he was often touring, he composed several
symphonies, a few sacred works, and a number of sonatas for keyboard and violin.
In London in 1764 Mozart met then-popular German composer Johann Christian
Bach, son of Johann Sebastian Bach. The eight-year-old Mozart played four-hand piano
sonatas with Bach while sitting on the composer’s lap. The symphonies of the younger Bach
and of Carl Friedrich Abel, another German composer living in London, offered models for
Mozart’s first symphonies (K. 16 and K. 19), written in 1764 and 1765 when he was eight and
nine years old. In 1767, at age 11, Mozart transformed piano sonatas by various composers
into his first four piano concertos through the addition of interludes and episodes for
orchestra. He intended these works (K. 37, K. 39, K. 40, and K. 41) for his own performance.
In 1768 he composed his first opera buffa (comic opera), La finta semplice (The Simple
Pretense), and his first German operetta, Bastien und Bastienne. The following year La finta
semplice was performed at the palace of the Salzburg archbishop, who appointed Mozart his
concertmaster.
From 1769 to 1773, Mozart made three extended journeys to Italy with his father,
during which he was remarkably productive and wrote not only symphonies and operas but
also string quartets and several sacred works. In Milan he was commissioned to write an
opera seria—that is, a serious opera in Italian on a heroic subject. The opera, Mitridati, rè di
Ponto (Mithridates, King of Pontus), was produced in 1770 in Milan under Mozart’s direction
with success. Also that year the pope made Mozart a knight of the Order of the Golden Spur.
From 1775 to 1780 Mozart was based mainly in Salzburg working for the archbishop
Hieronymous von Colloredo. Although dissatisfied with the low pay and limited opportunities
his employment offered, Mozart composed many works during this period, including his first
important piano sonatas (K. 279 to K. 284, 1775). Despite his mother’s death in 1778 during a
trip they made to Paris, he completed his Symphony No. 31 in D Major (Paris, K. 297) and
Piano Sonata No. 8 in A Minor (K. 310) during the journey. In 1780 he received a
commission from the court at Munich for an opera seria. He fulfilled this commission with
Idomeneo, rè di Creta (Idomeneo, King of Crete, 1781), the most important opera seria of
Mozart’s maturity and perhaps the greatest opera seria ever written.
Demeaning treatment from Colloredo, who had little interest in music, led Mozart to
ask for dismissal from his service in 1781. This Mozart received, along with a kick in the rear
as he departed, delivered by an employee of the archbishop. Mozart then began a career as a
freelance musician in Vienna.
While working in Germany in 1777, Mozart fell in love with a singer, Aloysia Weber.
His father warned him against marriage in a letter: “… it depends wholly on your own good
sense and good conduct, whether you become a commonplace artist whom the world will
forget, or a celebrated Capellmeister, of whom posterity will read hereafter in books—
whether, infatuated with some pretty face, you one day breathe your last on a straw sack, your
wife and children in a state of starvation, or, after a well-spent Christian life, die peacefully in
honour and independence, and your family well provided for.” Aloysia did not return
Mozart’s feelings, however. Despite opposition from his father, Mozart married Aloysia’s
sister, Constanze, in August 1782. Two years later he joined the fraternal order of
Freemasonry.
In the years after his marriage Mozart experienced some notable professional
successes. These included an enthusiastic response from Austrian composer Joseph Haydn,
the dominant figure in music at the time. Through Haydn, Mozart had come to a realization of
the beauty that lay in instrumental music and now there flowed from his pen a profusion of
brilliant instrumental pieces. Haydn was particularly impressed by a set of six string quartets
(K. 387) that Mozart composed in 1785 and dedicated to Haydn, his admired friend and
source of inspiration. A series of inspired piano concertos that Mozart composed for his own
performance began with No. 14 in E-flat Major (K. 449) in 1784 and culminated in the
premiere of No. 24 in C Minor (K. 491) in March 1786. Moreover, The Marriage of Figaro
was first performed later that year in Vienna, Prague (in what is now the Czech Republic),
and other cities to enthusiastic public response. In 1787 the premiere of Don Giovanni in
Prague received a similar response.
One day Mozart was visited by a short, stocky lad named Beethoven. At Mozart’s
request the boy sat down at the piano and, given a theme for improvisation, played with such
fierce originality that Mozart whispered to some friends in an adjoining room: “Keep your
eyes on him, he will some day give the world something to talk about”.
During the last years of his life Mozart was plagued at times by financial difficulties,
as revealed in a series of letters he wrote to his fellow Freemason Michael Puchberg, in which
he begged for loans. The resounding success of The Magic Flute, which had its premiere in
late 1791, would have solved these problems, but it came too late for Mozart, who died on
December 5, 1791. He spent his last months in feverish activity. In September he completed
an opera seria, La clemenza di Tito (The Clemency of Titus). On his deathbed, Mozart labored
on the Requiem Mass in D Minor (K. 626), while suffering from delusions that he had been
poisoned. He died with the Requiem unfinished. The cause of his death is uncertain and has
been the subject of much speculation. There was no public mourning. On the day of the burial
it rained and snowed and only a few friends attended the church services. When Constanze
Mozart had regained her poor health sufficiently to visit the graveyard no one knew where the
body was buried.

Music

Mozart’s music can be divided into periods of stylistic assimilation and stylistic
innovation. From childhood he showed skill at imitating virtually any type of music,
including the sacred style of church music and the so-called galant (courtly) idiom. The
elegant though often superficial galant style dominated much instrumental music of the 1760s
and 1770s. Mozart’s mastery often demonstrates itself in an ability to expand and deepen the
stylistic possibilities of the time. The manner in which he extended the character and form of
the concerto, for instance, owes much to his experience in writing operatic arias.
In the masterful Jeunehomme Concerto of 1777, the slow middle movement in C
minor contains passages suggesting vocal recitative (music structured to resemble the tones
and rhythms of speech). The movement’s heartfelt but dignified tragic aura recalls the operas
of an earlier German composer, Christoph Willibald Gluck. The first and third movements of
the concerto brilliantly exploit dramatic contrasts between the piano soloist and the orchestra.
At the beginning of the first movement, the pianist surprisingly answers the orchestra’s
opening phrase, although the usual practice called for this section to be given exclusively to
the orchestra. The third and final movement of the concerto introduces a lyrical minuet, or
dance tune, in the middle of a lively musical form called a rondo. The rondo, in which
musical themes recur, is played in a rapid tempo, with virtuosic solo passages, called
cadenzas, given to the pianist.
Many of Mozart’s most impressive works date from the last decade of his life, 1781 to
1791, which he spent primarily in Vienna. His comic German opera Die Entführung aus dem
Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio, 1782), which takes place in a Turkish palace, shows
an exceptional range of musical characterization. The “stupid, surly, malicious Osmin,” as
Mozart described the overseer of the palace’s seraglio (harem), is depicted in the opera with
frenzied music that is intended to sound Turkish; the music’s colorful orchestration
(combination of instruments) includes piccolo, triangle, cymbals, and drum. On the other
hand, Constanze, the German woman Osmin holds captive, has an elaborate aria that gives
noble expression to her heroic defiance of her captor, no matter what tortures she might
suffer. The aria, “Martern aller Arten” (“Tortures of Every Kind”), is introduced by a long
passage of 60 measures, featuring solo parts for flute, oboe, violin, and cello that express a
range of emotions. By the time of Idomeneo and Die Entführung, Mozart had found musical
equivalents for an entire spectrum of dramatic events and human responses.
Mozart was especially proud of his Quintet for Piano and Winds in E-flat Major (K.
452) from 1784. As far as scholars know, this is the first quintet ever composed for piano and
woodwinds (oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn). In Mozart’s piano concertos from this time,
the wind parts become independent, departing from the usual practice of doubling (playing
the same notes in different octaves) the string instruments (violins, violas, and cellos). The
Piano Concerto No. 15 in B-flat Major (K. 450) from 1784 opens with solo woodwinds, and
later concertos show a resourceful use of woodwinds for solos as well as for color.
Particularly innovative in Mozart’s later work is his use of the clarinet, which was not a fixed
member of the orchestra at that time. His writing for this instrument culminates in two works
written for Austrian clarinet virtuoso Anton Stadler: the Clarinet Quintet in A Major (K. 581,
1789) and Clarinet Concerto in A Major (K. 622, 1791).
Few composers have written so unforgettably in minor keys using chromaticism, in
which all of the tones and semitones (half steps, as from F to F-sharp) of the musical scale are
employed. Chromaticism means composing with tones that are not part of the established key,
as Mozart does, for example, at the beginnings of the String Quartet in C Major (Dissonance,
K. 465, 1785) and the Piano Concertos No. 20 in D Minor (K. 466, 1785) and No. 24 in C
Minor (K. 491, 1786).
Mozart associated the key of D Minor with music that conveys vengeance and fear, as
in the music heard at Don Giovanni’s confrontation with the stone guest near the end of Don
Giovanni. Here, Mozart combines chromaticism with majestic contrasts in sonority (sound)
and an orchestration featuring trombones to evoke a powerful sense of foreboding and terror.
Mozart deepens the dramatic evocation of the demonic by foreshadowing this D-minor music
at the beginning of the overture to the opera, and throughout the opera he associates
references to Don Giovanni’s slaying of the Commendatore (whose statue is later the stone
guest) with ominous references to the key. Similar associations with this key appear in other
works, such as in the D-minor revenge aria of the Queen of the Night in The Magic Flute.
Another key closely associated with Mozart is G minor, which he employed to convey
agitation and emotional turbulence in his Symphony No. 25 (Little G Minor, K. 183, 1773),
Symphony No. 40 (K. 550, 1788), a string quintet in this key (K. 516, 1787), and the moving
lament “Ach, ich fühl’s” (“Ah, I feel it”) sung by Pamina in Act II of The Magic Flute.
During his Vienna years, Mozart could combine the most popular tuneful charm with
the most learned compositional devices, as in the serenade Eine kleine Nachtmusik (A Little
Night Music, K. 525, 1787). He absorbed the older styles of German composers George
Frideric Handel and Johann Sebastian Bach, even arranging some Bach fugues (works based
on interwoven melodies) for string instruments. Fugues also appear in the last movement of
Piano Concerto No. 19 in F Major (K. 459, 1784) and in the overture to The Magic Flute, in
which Mozart blends music of a vivacious, humorous character—marked by quick, repeated
notes—with rigorous fugal structure.
Two other examples of Mozart’s stylistic resourcefulness are the three dances in the
finale of the first act of Don Giovanni and the remarkable final movement of the Symphony
No. 41 in C Major (Jupiter, K. 551, 1788). In Don Giovanni, Mozart combines three dances
that embody the different social positions of the characters. The musical confusion creates
almost unbearable tension before the peasant girl Zerlina stops the dancing by crying out for
help during Don Giovanni’s attempt to seduce her. In the last movement of the Jupiter
Symphony, the climactic last section, or coda, contains a simultaneous presentation of nearly
all the motifs (short segments of melody or rhythm) and themes (repeated melodies) of the
movement.
The most celebrated of Mozart’s sacred compositions is the unfinished Requiem (K.
626), which combines learned fugue techniques with the vocal features of opera. Masonic
elements also are present in the Requiem, as in The Magic Flute where they are represented in
the music of the wise and benevolent Sarastro. In the Requiem, Masonry is reflected in the
use of basset horns, late-18th-century instruments associated with the order, and in the hymn
like solemnity of the music, sometimes reminiscent of the music for Sarastro. Before his death
Mozart reportedly discussed the completion of the Requiem with his student Franz Xaver
Süssmayr, who may have received specific directions from the composer. Süssmayr’s
completion remained the version of the Requiem used in most performances until recently.
Debate over its merits and shortcomings continues, and several scholars have offered
alternative completions of the Requiem.
Mozart is one of the most universal of composers and one of the greatest geniuses of
Western civilization. His output was huge (more than 600 works). Drawing on various
national traditions, he brought the classical style to its highest development. This style, which
evolved from about 1750 to 1800 when Vienna was the center of European music, is
characterized by lively contrasts of themes and by symmetry of forms. In the dramatic genres
of opera and concerto, Mozart enjoyed unique success. The richness of musical
characterization and the psychological insights of his operatic masterpieces find parallels in
much of his purely instrumental music. In the concertos he demonstrates that powerful
expressive forces can coexist with serene formal structures.
Although Mozart has been viewed as the quintessential composer of the classical
period, early 19th-century critics such as German romantic writer and composer E.T.A.
Hoffmann regarded him as an arch romantic, much in their own image. (There are elements of
the supernatural and fantastic figure in Don Giovanni and The Magic Flute, characteristic of
romanticism.) Mozart’s music also influenced innovative German composers of the romantic
period, including Ludwig van Beethoven and Richard Wagner, as well as the 20th-century
creator of the twelve-tone chromatic tone system, German composer Arnold Schoenberg.
Mozart’s influence stems not just from the graceful beauty of his music, but also from its
flexible phrasing, startling contrasts, and unstable chromaticism. At the time of their first
performance, many of his works were regarded as difficult, with “too many notes,” as
Austrian emperor Joseph II purportedly said. If Mozart’s music embodies something of the
elegance and refinement of the privileged aristocratic world before the French Revolution
(1789-1799), it also affirms values subversive to that world. He lodged this critique in the
depiction of flawed aristocrats in Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni, and in the
glorification in The Magic Flute of the ideals of the Freemasons, who were deemed dangerous
by Vienna’s aristocracy. Many of his finest instrumental works in their beauty and perfection
also acknowledge the darker sides of human experience.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Complete the profile of the composer:

Epithets to
 The most The most The most characterize his Phonetic
important important famous and music, transcription of
dates in his life events in his spectacular compositional the most
and career life and career works achievements important
and proper nouns
peculiarities

2. Explain the terms with the help of the text given above:

Opera buffa, opera seria, orchestration, cadenza, recitative,

doubling, chromaticism, sonority, coda, motif, theme.

3. Match the words and their dictionary definitions:

1. child prodigy a) calm, peaceful and relaxed form

b)a supply or amount that is almost too
2. to pluck chords from the piano large
c) a young person who is extremely clever
3. to play at sight or good at doing something
d) lively, quick and energetic
4. to play four-hand piano piece e) music performed with a lot of anxiety or
excitement and not much organization
5. freelance musician f) to perform having sheet music in front of
you
6. to flow from one’s pen g) to pull sharply at the strings of a musical
instrument
7. profusion h) working independently for several
different companies (orchestras)
8. to receive an enthusiastic response i) a feeling that something very unpleasant
is going to happen soon
9. to be plagued by difficulties j) to make a formal or official protest or
appeal (in the form of a critical essay)
10. frenzied music k) to move or be supplied continuously in
large numbers from one place to another
11. vengeance l) (usually passive) to cause continual
discomfort, suffering, or trouble
12. sense of foreboding m) something violent or harmful that you do
to someone in order to punish them for
13. vivacious harming you, your family, etc
n) to get an ardent reaction to something
14. serene structure that has happened
o) to perform a piece of piano music
15. to lodge one’s critique together with another person
 4. Read the text “The Style of Mozart’s Music” and complete it using the words and
expressions from the box:

treated; poignant; chief; characteristics; rhythmic; widened; solos; earliest;

foundations; singing

From his __1__ works onward, Mozart exhibited a creative power and an inspiration
constantly controlled by the requisites of clarity and musical logic. Upon the firm structural
__2__ created by Haydn, he rested a musical genius and originality even greater than that of
Haydn.
Here are some of the __3__ of Mozart’s style as compared with Haydn’s:
 there is greater warmth in Mozart, more __ 4__ beauty, a deeper pathos and
sensuousness;
 Mozart gave an individuality to each instrument; he brought out the essential
__5__ quality of the particular instrument and the inherent tone colour of each;
 Mozart used more instruments in his orchestra, __ 6__ the orchestral scope of
many of them, and thus gave his compositions more variety. The orchestra
gained sonority with Mozart; we find more massed tone. There is now a wider
sweep and freer __7__ variety;
 Haydn __8__ the orchestral sections as units, but Mozart treated them more
independently. For example, where Haydn would give the same part to both
the cellos and double-basses, Mozart wrote individual parts, little __ 9__ for
each, and frequently also for the flute, clarinet, oboe, and bassoon;
 Haydn usually wrote his __10__ melody mainly for the upper voices; in Mozart
we may find it in any of the instruments.

BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG van

Ludwig van Beethoven, (1770-1827), a German composer, is considered one of the

greatest musicians of all time. Having begun his career as an outstanding improviser at the
piano and composer of piano music, Beethoven went on to compose string quartets and other
kinds of chamber music, songs, two masses, an opera, and nine symphonies. His Symphony
No. 9 in D minor op. 125 (Choral, completed 1824), perhaps the most famous work of
classical music in existence, culminates in a choral finale based on the poem “Ode to Joy” by
German writer Friedrich von Schiller. Like his opera Fidelio, op. 72 (1805; revised 1806,
1814) and many other works, the Ninth Symphony depicts an initial struggle with adversity
and concludes with an uplifting vision of freedom and social harmony.
Beethoven was born in Bonn. His father’s harsh discipline and alcoholism made his
childhood and adolescence difficult. Myths and misconceptions about the personality and
life of Ludwig van Beethoven are prevalent today. But Beethoven was not the neurotic
genius-lunatic portrayed in some novels and movies in recent years. He was instead an
offspring of a truly dysfunctional family. It is true that his mother died during his late
teenage years and that his father, an accomplished violinist and tenor singer, had become an
intolerable and abusive alcoholic long before his wife's death. The circumstances of his
family life may have had an effect on Beethoven's genuinely eccentric personal nature, but it
is more likely that the demands he placed upon himself as a musical perfectionist were
transferred to and expected from those around him. As an adult, Beethoven's moodiness, his
brooding, his famous fits of temper were often due to the early deterioration of his hearing
which made him shun crowds and seek peace in nature. His sensitivity to the beauties of the
countryside led him to take long, solitary walks in the surroundings of Vienna. The
composer drew inspiration from nature, but at the same time Beethoven was intolerant of the
mediocre, the flawed, and the unexamined in himself and in others.
Ludwig's father discovered the outstanding talent of his son at an early age. He gave
him piano and violin lessons and attempted to popularize the boy as a child prodigy after
Mozart's example. In some of his early debut recitals, the advertisements stated his age as
two years younger than he truly was. These “Mozartian” prodigy recitals were only
marginally successful, and Johann eventually gave up trying to “market” his son as a child
wonder.
At the age of 18, after his mother’s death, Beethoven placed himself at the head of the
family, taking responsibility for his two younger brothers, both of whom followed him when
he later moved to Vienna, Austria.
In Bonn, Beethoven’s most important composition teacher was German composer
Christian Gottlob Neefe, with whom he studied during the 1780s. Neefe used the music of
German composer Johann Sebastian Bach as a cornerstone of instruction, and he later
encouraged his student to study with Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, whom
Beethoven met briefly in Vienna in 1787. In 1792 Beethoven made another journey to Vienna
to study with Austrian composer Joseph Haydn, and he stayed there the rest of his life.
Beethoven also took Italian vocal and opera style lessons with the court conductor,
Antonio Salieri (1750-1825). Later, Beethoven had no more significant relations with the
highly esteemed opera composer, and it seems that Salieri was rather prepossessed against him.
Perhaps this was due to the simple reason that Beethoven was of German birth, whereas the
Imperial Austrian court was directed and dominated by Italian musicians at the time. In
March 1794, payments of Beethoven's salary were stopped, since the composer had long
overstayed his leave of absence to Vienna. At that time, Beethoven no longer depended
upon the allowances from Bonn. He was very popular as a piano teacher and gave lessons to
several young ladies from wealthy noble families. During his early years in Vienna, Beethoven
appeared as a pianist only in private circles. But in March of 1795, he faced a large Viennese
audience in his first public concert at the Burgtheater.
In the early Nineteenth Century, it was not unusual for composers to tour, giving
performances in different cities. But Beethoven undertook only three concert tours: in the
spring of 1796 to Prague, Dresden, and Berlin, in the autumn of 1796 to Bratislava and Pest
(Budapest), and in 1798 once more to Prague. His increasing deafness probably restrained
him from making other tours.
He consulted several physicians, but no one could help him. From the descriptions of
his symptoms there is a general agreement among modern otologists that his deafness was
caused by otosclerosis of the 'mixed' type, that is, with the degeneration of the auditory
nerve as well - by no means a rare condition. On the advice of a physician, he moved in the
spring of 1802 to Heiligenstadt, hoping that the seclusion of the Viennese suburb would ease
his illness. But the treatment had no success, and he had to accept his worsened deafness. On
October 6, he wrote in a state of deepest despair the Heiligenstadt Testament addressed to
his two brothers. He explained the reason for his recent unfriendly behavior and asked them
and his circle of friends for understanding for his hopeless situation.
Obviously, Beethoven had seriously considered suicide as a way of solving his
problem, because he requested that his brothers publish the letter after his death. But in
writing it down, he seems to have gathered fresh hope, because he left Heiligenstadt not
much later and returned to Vienna. It is not surprising that following this time of great
personal trial, his next great work was a religious one, his only oratorio, Christ on the Mount
of Olives. From this work, published as his Opus 85 in 1803, comes the famous Hallelujah
that remains one of his most popular choral pieces widely performed around the world.
 The combination of forceful, dramatic power with dreamy introspection in
Beethoven’s music made a strong impression in Viennese aristocratic circles and helped win
him generous patrons. His impairment gradually put an end to his performing career.
However, Beethoven’s compositional achievements did not suffer from his hearing loss but
instead gained in richness and power over the years. His artistic growth was reflected in a
series of masterpieces, including the Symphony No. 3 in E-flat major op. 55 (the Eroica,
completed 1804), Fidelio, and the Symphony No. 5 in C minor op. 67 (1808). These works
embody his second period, which is called his heroic style.
Around 1810 Beethoven was especially drawn to the poetry and drama of German
writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, whom he met in 1812 through the initiative of Goethe’s
young literary friend Bettina Brentano. Bettina’s sister-in-law Antonia Brentano was probably
the intended recipient of Beethoven’s famous letter to the “Immortal Beloved.” The letter
dates from July 1812 and apparently marks the collapse of Beethoven’s hopes to seek
happiness through marriage. Following this disappointment, Beethoven’s output declined
significantly, and during 1813 he was generally depressed and unproductive.
Beethoven’s fame during his lifetime reached its peak in 1814. The enthusiastic
response of the public to his music at this time was focused on showy works, such as
Wellington’s Victory op. 91 (1813; also known as the Battle Symphony), and a series of
patriotic crowd-pleasers, including the cantata The Glorious Moment op. 136 (1814), but his
enhanced popularity also made possible the successful revival of Fidelio.
During the last decade of his life Beethoven had almost completely lost his hearing,
and he was increasingly socially isolated. He had assumed the guardianship of his nephew
Karl after a lengthy legal struggle, and despite Beethoven’s affection for Karl, there was
enormous friction between the two. Notwithstanding these difficulties, between 1818 and
1826 Beethoven embarked upon a series of ambitious large-scale compositions, including the
Sonata in B-flat major op. 106 (Hammerklavier, 1818), the Missa Solemnis in D major op.
123 (1823), the Thirty-Three Variations on a Waltz by Diabelli in C major op. 120 (1823), the
Symphony No. 9 in D minor op. 125 (1824), and his last string quartets. Plagued at times by
serious illness, Beethoven nevertheless maintained his sense of humor and often amused
himself with jokes and puns. He continued to work at a high level of creativity until he
contracted pneumonia in December 1826. He died in Vienna in March 1827.

Music

Beethoven’s music is generally divided into three main creative periods. The first, or
early, period extends to about 1802, when the composer made reference to a “new manner” or
“new way” in connection with his art. The second, or middle, period extends to about 1812,
after the completion of his Seventh and Eighth symphonies. The third, or late, period emerged
gradually; Beethoven composed its pivotal work, the Hammerklavier Sonata, in 1818.
Beethoven’s late style is especially innovative, and his last five quartets, written between
1824 and 1826, can be regarded as marking the onset of a fourth creative period.
Although Beethoven’s music of the early period is sometimes described as imitative of
Mozart and Haydn, much of it is startlingly original, especially the works for piano. His early
piano sonatas often have a forceful, bold quality, which is set into relief by the searching
inwardness of the slow movements. The Sonata in C minor op. 13 (Pathétique, 1798), the
most famous of these sonatas, transfers Haydn’s practice of employing slow introductions to
his symphonies to the genre of the sonata. The title refers to a quality of pathos or suffering,
which is felt especially in the brooding slow introduction and is twice recalled in later stages
of the first movement. The main body of this swift, brilliant movement seems to convey
willful resistance to the sense of suffering that dominates the slow introduction.
 At the threshold of his middle period Beethoven sought a variety of new approaches to
musical form. In the Sonata in C-sharp minor (Moonlight, 1801), he begins with a slow
movement, while typical sonatas of that time began with a fast movement. The movement’s
placid motif (repeated phrase) of broken chords is reinterpreted in the final movement as
forceful figuration reaching across the entire keyboard. The sonatas of op. 31, from 1802,
each open in an original fashion. The G major, op. 31 no. 1, begins with striking shifts in key,
in contrast to the usual practice of remaining in the same key to “ground” the listener. The D
minor, op. 31 no. 2 (Tempest), on the other hand, breaks up the opening theme into
contrasting segments in different tempi, whereas customary practice called for stating the
theme in its entirety at the beginning of a movement.
In the first movement of the Eroica Symphony, one of the major works from
Beethoven’s middle period, he again sought ways to expand upon the prevailing musical
forms. At that time, composers usually organized movements in three major parts. First, the
exposition introduces the musical themes of the piece. Next, the development takes these
themes into other keys, often modifying or fragmenting them. Finally, the recapitulation
restates the themes, grounded in the original key. Prefaced by two massive, emphatic chords,
the opening theme of the Eroica lingers on a mysterious dark moment of harmony—a gesture
that is not reinterpreted until much later, at the outset of the recapitulation. After the rhythmic
climax of the enormous development section—it is twice as long as the development section
in any other symphony of the time—Beethoven reshapes classical norms by introducing
extensive new material, which is resolved in a sort of recapitulation in the coda (concluding
passage), which follows the movement’s recapitulation.
The four movements of the Eroica bear the following expressive associations:
struggle, death (a funeral march), rebirth (a scherzo, or rapid dance like movement, that
begins quietly), and glorification. In its narrative design, the Eroica is connected to the ballet
music of Beethoven’s Prometheus, op. 43 (1801), from which he borrowed the theme for the
symphony’s finale. This movement of the symphony expresses the exaltation of the Greek
mythological figure Prometheus in a series of variations on the ballet’s theme. Beethoven had
originally intended to dedicate the work to French general Napoleon Bonaparte, whom he
idolized, but he angrily withdrew the dedication after learning that Napoleon had taken the
title of emperor.
Beethoven’s other instrumental works from the period of the Eroica also tend to
expand the formal framework that he inherited from Haydn and Mozart. The Piano Sonata in
C major op. 53 (Waldstein) and the Piano Sonata in F minor op. 57 (Appassionata),
completed in 1804 and 1805 respectively, each employ bold contrasts in harmony, and they
use a broadened formal plan, in which the meditative slow movements flow directly into the
final movements. The symbolism of the keys used for these sonatas shares in the expressive
world of Beethoven’s opera, entitled Leonore in its original version from 1805. The grim F-
minor character of the Appassionata recalls the dungeon scenes in this key from the opera,
whereas the jubilant close of the Waldstein in C major recalls the stirring C-major conclusion
of the opera to the words “Hail to the day! Hail to the hour!”
The celebrated Symphony No. 5 in C minor op. 67 from 1808 is the most thematically
concentrated of Beethoven’s works. Variants of the four-note motif that begins this symphony
drive all four movements. The dramatic turning point in the symphony—where a sense of
foreboding, struggle, or mystery yields to a triumphant breakthrough—comes at the transition
to the final movement, where the music is reinforced by the entrance of the trombones.
Through Beethoven’s orchestration, the Fifth Symphony shows innovations in its inclusion of
the piccolo, the double bassoon and the three trombones of the final movement. Beethoven
uses here a large-scale polarity between the darker sound of C minor and the brighter, more
radiant effect of C major, which is held largely in reserve until the finale.
 The series of gigantic masterpieces of Beethoven’s third period include the technically
demanding Hammerklavier Sonata, completed in 1818, about which he correctly predicted on
account of its challenges that “it will be played fifty years hence,” and the Diabelli Variations.
The latter work for piano transforms a trivial waltz by Viennese publisher Anton Diabelli into
an astonishing, seemingly endless series of pieces, each with a unique character; some are
humorous or even parodies. These and other late works incorporate fugues—melodies played
in succession and interwoven—that reflect Beethoven’s lifelong interest in the music of J. S.
Bach (known for his keyboard work Art of the Fugue). Beethoven’s second mass, the Missa
Solemnis in D major op. 123 (1823), also poses formidable technical challenges, as do his
fascinating and sometimes enigmatic last quartets and the Symphony No. 9 in D minor (The
Choral), whose most readily accessible movement is the choral finale. The idea of
introducing voices into a symphony was one that had been in Beethoven’s mind for some
time. By 1818 he was planning a choral symphony making use of what he described as a
pious song in the ancient modes as an introduction to a fugue, a celebration of the feast of
Bacchus. In the 1820s this was to become the recitative and the stirring setting of An die
Freude in the last movement of the Choral Symphony.
Beethoven combined the dramatic classical style of lively contrasts and symmetrical
forms, which was brought to its highest development by Mozart, with the older tradition of
unified musical character that he found in the music of J. S. Bach. In some early works and
especially in his middle or heroic period, Beethoven gave voice through his music to the new
current of subjectivity and individualism that emerged in the wake of the French Revolution
(1789-1799) and the rise of middle classes. Beethoven disdained injustice and tyranny, and
used his art to sing the praises of the Enlightenment, an 18th-century movement that
promoted the ideals of freedom and equality, even as hopes faded for progress through
political change. His angry cancellation of the dedication of the Eroica Symphony to
Napoleon Bonaparte, for example, reveals Beethoven’s refusal to compromise his principles:
when Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor, in a fury, Beethoven crossed out the
Bonaparte name on the copy of the Symphony in such violence that the pen tore in the paper.
“Is he, too, nothing more than human?” he raged. “Now he will crush the rights of man. He
will become a tyrant!”
The fact that Beethoven realized his artistic ambitions in spite of his hearing
impairment added to the fascination and inspiration of his life for posterity, and the
extraordinary richness and complexity of his later works insured that no later generation
would fail to find challenge in his music. Beethoven’s artistic achievement cast a long shadow
over the 19th century and beyond, having set a standard against which later composers would
measure their work. Subsequent composers have had to respond to the challenge of
Beethoven’s Ninth, which appeared to have taken the symphony to its ultimate development.
When people thought symphony had reached its full potential with composers such as Bach
and Mozart, Beethoven showed the world that only the surface had been scratched.
There was a poignant scene at the first performance of Symphony No. 9. Despite his
deafness, Beethoven insisted on conducting, but unknown to him the real conductor sat out
of his sight beating time. As the last movement ended, Beethoven, unaware even that the
music had ceased, was also unaware of the tremendous burst of applause that greeted it.
One of the singers took him by the arm and turned him around so that he might actually see
the ovation.
Beethoven's symphonies, overtures, and the more famous of his piano sonatas became
central to the musical culture of the Nineteenth Century. And his music has remained so to the
present. Beethoven remains a musician's musician. His influence on composers in the
Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries has been immense, and his works are among the most
popular available on recorded media today. His piano concerti and sonatas are the hallmarks
by which performers are judged in our conservatories and universities.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Complete the profile of the composer:

Epithets to
The most The most The most characterize his Phonetic
important important famous and music, transcription of
dates in his life events in his spectacular compositional the most
and career life and career works achievements important
and proper nouns
peculiarities

2. Read the text “Beethoven as a transitional figure” and fill in the missing
prepositions

Beethoven as a transitional figure

The Janus-like figure who marked the transition from the Classical to the Romantic
style was Beethoven, the first composer whose personality and character made a purposeful
impact __1__ the types and style of music he composed. Inspired __2__ the revolutionary
forces prevailing at the time, he declared himself __3__ a free artistic agent, with neither
allegiance nor responsibility __4__ any patron. His early works reflected the 18th-century
acceptance of providing music on demand, and he applied his craftsmanship __ 5__ supplying
compositions in hope of financial reward. But in his later works, from about 1820 on, he
declared his personal independence and wrote only what his imagination and inspiration
dictated, thus establishing individuality, subjectivity, and emotional expression as the
standard __6__ Romantic composers. Yet the body of music he produced reflects the tastes of
the 18th rather than the 19th century, __ 7__ that he was attracted more by the absolute forms
of instrumental music than by the dramatic and lyrical forms cultivated __8__ the
Romanticists. Symphonies, chamber music (particularly string quartets), and piano pieces
(including 32 sonatas) far outweigh his one opera, one oratorio, one major mass, and assorted
songs and part-songs. His lack of interest __9__ dramatic vocal music reflects __10__ the
classical side of his nature, though the expressive changes apparent in his instrumental works
are evidence of his being the springboard to the Romantic epoch.

3. Find synonyms or synonymous phrases to the words printed in italics.

4. Match the words and their dictionary definitions:

1) to mark the transition a) loyalty to a leader, country, belief

b) to be more important or valuable than
2) to make a purposeful impact something else
 c) something that helps you to start doing
3) allegiance smth (by giving you ideas about how to do
it)
4) on demand d) songs of various, absolutely different,
kinds
5) to outweigh e) done or given whenever someone asks
f) to be a sign of an important change or an
6) assorted songs important stage in the development of
smth
7) part-songs g) to have an important or noticeable effect
on someone or something
8) springboard to smth h) songs that consist of three or more
musical lines that are sung together

5. You've read a number of texts about the greatest composers of the past. Be ready
to give a talk on your favourite great composer (not mentioned in the texts given above).
Musical illustrations would be welcome.
 UNIT 6. RUSSIAN MUSIC
THE RUSSIANS

Although classical music has been broadly international since its origin, the “accents”
from different countries are quite easy to hear - emotion and song from Italy, sensuous
vivacity from France, and argument and high seriousness from Germany.
But these “accents” are mostly the product of composers just being themselves. When
it comes to Russia however, the music is not only more Eastern in spirit, it is altogether closer to
the traditional folk song and dance in its melodies and rhythms. This was a deliberate move
by musicians of the nineteenth century. They had grown tired of artificial European manners in
high social life, where court music took its place, and wanted the music to reflect the
experience of the Russian people. Glinka was the pioneer, and Ruslan and Ludmilla was the
opera that set the whole movement on its way. Glinka, born into a land-owning family,
travelled widely and learned his craft in the musical centres of Europe. It was while studying in
Milan that the idea came to him of writing a genuinely national opera, compelled by what he
said in his memoirs was “a longing for my own country”.
A life for the Tsar was his first attempt, and met with success on the St Petersburg
stage. Ruslan and Ludmilla, based on a poem by Pushkin, is the one that had the real impact on
his colleagues. Listening today, especially to the fizzy and brilliant overture, we can have
trouble imagining that impact, for we have all heard the more flamboyant and nationalistic
music that the next generation wrote. But this was what inspired them to it, a real break with
the past, and even now Ruslan sounds more and more Russian as it goes on. It took Glinka
five years to write, interrupted by a series of traumatic events which included Pushkin's death
after a duel, Glinka's separation from his wife on grounds of infidelity and eventual divorce for
bigamy and a consuming love affair of his own - quite apart from the energy diverted into
writing other works.
By this time a group of radical nationalists had come to prominence in Russian music.
Called by a journalist “The Mighty Handful”, they included Mussorgsky and Rimsky-
Korsakov and were led by Balakirev who is now remembered as an activist and organiser
rather than as a musician. Nothing in musical life escaped Balakirev's attention; he even had a
say in encouraging the young Tchaikovsky, more cosmopolitan though his music turned out
to be. Without Balakirev's constant prodding, the life of Mussorgsky might have come to very
little as he was a hopeless alcoholic, killed by drink in his early forties. At first able to live
from private means, Mussorgsky had to take a civil post in his twenties. He was dismissed after
a few years, resumed employment later, and wrote when he could. Many of his finest works
were left in a chaotic, half-finished state, and the task of setting things in order fell to Rimsky-
Korsakov.
He did complete A Night on the Bare Mountain, though it was a long time arriving
and exists in several different versions. The image of a witches' Sabbath scene on a mountain
peak came from a play by Georgy Mengden called “The Witch”, but the graphic and
ghoulish music later turned up with chorus in Mussorgsky's opera Sorochintsy Fair. Rimsky
decided to make his own version out of all the others and this is the one we usually hear
though an original version is sometimes played. Either way it is one of the wildest and most
exciting few minutes of orchestral imagination in existence.
 Rimsky thought of himself mainly as a composer of operas and his “Flight of the
Bumble Bee” is an interlude from The Tale of Tsar Sultan. But the pieces he wrote for
orchestra in the first half of his life have turned out to have the most staying power.
Scheherazade is one of his travel-inspired works - he had an early career in the navy - and dips
into the legend of the Sultan who believed that all women were faithless and were to be slept
with for one night and then put to death. Scheherazade was the woman who saved her own life
and that of many others, by keeping the Sultan fascinated with storytelling for 1,001 “Arabian
Nights”. The music takes four stories, the first of which is “The Sea and Sinbad's Ship”, with a
solo violin to represent Scheherazade and a gruff, forthright theme for the Sultan at the
beginning.
In the twentieth century, the national character of music from the Old Russian Empire
gradually split into different strands. Rachmaninov stands for the Western-facing tradition,
handed on from Tchaikovsky, and his life took him after the revolution into exile in the United
States, where he began a new career as a piano virtuoso. Even before that he had a difficult
start to his creative life. A disastrous premiere of his First Symphony persuaded him to see a
medical hypnotist. Dr Nikolay Dahl must have held the key to his self-belief, because he
quickly produced two movements of his Second Piano Concerto.
A successful performance of the unfinished concerto completed the cure and he soon
added the opening movement of what is still his best-known work. It is a fount of melody and
soulful emotion that matches Tchaikovsky's music in its skill and scope and adds a very distinct
character of its own, alternately gloomy and ecstatic.
At the opposite expressive pole stand the composers from what are now the Central
Asian republics. Khachaturian, an Armenian, had a long and fruitful career under the Soviets,
and his vivid, dynamic ballets are still popular. Spartacus is one of them, and the “Sabre
Dance” comes from another, Gayaneh, first staged at the height of Second World War hostilities
in what by then had become Leningrad.

TCHAIKOVSKY, PETER ILYICH

Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), was a Russian composer, the foremost of the
19th century, whose works are notable for their melodic inspiration and their orchestration.
He is regarded as the master composer for classical ballet, as demonstrated by his scores for
Swan Lake, The Nutcracker, and Sleeping Beauty.
Tchaikovsky was born in Votkinsk, in the western Ural area of the country. His father
was superintendent of government-owned mines. Because his mother was half French, and it
was a customary practice among upper-class Russians of the period, he had a French
governess. Tchaikovsky was musically precocious, but his interest in the subject was not
actively encouraged because his parents considered that it had an unhealthy effect on an
already neurotically excitable child. He adored his governess, but she was dismissed in 1848
when his father changed his post and moved to Moscow and then to St. Petersburg, where the
boy entered the preparatory department of the School of Jurisprudence in 1850. There he was
obviously disturbed by being treated as a “country bumpkin”, but he soon settled down
happily. His state of mind was more seriously affected in 1854 when he was 14 and his
mother, whom he loved with all the ardour of an acutely introspective child, died of cholera.
To alleviate the distress caused to him both by her death and by his easygoing father's
comparative indifference to it, he composed a short waltz for piano and even thought of
composing an opera. His abnormal love for his now-deceased mother and the ineffectualness
of his father did nothing to hinder his latent homosexuality, and the disciplinary regime of the
all-male School of Jurisprudence cannot have helped.
 During these school days, desultory singing, piano, and harmony lessons were all the
musical education he received, complemented by increasingly numerous visits to the opera,
which had a lasting influence on his musical taste. He entered the newly founded St.
Petersburg Conservatory of Music in 1862. His job as a clerk in the Ministry of Justice was
hardly interesting enough to prevent his increasing absorption with music. A tale is told of his
absentmindedly tearing pieces from an official document, munching at them steadily, and
recovering his senses only to find that he had consumed them altogether. He soon left the
government service and became a music student. His first orchestral score (composed 1864),
an overture based on Aleksandr Ostrovsky's play The Storm, is remarkable in showing many
of the stylistic features later to be associated with his music and a youthful vulgarity that was
not the only constituent in it to appall his primly Mendelssohnian teacher, Anton Rubinstein.
Even so, he was offered in late 1865 a post as professor of harmony by Rubinstein's brother at
the Moscow Conservatory.
Aleksandr Nikolayevich Ostrovsky later wrote the libretto for Tchaikovsky's first
opera, The Voyevoda (1868). From this period also date Tchaikovsky’s operas Undine (1869)
and The Oprichnik (1872); the Piano Concerto no. 1 in B-flat Minor (1875); the symphonies
no. 1 (called “Winter Daydreams,”1868), no. 2 (1873; subsequently revised and titled “Little
Russian”), and no. 3 (1875); and the overture Romeo and Juliet (1869; revised in 1870 and
1880). The B-flat piano concerto was dedicated originally to Nicholas Rubinstein, who
pronounced it unplayable. Deeply injured, Tchaikovsky made extensive alterations in the
work and reinscribed it to German pianist Hans Guido von Bülow, who rewarded the courtesy
by performing the concerto on the occasion of his first concert tour of the United States
(1875-1876). Rubinstein later acknowledged the merit of the revised composition and made it
a part of his own repertoire. Well known for its dramatic first movement and skillful use of
folk like melodies, it subsequently became one of the most frequently played of all piano
concertos.
Tchaikovsky’s compositions of the late 1860s and early ‘70s reveal a distinct affinity
with the music of the nationalist group of composers in St. Petersburg, both in their treatment
of folk song and in their harmonies deriving from a common link with Mikhail Glinka, the
“father” of a Russian nationalist style. He corresponded with the leader of the group, Mily
Balakirev, at whose suggestion he wrote a fantasy overture, Romeo and Juliet (1869).
Tchaikovsky's intrinsic charm, testified to by many who knew him, is nowhere more apparent
than in the nationalist comic opera Vakula the Smith (1874; first performed 1876), which in its
revised form, Cherevichki (The Little Shoes), is of similar merit to another opera, Sorochintsy
Fair (also based on one of Nikolay Gogol's Ukrainian tales), by the most original composer in
the Petersburg group, Modest Mussorgsky. Tchaikovsky's opera, however, is much closer to
Balakirev's own folkloric idiom than anything Mussorgsky ever wrote.
After a fleeting, but unsuccessful, love affair with Desiree Artot, the prima donna of a
visiting Italian opera company, he had only one further romantic relationship with a woman.
When a former music student, Antonina Milyukova, became infatuated with him, threatening
suicide should he reject her, he identified her in his mind with the cruelly spurned Tatyana
Larina, Pushkin’s heroine, and consented to marry her. He must have subconsciously known
all along that an unconsummated marriage was hardly likely to be successful, but it was
doubly unfortunate that his wife should have been a nymphomaniac who repelled him to such
an extent that he made an abortive attempt at suicide. He now fully realized that in the eyes of
society he was permanently to be a sexual outcast. He loved children but would never have
any of his own. He was to live the rest of his life in frustration and loneliness alleviated only
by composition.
In 1876 Tchaikovsky became acquainted with Madam Nadezhda von Meck, a wealthy
widow, whose enthusiasm for the composer's music led her to give him an annual allowance.
By her wish, the two never met. Their intimate correspondence was more revealing of her
than of Tchaikovsky. Compelled by a necessity to be liked, he was always apt to write what
he thought people wanted to read rather than what he really thought. The detailed program of
his Fourth Symphony, which he made up especially for her, for example, is generally regarded
with circumspection. He later averred that replying to her frequently effusive letters had
become “irksome”. All the same, this curious relationship apparently fulfilled a deeply felt
psychological need for both, particularly for Tchaikovsky. Fourteen years later, however,
Madame von Meck, believing herself financially ruined, abruptly terminated the subsidy.
Although Tchaikovsky's other sources of income were by then adequate to sustain him, he
was wounded by the sudden defection of his patron without apparent cause, and he never
forgave her.
The period of his connection with Madame von Meck was one of rich productivity for
Tchaikovsky. To this time belong the operas Eugene Onegin (1879), The Maid of Orleans
(1881), Mazeppa (1883), and The Sorceress (1887); the ballets Swan Lake (1876) and The
Sleeping Beauty (1889); the Variations on a Rococo Theme for Cello and Orchestra (1876)
and the Violin Concerto in D Major (1878); the orchestral works Marche Slave (1876),
Francesca da Rimini (1876), Symphony no. 4 in F Minor (1877), Overture 1812 (1880),
Capriccio Italien (1880), Serenade (1880), Manfred symphony (1885), Symphony no. 5 in E
Minor (1888), the fantasy overture Hamlet (1888); and numerous songs.
In 1885 he bought a house of his own at Maidanovo in the vicinity of Moscow, where
he lived until the year before his death, when he moved into the house that is now the
Tchaikovsky House Museum in the nearby town of Klin. He began to travel more in Russia,
spending two particularly delightful vacations in the Caucasus, where he was enthusiastically
feted at Tbilisi. He overcame an aversion to conducting, with successful performances of the
newly revised Vakula, and in 1888 he undertook an important foreign tour, directing his own
works in Leipzig (where he met the composers Johannes Brahms and Edvard Grieg),
Hamburg, Berlin, Prague, Paris, and London. His music was well received everywhere. This
tour was the apex of Tchaikovsky's later life. From then on, in spite of the continuing success
of many of his former compositions and the acclamation of new ones, including his second
Pushkin opera, The Queen of Spades, and his favourite ballet, The Sleeping Beauty (first
received coolly; both performed 1890), he was working his way toward another nervous
breakdown.
Tchaikovsky went on further tours, including to the United States and England, where
he conducted his popular Piano Concerto No. 1 in B Flat Minor, Opus 23 (composed 1874-
75), in 1889 and his Fourth Symphony in 1893. In 1893 he was also awarded at the University
of Cambridge an honorary degree of doctor of music. These and other successes, including
the tumultuous reception accorded to the suite he hastily made for concert performance from
his Nutcracker ballet music (1892), did not alter the inexorable decline in his mental
condition.
Tchaikovsky completed his Symphony No. 6 in B Minor, Opus 74 (subsequently titled
Pathétique by his brother Modest), which was his last and which he rightly regarded as a
masterpiece, in August 1893. In October he conducted its first performance in St. Petersburg
but was disappointed with its reception. Its novel slow finale could hardly have been expected
to induce such applause as had greeted, only 1 1/2 years before, the premiere of the lighter
Nutcracker suite. Yet, perversely, Tchaikovsky did expect it and was determined to make an
issue of it with himself. Into this work, with its “secret” program, he had put his whole soul,
and the public did not appreciate it.
Tchaikovsky died nine days later. An aura of mystery surrounded Tchaikovsky's
death. The story circulated at the time of his death was that he drank a glass of unboiled water
during the cholera epidemic then sweeping the city and died of the disease. Scholarship in the
second half of the 20th century, however, has indicated that, in order to avoid a scandal, he
probably was induced to commit suicide (by poisoning) after being accused of a romantic
involvement with a male member of the imperial family. In any event, the rumour was soon
rife that he had committed suicide as a result of the failure of his last symphony, whose very
title, Pathetique, if nothing else, was enough to ensure it instant notoriety.
Many Tchaikovsky compositions - among them The Nutcracker (ballet and suite,
1891-1892), the Piano Concerto no. 2 in G Major (1880), the String Quartet no. 3 in E-flat
Minor (1876), and the Trio in A Minor for Violin, Cello, and Piano (1882) - have remained
popular with concertgoers. His most popular works are characterized by richly melodic
passages in which sections suggestive of profound melancholy frequently alternate with dance
like movements derived from folk music. Like his contemporary, Russian composer Nikolay
Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky was an exceptionally gifted striking orchestrator; his ballet
scores in particular contain many effects of orchestral coloration. His symphonic works,
popular for their melodic content, are also strong (and often unappreciated) in their abstract
thematic development. In his best operas, such as Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades,
he used highly suggestive melodic passages to depict a dramatic situation concisely and with
poignant effect. His ballets, notably Swan Lake and The Sleeping Beauty, have never been
surpassed for their melodic intensity and instrumental brilliance. Composed in close
collaboration with French-born choreographer Marius Petipa, they represent virtually the first
use of serious dramatic music for the dance since the operatic ballet of German composer
Christoph Willibald Gluck. Tchaikovsky also extended the range of the symphonic poem, and
his works in this genre, including Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet, are notable for their richly
melodic evocation of the moods of the literary works on which they are based.
Among the most subjective of composers, Tchaikovsky is inseparable from his music.
His work is a manifestation of repressed feelings that became more and more desperate in
later years and culminated in the composition of the Sixth Symphony, one of the greatest
symphonic works of its time. His music shows a wealth of melodic inspiration and
imagination and a flair for orchestration. Though his later work rejected conscious Russian
nationalism, its underlying sentiment and character are as distinctively Russian as that of the
Russian nationalist composers.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Complete the profile of the composer:

Epithets to
The most The most The most characterize his Phonetic
important important famous and music, transcription of
dates in his life events in his spectacular compositional the most
and career life and career works achievements important
and proper nouns
peculiarities

2. Match the words and their dictionary definitions:

 1) precocious a) to make something less painful or
difficult
2) bumpkin b) having developed earlier than is usual
c) done without any particular plan or
3) with ardour purpose
d) to refuse to accept something or to have
4) to alleviate a relationship with someone, especially
because you are too proud
5) to hinder e) to say something firmly and strongly
because you are sure that it is true
6) desultory f) to make it difficult for someone to do
something or for something to develop
7) to appall g) someone from the countryside who is
considered to be stupid
8) affinity h) a strong feeling that you like and
understand someone or something
9) to spurn because you share the same ideas or
interests
10) to fete i) to honour someone by holding public
celebrations for them
11) inexorable j) a natural ability to do something very
well
12) rife k) to shock someone by being very bad or
unpleasant
13) to aver l) about some process or a person that
cannot be stopped or is relentless
14) flair m) something quite common, widespread
n) with strong positive feelings

3. Read the text:

…Как я благодарен обстоятельствам моей жизни и музыкальной карьеры, которым я

обязан тем, что Моцарт для меня ни на волос не утратил своей безыскусственной,
обаятельной прелести. Вы не поверите, дорогой друг, что за чудные ощущения я испытываю,
когда погружаюсь в его музыку. Это не имеет ничего общего с теми мучительными
восторгами, которые причиняет Бетховен, Шуман, Шопен и вообще бетховенская и
послебетховенская музыка. Последняя нас тревожит, волнует, восхищает, но не ласкает, не
убаюкивает, как музыка Моцарта. Свою способность восхищаться Моцартом я приписываю
тому обстоятельству, что до семнадцати лет я, можно сказать, не знал музыки и что
только вследствие одного представления «Дон Жуана» я узнал и полюбил ее.
Люди моего поколения, с детства уже пропитанные духом современной музыки,
знакомились с Моцартом, уже привыкши, например, к Шопену, в котором так сильно сказался
и отразился байронический дух отчаяния и разочарования. Меня, к моему счастью, судьба
возрастила в семействе мало музыкальном, и вследствие того я в детстве не был отравлен
тем ядом, каким пропитана послебетховенская музыка. Так же судьба натолкнула меня в
юношеском возрасте на Моцарта и через него открыла мне неведомые горизонты
бесконечной музыкальной красоты. Знаете ли, что, играя и читая Моцарта, я чувствую себя
моложе, бодрее, почти юношей!.
(Из письма П.И. Чайковского к Н.Ф. фон Мекк от 1-5 сентября 1880 года)
 a). Find the answers to the following questions:

1). What difference does Tchaikovsky point out between his perception of Mozart’s
music and the music of Beethoven, Schumann, Chopin?
2). At what age did the great Russian composer discover for himself the world of
music? How did it happen?
3). How does Tchaikovsky describe Chopin’s music?
4). Why did Tchaikovsky consider himself “lucky” in having been brought up in a
family indifferent to music?
5). How does Mozart’s music affect him?

b). Render the text into English.

4. Use the words in capitals to form a word that fits in the space (1-11):

USE OF ENGLISH: MUSICAL GREATNESS

Like all artists, musicians are often astonishingly 1. PERFORM

precocious. It is well known, for example, that Mozart's
first public (1)…… took place when he was only six. 2. PIANO
Chopin, a skilled concert (2)…… as well as composer,
wrote his first work for piano when he was seven. In
both cases, of course, indications of (3) …… musical 3. ORDINARY
skill were recognized during childhood and encouraged.
Had their talents gone (4)……however, they would not 4. NOTICE
have had the opportunity to utilise their skill and would
never have developed their greatness. It is a (5) …… 5. SOBER
thought that thousands of potentially (6) ……artists
may have lived and died without ever knowing that they
had an inherent ability to become great. For a reason 6. STAND
which is (7) …… associated with the unusual
development of a special part of the brain, brilliant 7. DOUBT
artists frequently possess an awareness of their own
importance and a (8) …… purpose lacking in most 8. CLEAR
other people. They may also feel a tremendous (9) ……
to utilise their gifts to the full, (10)…… of the 9. COMPEL
consequences to them or to anyone else. Beethoven,
who died from illness and exhaustion, was said to have
been (11) ……to give up work until lying on his 10. REGARD
deathbed. 'I shall hear music in heaven' were his final
words. 11. WILL

5. Russia is famous for its musical traditions. Many conspicuous musicians were
born in our country. Be ready to give a talk on your favourite Russian composer of the 19th
- 20th centuries. Musical illustrations would be welcome.
 FIND RUSSIAN EQUIVALENTS TO THE POLLOWING
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS
I. Music

Symphonic music program music

Light music vocal music
Jazz music instrumental music
Pop music mood music
Beat music complex
Classical music rhythmical
Chamber music tuneful
Orchestral music monotonous
Background music

II. Music instruments:

Electronic musical instruments pan-pipe

Piano squiffer
Violin balalaika
Flute oboe
Organ horn
Clarinet English horn
Harp French horn
Viola double bass
Accordion clavichord
Guitar mandolin (e)
Saxophone harmonium
Harmonica lute
Drum rattle
Banjo harpsichord
Bagpipe(s) cornet
Street-piano (barrel-organ, hurdy-gurdy) pipe and tabor
Virginal melodeon

Sections of the orchestra:

Strings: violin, viola, cello, double bass.
Wood winds: flute, piccolo, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, double bassoon.
Brass: horn, trumpet, bugle, trombone, tuba, comet, French horn.
Percussion: kettle drum, snare drum, side-drum, glockenspiel, celesta, xylophone, gong,
triangle, cymbals, tambourine, marimba, chimes, castanets (bones).

III. Musicians:

Composer horn-player
Pianist oboist
Violinist organist
Drummer timpanist
Impresario violist
Choirmaster vocalist
Conductor (score, baton, under the baton) music master
Accompanist self-taught
Bandsman concert-goer
Jazzman flutist
Chorister (choir, chorus) ensemble (group)
Duet trio
Band quartet
Orchestra

IV. Music forms:

Melody chorus
Recital quintet
Dance (to give a dance) quartet
Polka fugue
Tango overture
Twist passacaglia
Waltz (round dance) phantasy
Song polonaise
Ballade polyphony
Aria prelude
Piece lullaby
Oratorio ragtime
Variation march
Symphony orchestral miniature
Anthem minuet
Concerto motive
Rhapsody nocturne
Sonata opus
Composition serenade
Spiritual saraband
Rondo lament
Scherzo impromptu
Suite musette
Tarantella gigue
Vocal cycle gamut (scale)
Blues arioso
Cantata opera (operetta)
Carol capriccio
Intermezzo divertimento
Introduction etude

V. Voice:

Beautiful alto
Sweet mezzo
Low soprano
Deep dramatic soprano
Loud tenor
Hoarse baritone
High-pitched bass
Round contralto
Chest mezzo-soprano
Toneless She's not in good voice tonight
Velvety opulent voice
Ringing many-voiced
Brassy sol-fa
Husky timbre
Voiceless

VI. Phrases to learn:

to play the piano, the guitar, the flute, etc

to play a melody, tune on the piano, guitar, etc
to sing a song, an aria, etc
to sing to the accompaniment of the guitar
to sing out of tune
to be in tune (out of tune)
to accompany somebody at the piano
to have an ear for music
to have an absolute pitch
to set (put) to music (to put a poem to music)
to transcribe a folk song for the piano
to interpret (I like the way s(he) interprets Beethoven's sonatas)
to appreciate music (fully, properly)
to execute a piece of music (etude, movement)
to hammer out (to introduce some innovations)
to hum (along with the music/ to yourself)
to improvise (to compose impromptu)
to have a gift for
to keep time
to beat time
to be an infant prodigy
to take up singing
to fulfill one's promise
to read music
to play by ear
to play at sight
to play from memory
to be pleasant to the ear
to relay music over a system of loudspeakers
to have taste for music
live music
benefit night
blast (to give a short blast on a trumpet/ at full blast)
to lie dormant
to have (acquire, develop) a knack for

UNIT 7. ENGLISH MUSIC (GENERAL SURVEY)

History
 Most English folk music is closely related to the songs of the dance. Folk songs are
generally syllabic and strophic, frequently with a refrain. Notable types include the ballad,
love songs of various sorts, and songs attached to particular occasions or activities, such as
carols, sea shanties, children's singing games, and street cries. Two general varieties of folk
dance exist: ritual or ceremonial dances associated with certain seasons of the year and most
often performed by costumed groups of men; and country dances, performed at social
occasions by both men and women. Ritual dances include sword, morris, and processional
dances. Dance tunes usually come from folk song and are almost always in duple meter.
Instruments used in folk music are the pipe and tabor, the small-pipes (a sort of bagpipe), and,
especially today, the fiddle, concertina, or melodeon.
England was an important musical center in the Middle Ages. The Sarum rite, a
dialect of the Roman rite originating at Salisbury Cathedral and widely influential throughout
the country, gave a local favor to the chant. Sacred polyphony was well established by the
early 11th century, and by the 13th, English polyphony had taken on traits distinguishing it
from Continental styles. In the early 15th century, John Dunstable (ca. 1390-1453) achieved
the widest reputation among several important composers. English music of that time is
usually held to have had a decisive influence on the development of Continental musical style
and compositional procedures. Thereafter, although works of high quality were written,
English music was of mainly local importance, and influences tended to run in the other
direction, from Italy and France, producing such English versions of Continental
developments as the English madrigal, the lute ayre, and the semi-opera.
The period from the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588) to the death of James I
(1625) represents one of Europe's most brilliant «golden ages». In less than forty years
England gave the world Marlowe, Webster and Bacon, the prose of Sir Walter Raleigh, the
scientific researches of Gilbert and Harvey and the music of Byrd, Gibbons, Morley, Weelkes,
Wilbye, Bull and Dowland, all geniuses of the first rank, and a host of richly talented
followers.
Elizabethan civilization was the fruit of an exceptionally favourable political and
social union. The year 1588, which saw the defeat of the «Invincible Armada», ushered in an
age inspired by a new sense of self-confidence and optimism. It was really from this moment
that music and theatre began to spread their wings. In the theatre, for which Shakespeare
wrote, music held an important place, and composers actively collaborated in plays, which
they enriched with numerous ayres accompanied on the lute or viols. Unfortunately, owing to
the essentially ephemeral nature of the occasion, much of this music is now lost.
But perhaps one of the most remarkable features of the Elizabethan age was the
popularity of music making. In a period when public concerts were still unknown, the
abundance of musical publications is explained by the great demand for music by amateurs.
Everyone sang madrigals; most sizeable households possessed a chest of viols, and the
virginal, for which the keyboard composers poured out such flood of fine music, was still
more popular - the queen, herself a devoted virginalist, setting the example. As for the lute
such was its popularity that it was even to be found in barbers' shops, so that customers might
pluck a few chords while awaiting their turn. Any young man unable to take his proper place
in a vocal or instrumental consort became the laughing-stock of the society. If the people had
opportunities to shave to the joys of music, popular music also greatly inspired composers,
and the intimate fusion of art music with popular and folk elements remains one of the
imperishable charms of the music of this golden age. Excepting large choral and orchestral
works, Elizabethan music embraces every style and genre. But although it cannot offer us
anything comparable to the large-scale splendour of the Venetians, the beauties of the
keyboard and chamber music may be regarded as ample compensation.
 Religious music plays a definitely lesser role compared with the preceding period,
even though it is represented by the masterpieces of Byrd and Gibbons, not to mention those
of Morley, Weelkes, Tomkins and Peter Philips. Apart from Philips, Byrd was the only
composer in England to write music for Latin texts.
England was the first country to liberate harpsichord music from organ music and to
form a distinct harpsichord style independent of organ technique. For fifty years,
approximately the latter half of the sixteenth century, English composers avidly produced
secular pieces for keyboard instruments. There are various but not always verifiable reasons
for the popularity of virginal music at this time. The virginal was a great favourite of the
English monarchs. Following the royal fashion, English society took up the virginal; William
Shakespeare immortalized the instrument in his «Sonnet to a Lady Playing the Virginal»
(Sonnet 128).
The most famous virginal music composers in England were William Byrd (1542-
1623), John Bull (1562-1628), Giles Farnaby (ca. 1560-1640), and Orlando Gibbons (1583-
1625).
The Puritan Commonwealth of the mid-17th century greatly disrupted the English
musical tradition; however, the late 17th century produced several distinguished figures,
including Henry Purcell (1659-95), one of England's greatest composers. The 18th and 19th
centuries were in general a low point in the vitality of native English music, unless Handel is
considered to have become an English composer, a not untenable assertion, so completely was
his music absorbed into the native tradition. Much of English musical life, particularly that of
London, was dominated in this period by foreign musicians attracted by the country's wealth
and the large public provided by its sizeable middle class. The native tradition survived in
church music and in local genres such as the catch, the glee, and the ballad opera which
developed in the late 18th century into the English comic opera and eventually led in the latter
part of the 19th century to the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan, which constitute almost the
only part of English 19th-century music surviving in the repertory.
Thus in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries English musicians had a great
reputation in Europe, both for their talent and for their originality. Today there is a revival of
interest in these neglected composers. It was their experiments in keyboard music which
helped to form the base from which grew most of the great harpsichord and piano music of
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
With Edward Elgar (1857-1934), England produced its first native composer of
international importance since Purcell. In the early 20th century an English nationalist school
flowered with Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958), Gustav Holst (1874-1934), and others.
William Walton (1902-83), Michael Tippett (b. 1905), and Benjamin Britten (1913-76)
dominated their generation. Today many people believe that there has been a reflowering of
English music, and that the compositions of some contemporary composers will live on after
their deaths. The music of Michael Tippett, Benjamin Britten and William Walton is
performed all over the world.
Benjamin Britten was not modern in the musical sense of the word, but he was modern
in his attitude towards his public. He has been called a «people's composer» because he
composed music, particularly operas and choral works, that can be sung by ordinary people
and by children. Some of his operas, such as Nqyes Fludde (Noah's Flood) are performed in
churches every year, and people from the surrounding area sing and act in them. The festival
which he started in his little home town, Aldeburgh, on the North Sea coast of Suffolk, has
become one of the most important musical festivals in Britain.
Benjamin Britten's music, however, is traditional compared with the works of many of
the younger generation of composers. Younger composers of achievement include Richard
Rodney Bennett (b. 1936), Harrison Birtwhistle (b. 1934), and Peter Maxwell Davies (b.
1934).
The music of composers like Peter Maxwell Davies, Richard Rodney Bennett and
John Tavener are having considerable influence abroad. It is significant that Richard Rodney
Bennett is a very fine trumpeter and once played the piano in a jazz band, for the dividing
lines between serious music on the one hand and jazz, pop and folk music on the other, are
becoming less and less clear, and the influence that they are having on one another is
increasing. Many twentieth-century British composers, including Vaughan Williams, Tippett
and Britten, have been attracted and influenced by old English folk songs.

Contemporary musical life and related institutions: much of English musical life is
centered in London, but there is considerable activity outside the capital as well.
Decentralization is encouraged by the Arts Council of Great Britain, which, since 1946, has
been the agency that distributes government subsidies to the arts.
Early music: an interest in performing and listening to old music is something of an
English tradition, as evidenced by the concerts of the Academy of Ancient Music in 18th-
century London, which had hardly a parallel elsewhere in Europe at the time. Arnold
Dolmetsch (1853-I940), the central figure in the beginning of the modern revival of early-
music performance, spent most of his career in England and firmly planted the movement
there. The work of English musicians, such as David Munrow (1942-76) and his Early Music
Consort (1967), was important in arousing audience interest in early music beginning in the
1960s. English activity in this field flourishes at present, with many groups of varied scope,
such as the Academy of Ancient Music (1973), which recreates the mid-18th-century
orchestra with authentic instruments.
The two principal opera companies in London are the Royal Opera at Covent Garden
and the English National Opera (formerly Sadler's Wells), which performs in English, at
lower prices, and usually without the great international stars, at the Coliseum. There are also
more modest companies, such as the English Music Theatre Company, some of which mostly
tour outside London.
Opera is a feature of several English festivals, including Camden, Aldeburgh, and,
most notably, Glyndebourne. Occasional productions at English universities have helped
awaken interest in works outside the standard repertory. Those at Cambridge in the 1920s and
1930s were of particular historical importance in this respect.
Performing groups. Orchestras and choruses: London is remarkable for its four
major symphony orchestras, the London Symphony (founded in 1904), London Philharmonic
(1932), Philharmonia (1945), and Royal Philharmonic (1946). The London Philharmonic and
Royal Philharmonic are the result of the activities of Sir Thomas Beecham (1879-1961). The
BBC Symphony (1930) is based in London and gives public concerts. There are several
excellent symphony orchestras outside London, including the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic
(1840), and the Halle Orchestra of Manchester (1858).
Chamber orchestras became an important part of London musical life through such
groups as the London Chamber Orchestra (1921) and the Boyd Neel Orchestra (1932). The
tradition they began has been carried on by several excellent newer ones, including the
Academy of St. Martin-in-the-Fields (1959), the English Chamber Orchestra (1960), and the
London Sinfonietta (1968), which specializes in 20th-century music.
Choral performance has been traditional in England for several centuries and remains
popular today, although the tendency to have mammoth choruses singing Handel oratorios so
much favored in the 19th century, has been somewhat tempered by the changing taste and
greater historical consciousness of the 20th. Amateur choral societies are common throughout
the country. Among the many in London are the Royal Choral Society (1871), the Bach Choir
(1875), and the London Bach Society (1946). London also has several excellent chamber
choruses, including the Monteverdi Choir (1964). Cathedral choirs and such well-known
bodies as the choir of King's College, Cambridge, are also important elements in English
choral music.
Music festivals have constituted a flourishing tradition in England since the 18th
century, and they are at present almost innumerable. The Three Choirs Festival, begun around
1715 and almost certainly one of the oldest in Europe, represents the traditional type of choral
festivals, of which several others also survive. Its site alternates among the homes of its
choirs, Hereford, Gloucester, and Worcester. Among older English festivals, that at
Haslemere was founded by Dolmetsch in 1925 to feature early music, and the Glyndebourne
Festival, founded in 1934, early achieved and maintains an international reputation for its
production of operas as integrated dramatic works.
Many British festivals began after World War II. They include the Alderburgh
Festival (1948), long dominated by the personality of its founder, Benjamin Britten; the Bath
Festival (1948), since 1959 similarly associated with Yehudi Menuhin; the English Bach
Festival (1963); and the Tilford Bach Festival (1952) and others.
A festival of sorts and long a central feature of London summers are the Henry Wood
Promenade Concerts («Proms») (1895), mostly given at the Royal Albert Hall.
Education: many aspects of musical activity in England were dominated by foreigners
in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and the idea of conservatories and music schools to train
native musicians developed slowly. The leading schools are the Royal Academy of Music
(1822), the Royal College of Music (1883), both in London, and the Royal Northern College
of Music in Manchester (1792). Other important schools include Trinity College of Music
(1872) of the University of London and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama (1880),
London.
The first degrees in music known to have been conferred by a university were awarded
at Cambridge in the 15th century, and a professorship of music was created there in the 17th.
Oxford awarded music degrees from the early 16th century and in the 17 th instituted a
lectureship that grew into a professorship, but the establishment of music in anything like a
regular, systematic, and modern way as part of the university curriculum at any university in
England was almost entirely a 20th-century development. About a dozen English universities
now have full music programs.
Rock and pop music: the most classless art form, rock and pop music, is listened to by
«princes and paupers». It also crosses national barriers as easily as class barriers. Every year
about 40 per cent of the best-selling singles in Europe are British and about ten British singles
get to number one in the United States.
The people who put Britain at the front of the pop revolution of the 1960s were The
Beatles. Before The Beatles, British pop music was based on rock’n’roll exported from the
USA by singers like Elvis Presley.
Then in the early 1960s the new British sound was heard, very different from anything
which had so far come from the American side of the Atlantic. This was the Liverpool, or
Merseyside, “beat”. Situated on the River Mersey in the northwestern corner of the industrial
Black Country, Liverpool was not a place which anyone visited for fun. Until the 1960s it was
known only as one of Britain's largest ports. Then, almost overnight, it became world famous
as the birthplace of the new pop culture which, in a few years, swept across Britain and
America, and across most of the countries of the western world.

Questions on the Text

 1. Briefly outline the main stages of English music history. When did the modern
renaissance of British music begin? Who took an active part in its development?
2. Name some prominent composers of the younger generation.
3. What are the main opera companies in England? Where are operas performed?
4. Name the major symphony orchestras of England. Who founded the London
Philharmonic and Royal Philharmonic?
5. What music festivals are held in Britain? Which of them is associated with the name
of Benjamin Britten?
6. Find in the text the passage where the Henry Wood Promenade Concerts are
mentioned. What does the word Prom mean? What kind of concerts are Proms? Where are
they held?
7. What are the main musical educational institutions in England?
8. Write a summary of the text about music in England.

BYRD, WILLIAM

William Byrd (b. 1543, Lincoln, Lincolnshire, England - d. July 4, 1623, Stondon
Massey, Essex) was an outstanding English organist and composer of the Shakespearean age
who is best known for his development of the English madrigal. He also wrote virginal and
organ music that elevated the English keyboard style. Byrd was the leading English composer
of his generation, and together with his continental colleagues Giovanni Palestrina (c. 1525-
1594) and Orlando de Lassus (1532-1594), one of the acknowledged great masters of the late
Renaissance. Byrd is considered by many the greatest English composer of any age, and
indeed his substantial volume of high quality compositions in every genre of the time makes it
easy to consider him the greatest composer of the Renaissance - his versatility and genius
outshining those of Palestrina and Lassus in a self-evident way. English music of the period
was amazingly rich, dominating the music of the continent in depth and variety, in a way that
was not seen before or since. Also, Byrd's pre-eminent position at the beginning of music
publication in England allowed him to leave a substantial printed legacy at the inception of
many important musical forms. It would be impossible to overestimate his subsequent
influence on the music of England, the Low Countries, and Germany.
Of Byrd's origins and early life virtually nothing is known. He was a pupil and protégé
of the organist and composer Thomas Tallis, and his first authenticated appointment was as
organist at Lincoln cathedral (Feb. 27, 1563). In 1572 he moved to London to take up his post
as a gentleman of the Royal Chapel of Queen Elizabeth, where he shared the duties of
organist with Tallis. The close personal and professional relationship between the two men
had important musical consequences. In 1575 Elizabeth I granted them a joint monopoly for
the importing, printing, publishing, and sale of music, and the printing of music paper. The
first work under their imprint appeared in that year - a collection of Cantiones Sacrae
dedicated to the Queen; of the 34 motets, Tallis contributed 16 and Byrd 18. Byrd also
contributed heavily to the developing genre of the English Anthem (including the newer
“verse” style with organ accompaniment), composing his widely regarded “Great Service” in
this format. However, it was his Latin music that he chose to publish. In 1577 Byrd moved to
Harlington, Middlesex, where he and his family lived for the next 15 years. As a devout and
lifelong Catholic he probably preferred the greater privacy of living outside London. Yet in
spite of his close social contact with many other Catholics, some of whom were certainly
implicated in treasonable activities, his own loyalty to the government was never questioned.
In 1585 Tallis died, and in the following year Byrd's wife, Julian.
 These sad events may have prompted him to set his musical house in order, for in the
next three years he published four collections of his own music: Psalms, Sonets, & Songs of
Sadness & Pietie (1588), Songs of Sundrie Natures (1589), and two further books of
Cantiones Sacrae (1589 and 1591). The two secular volumes were dedicated, respectively, to
Sir Christopher Hatton, the Lord Chancellor, and to Lord Hunsdon, the Lord Chamberlain and
first cousin to the Queen. Both volumes of motets were dedicated to prominent Catholics: the
Earl of Worcester, a great friend and patron of Byrd's, whose loyalty to the crown was
unimpeachable, and Lord Lumley.
Also in 1591 a manuscript volume of Byrd's keyboard music was prepared for “my
Ladye Nevell” (probably Rachel, wife of Sir Edward Nevill), while many more keyboard
pieces found their way into the volume known as the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, copied by
another well-known Catholic, Francis Tregian, during his imprisonment in the Fleet.
In 1592 or 1593 Byrd moved with his family to Stondon Massey, Essex, where he
lived for the rest of his life. At the accession of James I, the Catholics' prospects temporarily
brightened, and this probably prompted Byrd's next three publications. In his collection of
three masses and two books of Gradualia (1605, 1607), he attempted to provide single-handed
a basic liturgical repertory, comprising music for the ordinary (i.e., the unvarying parts of the
mass) and for the proper (i.e., the parts of the mass that vary according to the day or the feast)
of all main feasts. Byrd composed three Latin Masses (for three, four, and five voices) during
the period 1593-1595. These masses are unusual not only because they could no longer have a
liturgical function, but also because they include settings of the “Kyrie”-something not
previously done in English mass composition. The masses show Byrd in a reflective mode: it
would seem that he composed these cycles as exercises, as easily performable functional
music, and as historical examples. Though they are straightforward in design, the masses
possess a “classical” quality of precision and balance. Their simple expression and
contrapuntal concision make them unique in Renaissance music, and early examples of the
classical spirit which was to dominate Europe two hundred years after Byrd's time.
Following the three masses, Byrd produced his unparalleled legacy in sacred choral
composition the two huge volumes of “Gradualia”(1605 & 1607). These publications consist
of many short pieces of liturgical music, set in verse sections, which can be combined in
various ways to form liturgically accurate Propers cycles for every significant feast and votive
mass of the Roman Catholic Rite. Technically, this achievement is immense - it involves
setting every possible Propers verse with the appropriate chant melody, and then providing
instructions for assembling each of the cycles from the relevant verses. Byrd's invigoration by
formal demands is clearly in evidence here, as well as his keen intellect in devising these
pieces to fit together in such a manner. Though most of us cannot appreciate their liturgical
design, the concision and clarity of the short pieces making up these books of Gradualia are
impressive. These publications comprise one of the supreme testaments in Western music.
It is significant that the dedicatees of both books of Gradualia were prominent
Catholics ennobled within the first years of James's reign: the Earl of Northampton and Lord
Petre of Writtle, another close friend of Byrd's. One further publication came from Byrd, the
Psalmes, Songs and Sonnets of 1611, containing English sacred and secular music.
The final - and perhaps most impressive - examples of Byrd's immense legacy of
compositions are his keyboard pieces. Most of these were unpublished during his lifetime
(due to the technical demands of keyboard engraving). In addition, a few of Byrd's keyboard
compositions were published along with some of John Bull's and Orlando Gibbons' in the first
English publication of keyboard music, “Parthenia” in 1612/13. Though precise instruments
were seldom specified at the time, most of Byrd's keyboard music sounds most idiomatic on
the virginal/harpsichord, a lesser volume on the organ (his own instrument). This music
apparently had a lively tradition of home performance, as witnessed by Byrd's compilation for
his patron/pupil Lady Nevell as well as evidence that such a high figure as Queen Mary
learned to play the virginal. Byrd's compositions include all the major genres of the time: the
austere fantasia, the rhythmically advanced pavan & galliard pair, and the virtuosic variation
set. Byrd's keyboard music is the earliest substantial legacy in Western music, making him the
first genius of the keyboard. These pieces show a substantial development of style, from the
more polyphonically oriented counterpoint of the earlier works to the demanding and
idiomatic keyboard writing of the later works. The early music begins as an impressive
example of melodically engaging keyboard writing, and slowly develops into the later music
of involved formal investigation, rhythmic ingenuity, and - ultimately - transfiguration. In the
later years of his life, Byrd increasingly took up writing pieces in the paired dance forms of
Pavan & Galliard; his series of works in this genre bear witness to his compositional
virtuosity as convincingly as the comparable keyboard cycles of J. S. Bach's Preludes &
Fugues and Beethoven's Sonatas. His most impressive pieces in this form include the “Passing
Measures Pavan & Galliard” and the “Quadran Pavan & Galliard”, each superimposing a
strict variation structure on these serious dance forms. The formal demands Byrd sets for
himself in these works are enormous, and the verve and depth with which he carries them off
is as incredible as any piece of Western instrumental writing.
Byrd's musical stature can hardly be overrated. He wrote extensively for every
medium then available except, it seems the lute. His virginal and organ music brought the
English keyboard style to new heights and pointed the way to the achievements of other
English composers, such as John Bull, Giles Farnaby, Orlando Gibbons, and Thomas
Tomkins. In music for viol consort he also played an extremely important role, pioneering the
development of the freely composed fantasia, which was to become the most important form
of Jacobean and later composers. Although he admired Italian madrigals and as a publisher
helped introduce them to England, Byrd's own secular vocal music is distinctly conservative;
much of it is conceived for the old-fashioned medium of solo voice accompanied by viol
consort, later abandoned by the English madrigalists, with Thomas Morley (Byrd's pupil) at
their head. Byrd sometimes added texts to the polyphonic accompaniments of these songs, in
effect making them madrigals. Byrd's religious beliefs did not prevent him from composing a
great deal of church music to English words, most of which has survived only in manuscript.
Although this is of generally high quality it cannot be denied that Byrd maintained his highest
consistent level in his Latin sacred music. Of this, the 1589 and 1591 sets of Cantiones Sacrae
(mostly designed for the private edification of the Catholic circles Byrd moved in and
therefore unrestricted by liturgical considerations) have intensity unrivalled in England and a
breadth of scale unknown on the Continent. Although the Gradualia are necessarily more
concise and superficially more similar to the work of Giovanni da Palestrina and Tomas Luis
de Victoria, with which Byrd was well acquainted, closer examination reveals their real
individuality as well as an astonishingly consistent level of inspiration.
Taken together, Byrd's huge legacy of music - several hundred individual compositions
- makes him one of the most brilliant composers in Western history. His vocal music has
retained its popularity from his own time directly into ours, and his other music is now
growing in appreciation as it is rediscovered. In particular, Byrd's position in the history of
keyboard music is once again assured, and his contribution to the development of the North
German virtuoso style is now firmly established.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Complete the profile of the composer:

Epithets to
 The most The most The most characterize his Phonetic
important important famous and music, transcription of
dates in his life events in his spectacular compositional the most
and career life and career works achievements important
and proper nouns
peculiarities

2. Match the words and their synonyms or synonymous expressions:

1. LEGACY A. TO AWARD SOMEBODY SHARED

CONTROL OR POSSESSION OF SOMETHING
2. AUTHENTICATED APPOINTMENT
B. PERSONAL IMPROVEMENT BY MEANS OF
3. TO GRANT A JOINT MONOPOLY FOR GIVING INSTRUCTIONS
C. TO BE APPRECIATED MORE THAN YOU
4. INVIGORATION
DESERVE
5. UNDER THE IMPRINT D. CERTIFIED OR VERIFIED POST
E. A SET OF OLD-FASHIONED INSTRUMENTS
6. INCEPTION
F. INHERITANCE
7. TO SET ONE’S MUSICAL HOUSE IN ORDER G. BEGINNING
H. ENTHUSIASM, VIGOUR
8. TO BE OF SUNDRIE(Y) NATURE
I. TO GROUP AND CLASSIFY ONE’S MUSICAL
9. TO BE OVERRATED WORKS
J. FLEXIBILITY, ADAPTABILITY
10. VERVE
K. PROCESS OF ENERGIZING
11. VERSATILITY L. TO BELONG TO VARIOUS SMALL ITEMS
M. WITH THE NAME OF A PUBLISHER ON A
12. TREASONABLE
BOOK
13.VIOL CONSORT N. DISLOYAL, TREACHEROUS AGAINST
YOUR COUNTRY OR GOVERNMENT
14. PRIVATE EDIFICATION

3. Read the text below and complete it using the words and expressions from the box:

“Cantiones Sacrae”; Catholic; endeavors; fashion; implications; inception; loyalty; popular;

predilection; represent; secular; services; setting; sole holder; substantial;
the Royal Chapel of Queen Elizabeth; titles; took up; versatile; vocal ensembles;
widely performed

Byrd was probably born in Lincoln where he __ 1__ the post of organist at an early age.
Later he accepted a position in __2__, and retired at the age of fifty to a home at Stondon
Massey near the Essex estate of one of his richest patrons, Sir John Petre. Byrd was a __ 3__ in
Protestant England, and though this position demanded a certain amount of seclusion and
discretion, his __4__ to the Crown was never in doubt. Indeed, Byrd continued to enjoy the
favor of the Queen, as well as continuation of his privilege as __ 5__ of the publishing
monopoly which had been awarded jointly to Byrd and Thomas Tallis (his teacher) before the
latter's death. Byrd was able to publish Latin sacred music throughout his life, though
opportunities for public performance in a liturgical __6__ would not have existed. These
pieces were apparently performed in private residences, either as Latin songs in a setting
similar to that of secular music, or at secret Catholic religious __7__. In either case, Byrd's
Latin works were well-known during his lifetime, and continue to be the most __ 8__ of his
compositions.
In 1575 __9__, a joint collection with Thomas Tallis, was published. Though this
publication was not especially successful, Byrd followed it up with two more: of 1589 and
1591. These “sacred songs” would be called motets on the continent, and __ 10__ the most
significant English contribution to the motet repertory. The motets are almost exclusively for
five-voice __11__, with the most varied counterpoint and text selections. Though these texts
are all sacred in origin, many of them have political __ 12__, illustrating Byrd's fringe position
as a Catholic composer. Some of these motets are much more popular than others, but all are
of uniformly high quality, showing Byrd's __ 13__ for precisely controlled counterpoint put to
the service of the syllabic expression of text. Byrd also published numerous smaller scale
songs: “Psalmes, Sonets & Songs” (1588), “Songs of Sundrie Natures” (1589) & “Psalmes,
Songs & Sonnets” (1611). As their __ 14__ indicate, these collections contain songs in a
variety of genres, from sacred to English __ 15__. These pieces were published with text
underlay to each part, as was the __ 16__ at the time, but Byrd also indicates that they can be
performed with a single singer with viol consort accompaniment - a specifically English
practice. Many of these songs continue to be extremely__17__, straight through from the time
of their __18__ to today. Byrd also composed a fairly __19__ volume of consort music: viol
fantasias, variations and dances of three to six parts. Though not as singularly impressive and
influential as many of his other compositional __ 20__, these works are of high quality, in
keeping with Byrd's __21__ genius.

ANDREW LLOYD WEBBER

There is only one word to describe Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber - he is a phenomenon.
He has brought to the stage a number of inventive and spectacular shows with one thing in
common - gorgeous music which has captured the imagination of the world.
Andrew Lloyd Webber comes from a musical background. He was born in 1948, the
son of the composer and principal of the London College of Music, William Lloyd Webber.
This classic upbringing has been the mainstay of his career for, in his inventiveness to widen
musical boundaries, he has often followed the example of previous greats to come up with
something quite original.
His love of music brought him together with Tim (now Sir Tim) Rice, a young law
student. Their collaboration had a false start for their first show based on Doctor Barnard, but
a piece that started off as a simple 15 minute cantata for children was recognized as being a
work of talent, and gradually they expanded it to what is now “Joseph And The Amazing
Technicolour Dreamcoat”. It was, however, “Jesus Christ Superstar”, their second venture
into the bible for inspiration, which first brought them fame. It was initially produced as a
record and it made the hit parade in the States where it was presented on Broadway after a
series of concert versions. It did not reach London until 1972, just months before the extended
“Joseph” arrived. The two hits from “Superstar” were “Superstar” and “I Don’t Know How
To Love Him” and together with “Any Dream Will Do” from “Joseph”, they represent the
earliest moments of Lloyd Webber’s career.
Following the pattern set by “Superstar”, the collaborators released their next work on
record before launching a stage version. For this they left the Holy Land and moved to South
America for the story of Eva Peron, the wife of the dictator of Argentina. “Evita” took
London by storm in 1978 and became an international success. From this hit-packed show
one can single out two beautiful melodies: “Don’t Cry For Me Argentina” and “Another
Suitcase In Another Hall”.
Andrew Lloyd Webber split with Tim Rice after “Evita” and decided on a completely
different direction for his next project, taking the works of poet T.S.Eliot and adapting them
for the musical “Cats”. His greatest hit song of all, “Memory”, comes from this superb show
and we can also add “Mr. Mistoffelees” to this collection.
After “Cats” the surprise hit was “Song And Dance”, a show that was originally put on
for a short season featuring his short television one-woman piece “Tell Me On A Sunday” and
his variations on the themes of Paganini which he had written for his brother Julian to play;
for the stage version, dance was added and another hit was created.
“Starlight Express” and its multi-talented roller skating company took over the Apollo
Victoria in 1984 and it has been racing trains ever since. It is Lloyd Webber’s most pop-
orientated musical since “Superstar” and its sheer inventiveness has made it another world
wide hit. The hit song “Only You” proves that the score is equally inventive.
The question that always follows a new Lloyd Webber show is “How does he follow
that?” Well, with “The Phantom Of The Opera” he topped them all. This is a romantic tale
written with his most romantic of music with “The Phantom’s” own “Music Of The Night”
perhaps the most haunting piece of all. He followed it with more romance in “Aspects of
Love”, a multi-triangular love story. “Love Changes Everything” is its major theme. Andrew
Lloyd Webber, the hit show and hit song maker, continued his run of hits with his show
“Sunset Boulevard” and it won’t be long before many of the songs from this will join the long
list of memorable classics. His new musical, “Whistle Down the Wind”, opened in
Washington in December 1996.
Andrew Lloyd Webber’s awards include six Tony Awards, four Drama Desk Awards,
three Grammys (including the award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition for
“Requiem” in 1986), and five Laurence Olivier awards. His most recent awards are two
Tonys for Best Score and Best Musical for “Sunset Boulevard”.
Lloyd Webber was the first person to have three musicals running in New York and
three in London simultaneously, a record he achieved in 1982, 1988, and again in 1994. He is
the first recipient of the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers’ Triple Play
Award. In January 1996 the London production of “Cats” became the longest running musical
in West End Theatre history.
In 1988 he was awarded Fellowship of the Royal College of Music, and in 1992 he
was awarded a Knighthood for services to the arts. Andrew Lloyd Webber was inducted into
the American Songwriters’ Hall of Fame and given the Praemium Imperiale Award for
Excellence in Musical Theatre.
ASSIGNMENTS

1. Complete the profile of the composer:

Epithets to
The most The most The most characterize his Phonetic
important important famous and music, transcription of
dates in his life events in his spectacular compositional the most
and career life and career works achievements important
and proper nouns
peculiarities
 2. Match the words, their definitions and their synonyms:

1. SPECTACULAR A. TO TAKE OR OBTAIN BY a. backbone

FORCE OR SKILL
2. GORGEOUS B. LINGERING IN THE MIND b. dazzling, sensational
C. SHOWS THAT A STATE OR
3. CAPTURE SITUATION IS COMPLETE c. endeavour, undertaking
D. VERY IMPRESSIVE OR
4. MAINSTAY DRAMATIC d. persistent, evocative
E. THE MOST BASIC PART OR
5. VENTURE CHIEF SUPPORT OF SMTH e. pure, total, absolute
F. GIVING A LOT OF
6. SHEER PLEASURE OR VERY f. arrest, seize
ATTRACTIVE
7. HAUNTING G. A PROJECT OR ACTIVITY g. lovely, ravishing
WHICH IS NEW, EXCITING
AND INVOLVES THE RISK
OF FAILURE

3. Read the text below and complete it using the words and expressions from the box:

MOSCOW CATS

theme song; has raked; lyrics; junkyard; retrospect; course; break the record; to host

When Andrew Lloyd Webber first played “Memory”, the __ 1__ from Cats, to his
family, his father remarked that “it sounds like a million dollars”. In __ 2__, that was a gigantic
understatement.
Since its 1981 London premiere, Cats __3__ in more than two billion dollars
worldwide, broken all possible box office records, and changed the __ 4__ of modern theatre –
a pretty impressive feat for a musical about __5__ cats. Cats has been the longest-running
musical ever both on Broadway and in London’ West End, but Russian producers plan to
__6__.
The Moscow Youth Palace was totally reconstructed __ 7__ the Russian version of the
famous musical. Subtle Eliot’s __8__ were translated by Alexei Kortnev, Russian songwriter,
singer, actor and experienced musical producer.

UNIT 8. AMERICAN MUSIC (GENERAL SURVEY)

American Music is the folk, popular, and classical music of the United States—created
by American-born or American-trained composers, or originating in American culture, or
written primarily for American audiences.

The colonial roots of American music are English. The first book printed in the
English colonies was the Bay Psalm Book. Its ninth edition (1698) contained 13 psalm tunes,
all of them from Europe; some, including “Old Hundred,” are still sung. After 1750 native-
born composers in New England established a distinctive religious music. Spread through
“singing schools” (informal courses of musical instruction), Yankee hymnody—with its
angular melodies and open-fifth chords—was unconventional by European standards. A
favorite form was the fuguing tune, a four-part piece that began like a hymn and ended like a
round. The most famous of the New England “tunesmiths” was William Billings, whose
collection The New England Psalm Singer (1770) marked the appearance of the new style.
His colleagues included Oliver Holden and Daniel Read.
Some religious sects, such as the Ephrata Cloisters Community, the Shakers, and the
Moravians, also produced original music, which, however, failed to have lasting influence on
American musical styles. One Shaker melody, “'Tis a Gift to Be Simple,” became famous
when it was used by the composer Aaron Copland in his ballet Appalachian Spring (1944).
The Moravians, who were musically the most prolific and sophisticated of these sects, re-
created in their chamber and church music the instrumental music of their Old World German
culture. The three string trios written about 1780 by the Moravian composer John Antes were
the first chamber works composed in the colonies.
Political songs, broadsides (one-page song sheets), dance music, and piano music—
largely reflecting English models or imported from England—were also published during this
era. Among such tunes of English origin are “The Star-Spangled Banner” (1814), with words
by the American lawyer and poet Francis Scott Key; “Yankee Doodle” (pub. about 1780); and
“America” (1831), with words by the American clergyman and poet Samuel F. Smith. The
lawyer, author, and politician Francis Hopkinson was one of the first Americans to compose
secular music; he is best known for his Seven Songs for the Harpsichord (1788). Professional
European-born musicians resided in several of the larger cities; among them were the
English-born James Hewitt in New York City and the German-born Alexander Reinagle, a
composer of ballad operas in Philadelphia.
After the American Revolution, European taste reasserted itself in church music. The
music of the New England tunesmiths was scorned as “unscientific” by such composers as
Thomas Hastings and William Batchelder Bradbury. The dominant figure was Lowell Mason,
who had a profound influence on 19th century musical life in America. Besides introducing
music into the Boston schools in 1838, he composed more than 1200 hymns and compiled
five major collections of church music, the most important and most successful being The
Boston Handel and Haydn Society Collection of Church Music (1822). Several of Mason's
descendants became performers and teachers of music, as well as builders of pianos and
organs; his grandson, Daniel Gregory Mason, was a respected composer of impressionistic
and romantic music.
Traditional New England religious music migrated to the South, where a new kind of
folk hymnody emerged from the camp meetings of the religious revival movement. Close to
modern gospel tunes in their repetitious, catchy refrains, the revival hymns and spirituals
include such well-known examples as “Amazing Grace” and “Wayfaring Stranger.” Southern
folk hymns were typically printed in “shape notes,” an easy-to-read system of notation in
which the notes had different shapes to represent the seven syllables of the scale. The shape-
note collection of greatest and most lasting popularity was The Sacred Harp (1844) of
Benjamin Franklin White and E. J. King.
American classical music was in its infancy during this period. The most noteworthy
classical composer was Bohemian-born Anthony Philip Heinrich, a romantic who wrote
several descriptive symphonies and a massive collection of songs and piano pieces, The
Dawning of Music in Kentucky (1820).
The presence of the African in America surfaced in popular music in the blackface
minstrel show. Its characteristic white, four-man troupe was defined by the Virginia Minstrels
in the 1840s, performing on banjo, tambourine, bone castanets, and fiddle. The banjo virtuoso
Daniel Decatur Emmett was the outstanding composer of minstrel songs; his best-known
work is “Dixie” (1859). By mid-century the first blacks began to perform in minstrel shows.
 Genuine African American music was already established in oral tradition at the
beginning of the 19th century. The first published collection of it, Slave Songs of the United
States, appeared in 1867. Among the famous tunes the collection contains are “Michael, Row
Your Boat Ashore” and “Roll, Jordan, Roll.” After the Civil War, the fund-raising concerts of
the Fisk University Jubilee Singers made such spirituals the first African American folk music
to reach a national and international audience.
Parlor songs overflowed with sentiment, lavished on the ordinary aspects of domestic
life. One example is “The Old Arm Chair” (1840) by the English singer Henry Russell, who
barnstormed the United States in the 1830s and '40s. Russell's American successors included
the Hutchinson family, who espoused in song such causes as abolition and woman suffrage.
The greatest songwriter of the period, and perhaps of the century, was Stephen Collins
Foster, who composed songs for the famous Christy Minstrels, such as “Oh, Susanna” (1848)
and “Camptown Races” (1850), and parlor songs, such as “I Dream of Jeanie with the Light
Brown Hair” (1854) and “Beautiful Dreamer” (1864). Foster was immortalized by his folk
like melodies and his ability to combine Anglo-Irish and African American idioms with those
of Italian operatic song. Notable composers after Foster were Henry Clay Work, George Root,
and James Bland.
In classical music, Americans favored pianists, and the first great American keyboard
virtuoso, the New Orleans-born Louis Moreau Gottschalk, became an international celebrity.
The best of his salon music for piano—such as “La Bamboula” (the name of a dance) and “Le
Banjo”—blended an exotic mixture of Afro-Caribbean rhythms, Creole melodies, and
romantic pyrotechnics.
The country's first orchestra was the New York Philharmonic Society, founded in
1842. Outstanding symphonic and operatic composers during this period were rare. The most
prominent was William Henry Fry, who composed Leonora, the first opera by an American; it
was performed in Philadelphia in 1845. Fry is best remembered, however, for four
symphonies written in the 1850s and '60s. George F. Bristow wrote the first opera on an
American theme; his Rip Van Winkle was performed in New York City in 1855.
In the decades after the Civil War, classical music came of age in the U.S.
Conservatories were founded (Peabody Institute, 1860; Oberlin College Conservatory of
Music, 1865; New England Conservatory, 1867); concert halls were built (Carnegie Hall,
1891); and orchestras were established in more cities, including the Chicago Symphony
Orchestra (1891), led by the first American virtuoso conductor, Theodore Thomas.
The music of the German romantics Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms formed
the model for most American composers of the late 19th century, of whom the largest number
belonged to a New England-based circle known as the Boston Group. Members of the group
included John Knowles Paine; Arthur Foote; George Chadwick, known for his Symphonic
Sketches (1907) and his opera Judith (1901); Horatio Parker, whose cantata Hora Novissima
(1892) was widely performed; and Amy Cheney Beach, generally referred to as Mrs. H. H. H.
Beach, whose Gaelic Symphony (1896) was the first symphony written by an American
woman.
The most prominent composer of classical music, however, was not part of this New
England school. Edward Mac Dowell sought his own inspiration in the “new German school”
represented by the Hungarian composer Franz Liszt and the German composer Richard
Wagner. Mac Dowell's works, written between 1880 and 1902, are mainly for piano. They
include 2 piano concertos and 16 collections of character pieces. His single most famous work
is “To a Wild Rose,” from Woodland Sketches (1896).
The next generation reacted against the Germanic cast of Mac Dowell and of the New
England school. Some composers used indigenous folk music; among them, Arthur Farwell
drew on Indian music, and Henry F. Gilbert utilized African American music. Influences of
the French impressionists and of the composers of the Russian School, particularly Aleksandr
Scriabin, appeared first in the music of Charles Tomlinson Griffes, in such compositions as
Tone-Image and Four Impressions.
The most original and, indeed, the first truly great American classical composer was
Charles Ives, whose use of polytonality and dissonance made him a modernist prophet. In
such works as Three Places in New England (1903-14), for orchestra, the Second Piano
Sonata, Concord, Massachusetts, 1840-1860 (1920), and the choral work General Booth
Enters into Heaven (1914), Ives combined quotations of gospel, ragtime, and parlor music
with complex symphonic and chamber structures.
The most prominent American musician at the end of the century was John Philip
Sousa, the leader of a large concert band, and a world-famous figure. Known as the March
King, Sousa composed about 140 marches, including “Semper Fidelis” (1888) and “The Stars
and Stripes Forever” (1897).
Popular music became big business in the 1890s, especially after Charles K. Harris
wrote “After the Ball” (1892), which sold a million copies. Music publishers clustered in
Union Square in New York City, nicknaming it Tin Pan Alley. In the following ten years two
African American styles, ragtime and blues, demonstrated their commercial potential.
Ragtime, which evolved from minstrel songs, was a heavily syncopated music; its greatest
composer was Scott Joplin, one of whose piano pieces, “Maple Leaf Rag” (1899), started a
national craze. Joplin, who had had some training in classical music, later wrote a ragtime
opera, Treemonisha (1911). It met with no success, but was revived with great acclaim in
1975. In the first two decades of the 20th century, blues, in the hands of singers such as
Bessie Smith and composers such as W. C. Handy, became stabilized as popular rather than
folk music.
In the theater, echoes of the Viennese style could be heard on Broadway in the
operettas of Victor Herbert. Together with the vaudeville spectaculars of Florenz Ziegfeld,
Herbert's operettas were the forerunners of the musical, or musical comedy.
The 1920s marked the realization of a distinctive American modernist movement in
classical music. Its pioneers were Henry Cowell, who introduced the tone cluster; Carl
Ruggles; Ruth Crawford-Seeger; and Edgard Varèse, whose compositions, not dependent on
melody or harmony, had great influence on later 20th-century music. Varèse's percussion
piece Ionisation (1931) is a landmark.
Often called “the jazz age,” the 1920s saw the emergence of a distinct style of music,
separate from its roots in ragtime and blues. In the hands of its major composer-performers,
Louis Armstrong, Jelly Roll Morton, and Duke Ellington, jazz remained popular through the
1940s. The '20s “roared” with popular song as well, and a number of composers produced
small masterpieces within the limits of the 32-bar song form. Among the finest were Jerome
Kern, Cole Porter, and Irving Berlin. George Gershwin's style encompassed both popular and
classical forms, in such works as the piano concerto Rhapsody in Blue (1924), the Concerto in
F (1925), and the opera Porgy and Bess (1935).
The Great Depression of the 1930s stilled the young champions of “new music.” An
Americanist trend, a self-conscious search for a musical identity, characterized the classical
music of the next two decades. Aaron Copland, the most famous composer of the second
quarter of the century, abandoned the acerbic language of his Piano Variations (1930) for an
accessible melodic style of clear tonality, permeated by American folk music. His ballet
scores Billy the Kid (1938), Rodeo (1942), and Appalachian Spring (1944) are among his
best-known works. Kindred composers included William Grant Still and Roy Harris, who
quoted folk music in their symphonies. Virgil Thomson gave a modern treatment to older
styles of music, as in his whimsical opera Four Saints in Three Acts (1934, with a libretto by
Gertrude Stein).
 Other composers rose to prominence with music that was international rather than
nationalistic. Some, perhaps inspired by the work of the Russian-born composer Igor
Stravinsky during the 1920s and '30s, were energized by neoclassicism. Among them was
Walter Piston, who often used baroque textures and genres. Piston, like Thomson, Harris, and
Copland, had studied composition in Paris, the postwar center of music study, with the
influential French teacher Nadia Boulanger. Three notable neoromantics were Howard
Hanson, Samuel Barber, and Gian-Carlo Menotti, the latter well known for his Christmas
fantasy opera Amahl and the Night Visitors (1951).
After World War II more and more American musicians received their training at
home at conservatories such as the Juilliard School in New York City and the Eastman School
of Music in Rochester, New York, and in the music departments of such institutions as
Indiana University in Bloomington and Harvard University.
In the 1930s and '40s a number of Europe's leading composers fled from fascist
oppression to the United States. Under their influence, international modernism superseded
Americanist tendencies in the late 1940s and '50s. The most influential immigrant was the
Austrian-born Arnold Schoenberg, whose twelve-tone system triumphed as the major way of
organizing new music. Schoenberg's approach was adopted by many Americans, including
Wallingford Riegger, Roger Sessions, Copland, and David Diamond. It was expanded
theoretically and artistically by Elliott Carter and Milton Babbitt, who developed it into
systematic serialism that extended beyond a twelve-tone series of pitches and encompassed
other musical elements.
One of the crucial developments of the 1950s was the new medium of electronic
music, pioneered by Varèse, which allowed composers to achieve unprecedented control over
a musical work. The Columbia-Princeton electronic music studio, established in 1952,
became a center for such composers as Babbitt, Charles Wuorinen, and Otto Luening.
One of the shaping forces of experimental music was John Cage, in whose aleatoric
compositions chance helps determine the outcome of a particular performance. Cage's
openness to various aesthetic trends foreshadowed the eclecticism of style from the 1960s on.
Most characteristic of these decades was a willingness to utilize all kinds of sound—
electronic, acoustic, or environmental—as potential musical material. George Crumb's song
cycle Ancient Voices of Children (1970), for example, uses a toy piano, a Tibetan prayer
stone, and electronically manipulated voices. Other significant eclectic composers are
Norman Dello Joio; David Del Tredici, noted for his Scenes and Arias from Alice in
Wonderland (1969 ff.); John Corigliano; and Ellen Taaffe Zwilich. Zwilich, the first woman
to win a Pulitzer Prize for music—for her Symphony No. 1: Three Movements for Orchestra
(1982)—blends 19th-century harmonic and tonal elements with various features of avant-
garde 20th-century classical music.
In the mid-1980s some critics advanced the theory that since about 1968 there had
been a swing away from the cool rationality of modern music to more tonal, more
immediately accessible forms. The concept of a “new romanticism” was much debated,
however. Evidence of the new trend was claimed to exist in such orchestral compositions as
Imago Mundi (1973) by George Rochberg, generally a serialist; Baroque Variations (1967)
by Lukas Foss; and Windows (1972) by Jacob Druckman, a professor of electronic music. Del
Tredici's eighth Alice piece, “All in the Golden Afternoon” (1983), and the Chromatic
Fantasy (1979) for narrator and six instruments by Barbara Kolb were also cited as examples.
In popular music the postwar period was equally dynamic and expansive. In the 1940s
the lyrical-theatrical tradition of the musical was strengthened through the work of Richard
Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II. The standard was maintained with eloquence and energy
in West Side Story (1957) by Leonard Bernstein, an acclaimed conductor and composer of
classical music. In the 1970s and '80s the music of Stephen Sondheim contributed an urbane
sophistication to the form.
The influence of the musical was drastically undercut, however, by the rock-and-roll
revolution of the 1950s. The popular “standard” song disappeared, replaced by rhythm and
blues and its offspring, rock and roll. Like ragtime, rock music testified to the vitality of
African American music. Despite the hegemony of rock in the 1960s, other new styles of
popular music surfaced. The folk-music revival, spread by professional urban folksingers
such as Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, and Bob Dylan, brought rural blues and ballads to national
attention. Country music achieved a national market in the 1970s.
With the profusion of popular styles and the eclecticism of classical and jazz
composers, the boundaries separating these three types of music were often blurred. The
modal explorations of John Coltrane and the “free” improvisations of Ornette Coleman bring
the classical concerns of atonality and nonstandard scales into the realm of jazz. Classical and
popular elements overlap in the minimalist music of Steve Reich and Philip Glass, composer
of the opera Einstein on the Beach (1976). Tonally stable melodic patterns are manipulated by
repetitions and subtle rhythmic shifts. Favored tone colors are those of percussion instruments
of all kinds. The meditative effect praised by some critics of this music has given rise to the
label “trance music” and indeed evokes the music of the Far East and Indonesia. The strength
of American music continues to be its openness to new influences and the variety of its ethnic
and national styles, which interact and alter one another in ever-new syntheses.

African American Music

African American Music is the music of the African natives sold into slavery in the
Americas, and of their descendants. Early African American music in the United States
accommodated African musical practices with the vocabulary and structures of Euro-
American music. Comprising work songs, calls, field and street cries, hollers, rhyme songs,
and spirituals, this music provided the slaves with a means of effectively pacing their work,
with a form of sung prayer and praise, with a means of surreptitious intragroup
communication, and with psychic relief from the degradation of bondage. Many of the work
songs used the African call-and-response form; a lead singer gave the line of melody and the
others joined in for the refrain. This pattern, as well as a number of actual African tunes, was
also carried over into the African American spiritual. Both the spiritual and the later blues, a
form of secular solo folk song, incorporated the African freedom to improvise variations in
the melodic line. Also derived from African heritage was polyrhythmic drumming,
simultaneously combining several different rhythmic patterns of different meters. The
interplay of contrasting rhythms was eventually carried over into a later African American
musical style, jazz.
Although sacred music—the spiritual—was the most ubiquitous African American
music in the early 19th century, secular music also existed. Like the spirituals, the work
songs, calls, and cries were performed a cappella (without instrumental accompaniment);
some of the other secular songs were accompanied by instruments. The earliest slave
instruments included drums and an African transplant, the banjo; later, the flute, violin, and
guitar were also used. Guitar, violin, and banjo frequently constituted the string bands that
provided music for the African- and Euro-American social dances of the 19th century—jigs,
reels, the buck-and-wing, cotillions, and quadrilles. Makeshift instruments such as quills,
gutbuckets (bass fiddles made from washtubs), and jugs were also employed in string bands.
Following the American Civil War, rhyme songs and ballads became plentiful, and the
blues began to take on its modern forms. The music of the black minstrel shows, the string
bands, the brass bands, and the honky-tonk pianos became increasingly influential, and such
genres as the cakewalk and ragtime gradually emerged. Having originated in the southern and
midwestern United States, ragtime reached its classic form in the 1890s in the St. Louis,
Missouri, school of ragtime pianists led by Scott Joplin. In the first decade of the 20th
century, the musical practices of black Americans syncretized to form a new American music
called jazz. It first flourished in New Orleans, Louisiana, then spread to cities all across the
country. Among the most important jazz innovators in the first half of the 20th century were
Louis Armstrong, Fletcher Henderson, Billie Holiday, Duke Ellington, and Dizzy Gillespie.
In the 1940s, rhythm-and-blues (R&B) music emerged as a combined product of rural
blues and black-oriented, big-band swing music, performed by small ensembles with a lead
vocalist or instrumentalist and rhythm and backup sections. The pioneers and popularizers of
R&B included the following: T-Bone Walker, Little Walter, Louis Jordan, Fats Domino,
James Brown, Ray Charles, and Ruth Brown. Since the 1950s R&B has been the generic
source of black music, as well as of American pop music.
Soul music was a further development of R&B. Essentially, it combines the R&B
sound of the 1950s with techniques, effects, and performance practices borrowed from black
gospel music. It has two main substyles: the polished, sophisticated Detroit style, featuring
such artists as Stevie Wonder, The Supremes, and The Temptations; and the earthier, more
gospel-oriented Memphis, Tennessee, style, exemplified by Otis Redding and by Booker T.
and the MG’s. The black gospel movement had its beginnings in the early performance
practices of the black Holiness churches and in the published songs of the Philadelphia
minister Charles A. Tindley. Using the resources of work songs, hollers, cries, spirituals,
blues, and jazz, black gospel music was fully developed by the hymnodist-composer Thomas
A. Dorsey and the singer Roberta Martin, gradually becoming an important part of black
worship among some denominations. Famous performers of gospel music include Mahalia
Jackson, the Mighty Clouds of Joy, James Cleveland, and Andrae Crouch and the Disciples.
In the 1970s a new musical form called rap arose on the streets of New York City. The
Sugar Hill Gang’s “Rapper’s Delight” (1979) was the first rap hit record. Using bits of funk
and hard-rock records, plus a miscellany of sounds, as background, rap performers chanted
rhyming couplets, generally about ghetto life. In the 1980s the music spread across the United
States as young audiences responded to the rap performers’ angry words about social
injustice, racism, and drug abuse. Late in the decade and into the early 1990s, controversy
surrounded some artists accused of rapping racially and sexually inflammatory lyrics.

Latin American music

The relationship of Latin American music to black music in the United States is most
evident in the offbeat accents that are common in both. Between 1900 and 1940, Latin
American dances—the tango (Argentina), the merengue (Dominican Republic), and the
rumba (Cuba)—were all introduced into the United States. In the 1940s a fusion of Latin and
jazz elements began, stimulated at first by the Afro-Cuban mambo and later on by the
Brazilian bossa nova. The late 1960s brought a mingling of Latin and soul music—notably by
Mongo Santamaria and Willie Bobo—and the recognition of the Cuban-Puerto Rican salsa as
an important genre. Reversing the direction of influence, African American music of the
United States also affected musical fusions in the Caribbean, Latin America, and Africa,
giving rise to Jamaican reggae and its predecessors, ska, rock steady, and African highlife.

Country Music

Country Music or Country-and-Western Music is a major genre of American popular

music, primarily produced by white Southerners beginning in the early 1920s. Born out of the
folk music of Southern Appalachia, country music encompasses the styles known as Western
swing, honky-tonk, bluegrass, rockabilly, and new country. Over the years country music has
been influenced by folk, gospel, rhythm-and-blues (R&B), and rock music and in turn has had
an impact on these popular genres. Although originally known by the derisive label “hillbilly
music,” country has since moved into the popular music mainstream and gained wide
international acceptance.
Musically speaking, country music is one of the simplest styles to create and one of
the least intimidating to listen to - features that contribute to its popularity. This basic aspect
of country music stems from the fact that it is based predominantly on lyric content rather
than musical content. In country, the primary purpose of the musical elements of harmony,
melody, and rhythm is to showcase the lyrics without distracting from them. Exceptions to
this general rule include the purely instrumental music from country music’s early history and
the technical virtuosity often found in bluegrass music.
Country harmony relies for the most part on a simple selection of repeated chords—
usually three, although additional chords or as few as two may be used. Vocals appear mainly
as single, unharmonized lines, although at times they are harmonized with high, closely
spaced voices, especially in the chorus of a song. Rhythmically, there is time (four beats to a
little syncopation. Most country music is written in measure), with the first and third beats
receiving emphasis. Melodies are typically just as basic as the rhythm. Many country tunes
sound very similar and are distinguishable by their lyrics.
The lyrics of country songs commonly parallel the lives of ordinary, working-class
Americans and cover such subjects as love and relationships, loneliness, religion, poverty, and
work. A song’s lyric theme is frequently repeated as a hook (a catchy musical phrase) in the
chorus section. Most country lyrics are extraordinarily economical, using 150 or fewer words,
and the compact result is often poetic and evocative.
The subcategories of country music often use different sets of musical instruments.
The country genre began in the 1920s with string bands, which usually consisted of various
combinations of guitar, fiddle, banjo, mandolin, and string bass, also known as a double bass.
The dobro, an amplified guitar made of wood or steel with internal resonators, was introduced
in the late 1920s. It is also known as the Hawaiian guitar, because it can be played Hawaiian
style by laying it across the lap. The drum set became part of country music through Western
swing, which developed in the 1930s. Although brass wind instruments such as the saxophone
and trumpet were a vital part of Western swing, they are rarely heard on other country
recordings. The piano can be found on country records as early as 1925, but it did not become
a lead instrument until the late 1940s, with the boogie-woogie recordings of singer and
songwriter Aubrey “Moon” Mullican. The high-pitched sound of the steel guitar made its
country recording debut in 1954 with the hit “Slowly” by artist Webb Pierce. By the mid-
1990s country bands generally featured six to seven musicians, including a drummer, a
keyboard player, an electric bass player, a steel guitarist, electric and acoustic guitarists, and a
utility musician who plays fiddle, mandolin, banjo, and dobra, as needed.
The roots of country music lie in the folk music that English, Irish, and Scottish
settlers brought to the Appalachian Mountain region of the South in the 18th and 19th
centuries. English ballads and Irish reels in particular had a major early influence. Such music
was performed from colonial times in both religious and social contexts, including church
services, weddings, and barn dances. In the early 1920s the first country recordings appeared,
introducing the music of string bands. The string-band repertoire consisted mostly of
traditional folk and gospel music and appealed mainly to people in the rural Southeast. During
the 1920s the audience for this so-called hillbilly music expanded with the spread of small-
town radio stations. With the wider distribution of music over radio, new regional styles, such
as Lousiana’s cajun music, were incorporated into the folk and gospel core of country.
 Important early country music artists included the Carter Family, a trio from rural
Virginia, and the blues-oriented singer and songwriter Jimmie Rodgers, from Mississippi.
From the late 1920s to the early 1940s the Carter family recorded old folk ballads,
incorporating such instruments as the fiddle, banjo, and autoharp. Whereas the vocals in early
folk and hillbilly music were usually of secondary importance compared with the
instrumentals, the Carter trio used their instruments to provide a musical accompaniment that
never took precedence over the simple harmonies of their vocal work. Rodgers, who recorded
from 1927 to 1933, brought both folk and blues elements to country music through
sentimental ballads and his so-called blue yodels, which introduced yodeling to a mainstream
audience. Many credit The Carter Family and Jimmie Rodgers as the creators of commercial
country music. Since the 1930s country and folk styles have continued to influence one
another. Other major figures of folk-country music include singer and fiddle player Roy Acuff
in the 1940s and 1950s, singer Johnny Cash from the 1960s into the 1990s, and country artists
Lyle Lovett, the Judds, and Mary Chapin Carpenter in the 1980s and 1990s.
Bluegrass music developed in rural Kentucky during the 1920s and 1930s. It
represented, primarily through its instrumentation, a return to the prerecording days of folk
music. Characterized by the acoustic string-band sound of the Southeast, the bluegrass style
usually features a banjo, fiddle, and mandolin in lead parts while a guitar and string bass
provide accompaniment. Bluegrass vocals are often harmonized and emphasize a high-pitched
tenor voice. Instrumental solos and improvisations may be featured between stanzas in a
bluegrass song.
Singer and mandolin player Bill Monroe is known as the father of bluegrass music. A
virtuoso mandolin player, Monroe combined traditional folk ballads and gospel songs with
string-band music played at very fast tempos. Monroe, with his band The Blue Grass Boys,
performed from the mid-1920s until Monroe’s death in 1996. Other well-known bluegrass
performers include banjo player Earl Scruggs, who played with Monroe during the 1940s; the
Osborne Brothers, a duo from Kentucky known for its work during the 1950s and 1960s; and
more recently, artists Alison Krauss, Ricky Skaggs, and Vince Gill.
The first truly urban form of country music - honky-tonk music - originated in the
roadside bars of Texas and Oklahoma in the 1930s and 1940s. Honky-tonk combined the
often sad ballads of folk music and older forms of country music with driving, up-tempo
rhythms and the improvisational freedom of jazz music. Drums and steel and electric guitars
were prominent. The new style developed as a result of several factors, including the
urbanization of the rural South, the introduction of electric guitars, and a more relaxed public
attitude toward drinking following the repeal of prohibition in 1933. Honky-tonk broadened
the scope of country music lyrics, and songs about drinking, infidelity, and divorce became
national hits for the first time.
The best-known early honky-tonk stars include Al Dexter and Ernest Tubb. Dexter’s
“Honky Tonk Blues” of 1936 was the first song to use the term honky-tonk. Tubb’s honky-
tonk single “Walking the Floor Over You” (1941) eventually sold more than 1 million
records. Hank Williams combined honky-tonk, blues, and more traditional country singing;
among his more than 100 songs are “Jambalaya” (1952) and “Your Cheatin’ Heart” (1953).
Other honky-tonk artists include singer and songwriter Lefty Frizzell in the 1950s and 1960s,
singer Randy Travis in the 1980s, as well as Alan Jackson and the duo of Brooks & Dunn in
the 1990s.
During the 1930s and 1940s motion pictures about cowboys and the American West
popularized the style known as Western music. Western music grew out of a 19th-century
tradition of cowboy songs and string bands that was particularly strong in Texas and
Oklahoma. This subcategory was influenced by the folk-country music of Tennessee and
other Southeastern states, the jazz and blues music of Louisiana, and big-band dance music.
Western music frequently features improvisation and a broad range of instruments, including
wind instruments. The lyrics center on life on the Western frontier, especially the often
romanticized life of the cowboy. Exemplars of the style include the singing cowboys Roy
Rogers and Gene Autry, who acted and sang in Western movies of the 1930s and 1940s.
Rogers was an original member of the Sons of the Pioneers, a band that appeared in over 80
Westerns between 1935 and 1948. The group’s style of three-part harmony singing,
disseminated through motion pictures and recordings, became widely influential.
A variation on traditional Western music called Western swing developed in Texas
and Oklahoma in the early 1930s. Western swing was a country version of the big-band jazz
music popular during the 1930s and 1940s, a period known as the swing era. Western swing
bands combined the string band with instruments used in jazz and blues, including the
saxophone and trumpet. The style gained fame primarily through fiddler Bob Wills and His
Texas Playboys, a band that included as many as 18 players. They were a top musical
attraction throughout the Southwest during the 1940s and 1950s. The fiddling style and
musical arrangements of Wills had a major influence on later country artists, including singers
Merle Haggard, Willie Nelson, George Strait and the band Asleep at the Wheel.
The economic boom that followed World War II (1939-1945) expanded the
opportunities for the entertainment industry, including country music performances and
recordings. Radio exposed a wider audience to country music while new, relatively
inexpensive recording technology made records available at affordable prices. These forces
helped create demand for country recordings in greater diversity and quantity than ever
before.
One of the most successful responses to this new urban demand for country music was
the style called rockabilly. An early form of rock and roll, rockabilly was a mid-1950s fusion
of white hillbilly music and black rhythm-and-blues music (R&B). Generally played at faster
tempos than other country styles, rockabilly often features a stand up bass, as well as an
electric guitar played with a noticeable twang. Rockabilly vocals emphasize rhythmic phrases
and depart from straight singing with quick yelps, high-pitched whines, and other
unconventional inflections. Rockabilly was popularized in the 1950s and 1960s by such artists
as Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, Conway Twitty, Buddy Holly, and the Everly
Brothers.
Soon after World War II, Nashville, Tennessee, became the recognized center for the
production of country music. The “Nashville Barn Dance” was a country-music stage and
radio show established by Nashville’s WSM radio station in 1925. By 1939 the show was
named the Grand Ole Opry and had begun nationwide broadcasts. It drew to Nashville singers
and musicians with hopes of having their music broadcast.
WSM employees founded one of the first Nashville recording studios, Castle Studios,
about 1946. In 1949 another important label, Sun Records, built its studio in Memphis,
Tennessee. In 1952 musicians Owen and Harold Bradley set up Bradley Recording, one of the
first independent recording studios in downtown Nashville. The Bradley brothers recorded
country stars Ernest Tubb, Kitty Wells, and Patsy Cline, and rock star Buddy Holly. The
commercial success of the Bradleys helped convince international record companies, such as
Decca Records (now MCA Records), to build studios in Nashville. By the late 1950s
numerous country songwriters, singers, and studio musicians had relocated to Music City,
USA, as Nashville came to be known. The Country Music Association (CMA) was chartered
in Nashville in 1958 to promote country music. In 1961 the Country Music Hall of Fame was
founded in Nashville to commemorate the people who have made the most important
contributions to country music.
In the 1950s and 1960s Nashville executives and music producers Owen Bradley and
Chet Atkins created the Nashville sound, a style that describes the music of such artists as
Eddy Arnold, Patsy Cline, and Jim Reeves. With the popularity of rock and roll soaring at this
time, the Nashville sound was an attempt to attract a broader audience by combining elements
of pop, rock, and country music. Although it featured country songs performed by country
stars, the Nashville sound was produced with the technology and sophistication of popular
music of the period. For example, full orchestral string sections often replaced traditional
guitar, mandolin, and fiddle ensembles to create a lush accompaniment. A chorus of backup
singers filled out the vocal tracks of a song. The use of synthesizers, overdubbing, reverb
effects, and other studio techniques helped create a fuller, slicker, more marketable sound.
The big-label, large-studio approach has remained part of the country music industry,
as has the overall tendency to combine popular and country music into a style often referred
to as country pop. During the 1970s many so-called crossover artists, including Conway
Twitty, Kenny Rogers, and Dolly Parton, combined pop and country styles to achieve
mainstream success, often through remakes of earlier pop hits. Conversely, several
mainstream popular music artists, including John Denver, Olivia Newton-John, and Ray
Charles, have made successful recordings of country songs over the years.
Country and rock music have borrowed musical elements from one another since the
late 1950s. In fact, rock and roll, the earliest form of rock music, combined Western swing,
the hillbilly style, and R&B music, while Elvis Presley and other early rock music artists
began their careers in country music. During the late 1960s and 1970s Gram Parsons, the
Byrds, Buffalo Springfield, the Eagles, and other bands led a movement to merge country and
rock styles. The resulting style, known as country-rock, characteristically takes country
melody, harmony, and lyric themes and adds the percussive beat, rhythms, and electric
instrumentation of rock. The most successful country rock group of the 1980s and 1990s was
the foursome Alabama.
The so-called outlaw-country movement developed parallel to country-rock. It
emerged in the mid-1970s in reaction against the Nashville sound and the record companies
that had streamlined and institutionalized the Nashville style. Some artists sought to break
away from the recording formulas and generic productions that by the 1970s dominated the
industry. These artists wanted more control of the recording process, and many of them called
for a return to the acoustic instruments, small bands, and natural-sounding vocals of country
music’s past. Early exponents of outlaw country—Willie Nelson, Waylon Jennings, Merle
Haggard, Johnny Cash, and David Allan Coe—embodied this spirit of rebellion through their
music and their behavior, dressing in frayed blue jeans and T-shirts and using illicit drugs. As
country artists moved away from Nashville, smaller, independent recording studios and labels
were established in Bakersfield, California; Austin, Texas; and other cities.
Established country music labels such as Capitol, RCA, and MCA at first refused to
support outlaw country music. As live performances and radio coverage popularized the
music of outlaw artists, however, healthy sales of this music eventually convinced the more
prominent labels to allow their artists to produce and coproduce their own albums on a regular
basis. In 1976 RCA’s album Wanted—The Outlaws, a compilation of songs from artists
Nelson, Jennings, Tompall Glaser, and Jessi Colter, became country music’s first platinum
album, selling more than 1 million copies. Outlaw artists of the 1980s and 1990s included
Steve Earle, Dwight Yoakam, and Travis Tritt.
The term new country dates from the mid-1980s when a handful of artists, notably
Ricky Skaggs, John Anderson, Randy Travis, Dwight Yoakam, and the Brooks & Dunn duo,
led yet another return to the sounds of traditional country music. This return was primarily to
such instruments as steel guitars and single or twin fiddles, as opposed to full orchestral string
sections. New country also prominently featured female artists, including Reba McEntire,
Patty Loveless, Faith Hill, Trisha Yearwood, and Shania Twain.
 Despite new country’s original humble intentions, its biggest star, Garth Brooks,
achieved his success in part by finding and writing songs that were extraordinarily well
received as well as adding elements of arena rock productions to his stage shows. His second
album, No Fences (1990), became the top-selling country album of all time. A decade after
the term new country was coined to indicate a return to country’s roots; it was applied to all
new artists in country music, regardless of their style.
In the late 1980s Clint Black, another new-country artist, helped usher in an era of so-
called hat acts. Following Black’s example, nearly all male country vocalists began wearing
cowboy hats, symbolizing the return of country music to its rural roots. Yoakam in particular
was known for never appearing in public without his tan Stetson.
During the first half of the 20th century country music offered few opportunities for
women. They were relegated almost entirely to backup musician or minor vocal roles and
even these positions went to women who were married or closely related to another troupe
member. Patsy Montana was the first woman to have a commercially successful solo career in
country music. Her 1935 recording “I Want to be a Cowboy’s Sweetheart” became the first
country recording by a woman to sell more than 1 million copies and gave women a new,
more powerful image in the industry. Kitty Wells gained widespread popularity with her
single “It Wasn’t God Who Made Honky Tonk Angels” (1952). The song represented a
female response to the “drinkin’, cheatin’, ramblin’” life commonly glorified in the music of
male country singers. It was the first song by a female country singer to hit the top of the
Billboard magazine country music charts.
Singer Patsy Cline enjoyed commercial success with both country and popular music.
Cultivating a far less domestic image than her predecessors, over her career she moved away
from the cowgirl look in her stage clothes and was known for her freewheeling lifestyle and
foul language. Major country stars of the late 1960s and early 1970s included Loretta Lynn,
Tammy Wynette, and Dolly Parton, who all wrote or co-wrote most of their own songs. The
motion picture Coal Miner’s Daughter (1980) depicted how Lynn surmounted the extreme
poverty of her early life to become the first millionaire among female country artists and the
first woman named entertainer of the year by the Country Music Association.
Prominent female country singers in the 1970s and 1980s include Tanya Tucker,
Emmylou Harris, Crystal Gayle, and Reba McEntire. By the mid-1990s McEntire had crossed
another threshold for women in the industry by establishing herself in the managerial,
publishing, and recording studio sides of country music. During the 1990s female country
stars, generally considered part of new country, included Patty Loveless, Mary Chapin
Carpenter, Wynonna, Shania Twain, and Leann Rimes.
Country music has developed a broad palette of styles and attracted a large
mainstream audience by adapting elements of other musical styles. Many country records of
the 1990s would have been considered rock or popular music recordings in past years. As in
many periods since country music first emerged, in the late 1990s a group of musicians
advocated a return to a simple, pared-down country style. This movement, known as
Americana, gained exposure through college and public radio stations and live performances
across the country. Americana emphasized individual artists who combined singing,
songwriting, and musicianship and it encompassed artists who were new to the industry, such
as singer and guitarist Robbie Fulks and the band BR5-49, as well as established artists,
including Johnny Cash, Guy Clark, Nanci Griffith, and Jerry Jeff Walker.
The average age of country artists began falling in the mid-1980s, paralleling the rise
of music video as an important marketing tool. While still showcasing artists’ musical
abilities, recording labels often placed equal, if not greater, value on the sex appeal of artists.
During the first half of the 1990s, domestic sales of country music tripled in volume. In
addition, country music has made important gains overseas, especially in Europe and
Australia. Country Music Television (CMT), a 24-hour cable television channel, entered a
period of aggressive foreign expansion in the early 1990s and by 1997 was available via
satellite or cable nearly everywhere in the world.
Country music tends to mirror the concerns, achievements, and lifestyle of the times,
and remains an important form of American cultural expression. Western-style clothing and
numerous catch phrases from country songs have found their way into American popular
culture. Although country music was born in the politically conservative South, its audience
and many of its performers come from all parts of the political spectrum. At times, country
songs have stirred controversy by raising troubling issues, such as the treatment of women.
Perhaps the most essential quality of country music and the source of its lasting appeal are its
simplicity and direct commentary on the everyday problems of its audience.

Popular Music

Popular Music is a type of music produced for and sold to a broad audience. Types of
popular music include jazz, music from motion pictures and musical comedies, country-and-
western music, soul music, and rock music. Shaped by social, economic, and technological
forces, popular music is closely linked to the social identity of its performers and audiences.
Early musical styles were also very influential in shaping popular music.
The most popular songs in America during the late 18th century, as judged by reported
sales of printed music, were written by professional English composers for performance in
London parks (known as pleasure gardens) or for performance in English ballad and comic
opera. The songs often had pastoral themes, were amorous in content, contained ethnic
stereotypes, and included Irish and Scottish lyrics and melodies. By the early 19th century,
Italian opera had also become popular in the United States. Songs by Italian composers such
as Gioacchino Rossini, Vincenzo Bellini, and Gaetano Donizetti were published as sheet
music. In addition, the Italian bel canto style of singing—light, clear, and intimate—was to
have an influence on the development of the soft, sentimental type of singing known as
crooning that became popular in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s.
Distinctive American styles of popular music emerged in the mid-19th century.
Minstrel shows—performances in which white entertainers dressed in blackface and acted out
crude parodies of African American behavior—were the dominant form of popular
entertainment in the 19th century. The minstrel theater had a strong impact on the
development of popular music in the United States. American performer Thomas Dartmouth
Rice demonstrated the profitability of minstrel music with his song “Jim Crow” (1829), which
was the first American song to become an international hit. Many minstrel songs were
successful in sheet music form, and they became a dominant force in the development of
19th-century American popular song.
Stephen Collins Foster, who wrote more than 200 songs during the mid-19th century,
was the first important composer of American popular song. His best-known songs include
“Oh! Susanna” (1848), “Old Folks at Home” (1851), “My Old Kentucky Home” (1853),
“Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair” (1854), and “Beautiful Dreamer” (1864). Foster was a
master at creating simple, compelling combinations of melody and text that subsequent
popular composers would refer to as hooks (expressing the idea that the music “hooks” the
listener's ear).
Although sound recording was independently invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison in
the United States and by Charles Cros in France, the primary means of disseminating popular
music until the 1920s remained printed sheet music. By the late 19th century, the music-
publishing business was centralized in New York City, particularly in an area of lower
Manhattan called Tin Pan Alley. The first popular song to sell one million copies, “After the
Ball” (1892) by Charles K. Harris, inspired rapid growth in the music-publishing industry.
Composers were hired to rapidly produce popular songs by the dozens, and the techniques of
Foster and the pleasure-garden composers were further developed. Songs had to be simple,
memorable, and emotionally appealing to sell to large audiences. Vaudeville had replaced
minstrel shows as the dominant live-entertainment medium, and singers such as Al Jolson and
Sophie Tucker promoted Tin Pan Alley songs on cross-country tours. Ragtime pieces written
by professional composers such as Scott Joplin represented another stage in the influence of
African American music on mainstream popular music.
The golden age of Tin Pan Alley occurred during the 1920s and 1930s. The best-
known songs of this period were produced by a small group of composers and lyricists based
in New York City. In most cases, composers and lyricists worked in pairs: George Gershwin
and Ira Gershwin, Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart and beginning in 1943, Richard Rodgers
and Oscar Hammerstein II. Tin Pan Alley songs were popularized in Broadway musical
comedies, the successor to vaudeville, and by popular singers accompanied by dance
orchestras.
Important technological changes, including the rapid spread of commercial radio, also
occurred during this period. The development of more affordable and better-quality
gramophone discs made recordings more popular than sheet music in sales, and the
introduction of amplification and electric recording led to the development of crooning, the
intimate vocal style perfected by singers such as Bing Crosby and, later, Frank Sinatra. By the
mid-1920s, almost 100 million records were produced each year in the United States.
The music industry also became interested in other types of music during this period,
most importantly “race records” and “hillbilly” music, the precursors of rhythm-and-blues and
country-and-western music. Louis Armstrong, Bessie Smith, Robert Johnson, the Carter
family, Jimmie Rodgers, and other influential Southern musicians recorded during the 1920s
and 1930s. The African American influence on mainstream popular music became stronger
during the Jazz Age, which preceded the Great Depression of the 1930s.
The dominant type of popular music from 1935 to 1945 was big band swing, a style
modeled on the innovations of black jazz orchestras. In 1935 Benny Goodman sparked the
popularity of the style with his band's recordings of arrangements by Fletcher Henderson, an
African American bandleader whose success had been limited by racial segregation. The big
band era ended after World War II (1939-1945), when pop singers became more popular than
bandleaders, although the influence of swing music could still be heard in “jump band”
rhythm and blues and western swing music.
Important shifts in popular music after World War II were tied to social and
technological changes. The massive migration of Southern musicians and audiences to urban
areas and the introduction of the electric guitar were particularly influential. These changes
set the stage for the hard-edged Chicago blues of Muddy Waters; the honky-tonk, or “hard-
country,” style of Hank Williams; and, in the mid-1950s, the rise of rock and roll music.
Rock and roll grew out of the intermingling of several streams of postwar popular
music, including “jump band” rhythm and blues, the recordings of blues “shouters” such as
Big Joe Turner, gospel-based vocal styles, boogie-woogie piano blues, and honky-tonk music.
Promoted by entrepreneurs such as Alan Freed—the first to use the term "rock 'n' roll" to
describe this category of music—and recorded by small independent labels, rock and roll was
an unexpected success among a newly affluent teenage audience. The pioneers of rock and
roll came from varied backgrounds. Bill Haley, whose “Rock Around the Clock” (1955) was
the first rock song to gain wide popularity, was a country-and-western bandleader from
Pennsylvania; Fats Domino had already been playing New Orleans-style rhythm and blues for
a decade; Chuck Berry was a hairdresser in St. Louis, Missouri; and Elvis Presley was a
Memphis, Tennessee, truck driver. The market was fueled by mainstream versions of rhythm-
and-blues songs performed by white crooners such as Pat Boone. The peak period of rock and
roll—defined by the exuberant recordings of Haley, Berry, Domino, Presley, Little Richard,
Jerry Lee Lewis, and Buddy Holly—lasted from 1954 to 1959. The most successful artists
wrote and performed songs about love, sexuality, identity crises, personal freedom, and other
issues that were of particular interest to teenagers.
By the early 1960s most of what the music industry promoted as rock and roll was an
imitation of the original form. Songs were now being written by professional composers,
recorded with accompaniment by session musicians (professional musicians who perform
principally on recordings), and sung by teenage crooners such as Fabian and Dion. Some of
the techniques of Tin Pan Alley—particularly the idea of teaming lyricists with professional
melody writers—were utilized in the 1960s by New York City songwriters such as Carole
King and by the young entrepreneur Berry Gordy, based in Detroit, Michigan, whose Motown
Records produced a string of hit records. The early 1960s also saw the development of
distinctive regional styles in the United States, such as the sound of the southern California
band the Beach Boys; the Greenwich Village urban folk movement that included Bob Dylan,
the Kingston Trio, and Peter, Paul, and Mary; and the rough sound of Northwest groups such
as the Sonics.
The so-called British Invasion began in 1964 with the arrival of the Beatles in New
York City. British pop bands, raised on the influences of blues, rhythm and blues, and rock
and roll, invigorated mainstream popular music, in part by reemphasizing long-standing
aspects of American music. Each group developed a distinctive style: the Beatles combined
Chuck Berry's guitar-based rock and roll with the craftwork of Tin Pan Alley composers; the
Animals worked out a mixture of blues and rhythm and blues influences and produced a hit
with an old Anglo-American ballad, “House of the Rising Sun” (1964); and the Rolling
Stones incorporated aspects of Chicago urban blues into their distinctive, driving sound.
The late 1960s was a period of corporate expansion and stylistic diversification in the
American record industry. A new youth-oriented popular market was defined by a broad
category of rock music that included the influential studio experiments of the Beatles, San
Francisco psychedelia, guitar heroes such as Jimi Hendrix and Eric Clapton, Southern rock,
hard rock, jazz rock, folk rock, and other styles. Soul music, the successor to rhythm and
blues, covered a wide range of styles, including the gospel-based performances of Aretha
Franklin, the deep funk and virtuosic stage techniques of James Brown, and the soulful
crooning of Marvin Gaye. Country and western music—now firmly centered in Nashville,
Tennessee—had a new generation of stars who combined elements of old country-and-
western music standards with rock and roll and mainstream popular song. Country singers
Johnny Cash, Waylon Jennings, and Dolly Parton helped contribute to the rising popularity of
country-and-western music.
In the 1970s the music industry further consolidated its power and once again sought
to mass-produce music styles that had originally been highly individualistic. Corporate rock,
the singer-songwriter genre, and slick varieties of soul and country-and-western music
featuring glamorous superstars playing to massive crowds in sports arenas defined a new
mainstream. Although a number of distinctive styles—disco, glam rock, punk rock, new
wave, reggae, and funk—were pioneered by independent labels and marginalized musicians;
the music of the 1970s is generally viewed as less individualized. The music industry became
cautious due to a drop in sales of recorded music by almost $1 billion between 1978 and 1982
and a similarly precipitous decline in income from live concerts.
A number of factors contributed to an economic revival in the music industry during
the mid-1980s. The advent of the music video—marked by the debut in 1981 of Music
Television (MTV), a 24-hour music video channel—and the introduction of the digitally
recorded compact disc in 1983 stimulated demand for popular music. The Album Thriller
(1982) by Michael Jackson became the biggest-selling record in history up to that time, and it
established a pattern by which record companies relied upon a few big hits to generate profits.
The other big hits of the 1980s came from a new set of charismatic personalities, each of
whom appealed to mass audiences by extending across traditional social boundaries. Popular
musicians of this period include Bruce Springsteen, the working-class bar-band hero; the
artist formerly known as Prince, whose 1984 single “When Doves Cry” was the first song in
more than 20 years to top both the mainstream pop charts and the black music charts; and
Madonna, the ambitious performer from a working-class background who remade herself as a
pop icon.
The long-standing struggle between the tendency of the music industry to centralize
music and the stylistic diversity of artists continues in the popular music of today. The history
of American popular music may be seen as a relationship between a center—located since the
1880s in New York City, with secondary branches in Los Angeles and Nashville, Tennessee
—and various marginal zones, located throughout the United States and outside the
mainstream of the music industry. Whereas the mainstream music industry reproduces music,
establishes stars, and generally attempts to ensure profits, those in the margins typically
include entrepreneurs who run independent labels, and musicians who provide impetus for
new styles, which are then sometimes pulled into the center and promoted to a mass audience.
The mainstream success of “grunge,” a hard-edged alternative rock style from Seattle,
Washington, which was quickly picked up by the major record labels in the early 1990s, is
one example of this process.
Although there have been significant changes in the technology used to produce
popular music, some of the aspects of popular music have changed relatively little. Most
American popular music still draws upon elements of popular song forms and the smooth,
romantic vocal style of the 1920s Tin Pan Alley; the strong grooves, backbeats, call-and-
response textures, and emotional intensity of African American music; and the poetic themes
and ballad forms of Anglo-American music. The identification of musical styles with
complex patterns of social identity—age, race, and class—also continues to shape American
musical tastes. Although music styles, recording stars, and hit songs change constantly, strong
continuities remain within American popular music.
The recent discovery of non-Western styles by superstar musicians such as David
Byrne, Peter Gabriel, and Paul Simon might leave the impression that urban-centered, mass-
reproduced popular music outside of Western culture is a new phenomenon. In fact, the
recording industry was active in Asia and Latin America before the 20th century, and local
popular styles were commercially recorded in Africa by the 1920s. One of the major
developments in world popular music in the late 1980s and early 1990s has been the
emergence of worldbeat, or ethnobeat, a broad category that includes such diverse musical
styles as Yemenite Israeli dance music, Caribbean and African popular dance styles,
Bulgarian women's choral music, and Japanese salsa bands. Although the influence of
American popular music, supported by the multibillion dollar transnational music industry,
has in some cases contributed to the decline of traditional music, there is also a rich history of
“cross-fertilization” between popular styles. In the late 19th century the Cuban habanera
influenced the development of American ragtime; the Argentine tango gained worldwide
popularity during the 1910s, initiating a craze for Latin ballroom dancing in Paris, London,
and New York City; recordings of Hawaiian guitar music, country-and-western music, and
ballroom dance orchestras arrived in the port towns of Africa by the 1920s; and the Cuban
rumba became popular around the world in the 1930s. In many cases the inclusion of
imported elements in American popular music has been linked with stereotypes of the exotic.
For example, many ballroom dance orchestras in the 1920s performed “Oriental foxtrots,”
arrangements that owed more to Latin American music than to Asian music.
 The rich variety of popular music found throughout the world continually provides the
global music industry with new music trends.

Woodstock Festival

Woodstock Festival, rock festival that took place near Woodstock, New York, on
August 15, 16, and 17, 1969, and that became a symbol of the 1960s American counterculture
and a milestone in the history of rock music. Prominent among those attending were members
of the counterculture, who were often referred to as hippies and who characteristically
rejected materialism and authority, protested against the Vietnam War, supported the civil
rights movement, dressed unconventionally, and experimented with sex and illicit drugs.
Woodstock was conceived by four young partners—Michael Lang, then the manager
of a rock band; Artie Kornfeld, an executive at Capitol Records; and two venture capitalists,
John Roberts and Joel Rosenman. Their original plan had been to build a recording studio in
Woodstock, a small town in the Catskill Mountains that had become a rock center when
musician Bob Dylan and a rock group called The Band settled there. To promote the idea of
the studio the four partners decided to stage a concert, which they officially called The
Woodstock Music and Art Fair. Inspired by the Monterey Pop Festival held in Monterey,
California, in 1967, the Woodstock Festival was expected to attract 50,000 to 100,000 people.
After a long search for a large enough space, the partners eventually rented a field from a
prominent local dairy farmer, Max Yasgur, who owned land about 77 km (48mi) from
Woodstock, in the town of Bethel.
Early in the week before the festival, it became clear that the event was going to draw
a much larger audience than expected. By the day before the official opening, traffic jams
miles long blocked most roads leading to the area. On Friday, August 15, when the festival
began, its management was unable to monitor the estimated 400,000 or more people coming
into and out of the field and decided to waive admission fees. Sweetwater, the band scheduled
to open the festival, could not get to the site because of the traffic, and so folksinger Richie
Havens, who was already there, began the festival instead. As a result of the audience size,
volunteers from inside and outside the festival helped relieve any possible problems:
Helicopters flew in food, doctors, and medical supplies, along with many of the musical acts
that were scheduled to appear.
During the monumental three-day event some of the greatest musicians of the 1960s
performed, including Janis Joplin, Ravi Shankar, Arlo Guthrie, and Joan Baez as well as the
bands The Who; Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young; The Jefferson Airplane; The Grateful Dead;
Sly and the Family Stone; and Creedence Clearwater Revival. Singer Joe Cocker and guitar
player Carlos Santana, up to then unknown became overnight stars. Jimi Hendrix, the final act
of the festival, played a freeform solo guitar rendition of “The Star Spangled Banner.”
The festival caused some inconvenience to the surrounding communities and some
area residents were suspicious of the unconventional looks and behavior of the young people
who attended. Yet the festival was peaceful. The event, thought by some to mark a high point
in the American counterculture, was documented in the motion picture Woodstock (1970).

IVES, CHARLES EDWARD

Charles Edward Ives (1874-1954) was an American composer, whose technical

innovations and freedom of imagination anticipated much 20th-century music and inspired
younger musicians.
 For all his singularity, the Yankee maverick Charles Ives is among the most
representative of American artists. Optimistic, idealistic, fiercely democratic, he unified the
voice of the American people with the forms and traditions of European classical music.
The result, in his most far-reaching work, is like nothing ever imagined before him: music
at once unique and as familiar as a tune whistled in childhood, music that can conjure up
the pandemonium of a small-town Fourth of July or the quiet of a New England church,
music of visionary spirituality built from the humblest materials - an old gospel hymn, a
patriotic tune, a sentimental parlor song. The way in which Ives pursued his goal of a
democratic art and his career of creating at the highest level of ambition while making a
fortune in the life insurance business, perhaps could only have happened in the United
States. And perhaps only there could such an isolated, paradoxical figure make himself into
a major artist.
Charles Ives was born in the small manufacturing town of Danbury, Connecticut, on
October 20, 1874, two years before Brahms finished his First Symphony. He received his
most significant musical education from his father, an American Civil War bandmaster and
highly original musical thinker. During the Civil War his father George Ives had been the
Union's youngest bandmaster, his band called the best in the army. When the war ended
George had returned to Danbury to take up the unusual trade, in that business-oriented
town, of musician. As a youth Ives played drum in his father's town band and, as organist in a
local church, he wrote his first organ and choral compositions.
As a cornet player, band director, theater orchestra leader, choir director, and
teacher, George Ives became the most influential musician in the region. Yet while
Danbury prided itself during the 1880s in being called “the most musical town in
Connecticut” (that in large part due to George Ives's labors), people still viewed the
profession with little understanding or respect. That situation, which would have been the
same in most American towns in the 19th century, had its impact on Charles Ives. Still, his
family was prominent, noted for extravagant personalities and (except for George) a gift
for business.
At Yale University Charles studied with the eminent American composer Horatio
Parker, who was perplexed by his student's musical unconventionality. Ives's college years
began with a severe personal blow - his father's death in 1894.
After graduating from Yale in 1898 Ives worked in New York City as an insurance
clerk and church organist. In 1906 he founded his own insurance company, known after 1909
as Ives & Myrick; his innovations in the insurance field included the practice of estate
planning. In 1908 Ives married Harmony Twitchell, who was a powerful support to him in his
double life as insurance executive and composer.
Realizing that his music was too unconventional to provide a living, he composed
primarily for his own pleasure and, except for works for organ and church choirs, most of his
compositions remained unperformed for years.
He began composing at around age thirteen, his first pieces - little marches, fiddle
tunes, songs for church, and the like - the kind of thing he heard and played around
Danbury all the time. Early works include the precocious Variations on “America” for
organ, written at seventeen; it would find considerable popularity after Ives died. The
charming March No.2 shows the teenager's grasp of traditional popular genres and his
lifelong propensity for weaving familiar tunes into his work: it quotes “A Song of a
Gambolier.” The Circus Band, from the 1890s, rivals some of Sousa's as a classic march of
the era, enlivened with Ives's characteristic rhythmic quirks. A great deal of Ives's later and
more innovative music also echoes his childhood. The Gong on the Hook and Ladder is a
rhythmic study built from an image of the gala Firemen's Parades of his youth; the ecstatic
From the Steeples and the Mountains, for brass and bells, rings with memories of Danbury
church bells.
The story of Charles Ives's mature music has to do with the intersection of a great
inborn gift for music, a thriving musical atmosphere in Danbury - largely in vernacular
forms, but including classical music from local players and visiting ensembles - and a father
who raised his son with the same inquiring, iconoclastic approach to music as his own.
George Ives would have his boys sing in one key while he accompanied in another; he built
instruments to play quarter-tones; he played his cornet over a pond so Charlie could gauge
the effect of space; he set two bands marching around a park blaring different tunes, to see
what it sounded like when they approached and passed.
His large-scale works of the Yale years reveal a developing control of form,
instrumentation, and thematic development, all of it reflecting Parker's training. The First
Symphony is essentially a brilliant and precocious homework assignment, a massive work
in European style with echoes of Brahms, Tchaikovsky, and Dvorak. As he worked on the
symphony, Ives also produced the First String Quartet, which he later subtitled, half
jokingly, “From the Salvation Army.” It integrates gospel hymns, of the kind Ives grew
up hearing in camp meetings, with the forms, textures, and thematic manipulation of
European-Romantic music. Here Ives first suggests the direction of his maturity: mediation
between American and European elements, and between “high” and “low” art. Ives also
wrote a good deal of choral and organ music in connection with his organist job at Center
Church. Most of these works, which Ives recalled as routine, were lost, but a few also
showed his experimental side. More informally in his undergraduate years, in theaters and
at parties Ives tried out rough superimpositions of tunes in different meters and keys.
These included “stunts” such as Yale-Princeton Football Game that uproariously portray
familiar events - something Ives would eventually do more seriously in works including
Decoration Day.
Ives's more radical new works from the first decade of the century, none of them
performed or performable at that time, reveal for all their fascination no overall direction.
Ives's dilemma was how to unify the separate streams of his music: the traditional
European genres of symphony, string quartet, sonata, and the like, which his expressive
ambitions drove him to take up; but also his love of American vernacular music, his
passion for experiment, his interest in realistic and chance musical effects. His struggle
toward maturity is shown in works written around the turn of the century such as the
Second Symphony, which begins with a fugue of Brahmsian cast and includes snippets of
Tchaikovsky, but also includes a great deal of American vernacular music, climaxing with
the Stephen-Fosterish tunes of the last movement. A beautiful and compelling work, the
Second was prophetic of the “Americana” style of Copland and others thirty years later.
Between 1908 and 1917 Ives composed at a pace hard to believe, given that his
insurance agency was also burgeoning. From these years comes the completion of much of
his greatest work: Three Places in New England; the symphony Holidays; the intense and
mystical Second String Quartet; most of the monumental Fourth Symphony; the Second
Orchestral Set; the Concord Sonata; the sprawling, raging Robert Browning Overture;
many songs both progressive and traditional; and studies in various states of completion
including the Tone Roads.
In these works Ives found the “music of the ages” that he had been seeking since his
youth - not only unifying vernacular and cultivated traditions and carrying his experiments
to a prophetic level of imagination and sophistication, but finding a language to convey the
spirit and fervor he had always felt behind the notes in amateur music-making.
Filled with quotes of music from Beethoven to Stephen Foster and American
hymnodists, Ives's mature work is music about music, or rather music as a symbol of
human life and striving and spirituality. For that purpose Ives used the music he grew up
with, from the ceremonies and celebrations of Danbury's daily life. His intentions go far
beyond nostalgia, however. Memories of his childhood are transcended, his hometown
made into an image of the primal human community, where people worship and celebrate,
with music a vital part of it all.
By 1917 Ives had acquired an adopted child and a new obsession - working to support
the American war effort (despite his earlier outspoken objection to the war). With the
strains of parenthood and campaigning for war bonds added to the already exhausting
demands of his business and creative life, and with the drain of steady rejection from
musicians, Ives's health collapsed. In October 1918 he had a serious heart attack just before
his 44th birthday. Neither he nor his work ever completely recovered.
Ignoring lingering weakness from his heart attack, in the first half of the 1920s Ives
kept to his usual frenetic pace, now spending a great deal of time promoting his work,
cultivating friendships with musicians, joining and supporting organizations that promoted
progressive music. By this time, the Modernist movement was gathering steam in the U.S.,
much of the musical part of it spiraling around the energetic young composer Henry
Cowell, who took up Ives's cause and remained one of his champions. Starting with songs
and the Violin Sonatas, Ives's music began to be played in the 20s, largely in “Ultra-
Modernist” forums.
But Ives's infirmities steadily eroded his energy, creative and otherwise. Finally one
day around 1927 Ives came downstairs in tears and told his wife, “I can't seem to compose
any more. I try and try and nothing comes out right.” Three years later he resigned from the
insurance agency he had built.
For the rest of his life Ives was an invalid. Yet through decades of physical misery
Ives remained the same optimistic, funny, gloriously eccentric, vibrant spirit he had always
been. When he was able, he saw to the practical side of being a composer - writing letters
to those interested in his work, editing pieces for publication and overseeing editing by
others, and supervising the copying of his pieces. The wealth he had earned in business not
only supported his own work, but flowed steadily into the cause of progressive music all
over the U.S.
In the following decades interest in Ives's music grew and many of his works received
long-delayed first performances. Ives died on May 19, 1954, in New York City.
Ives's music is rich in Americana. He quotes, distorts, combines, and disguises familiar
church and revival hymns, marches, Civil War songs, and other tunes - sometimes for their
evocative power, sometimes as a tool for musical structure. His experiments in polytonality
(simultaneous use of two or more keys) include the earliest known polytonal piece,
Variations on “America” for organ (1888). Much of the dissonance in his music stems from
the clash of keys or even of large blocks of sound, as in the approach of two parade bands in
Three Places in New England (1903-14, first performed in 1931). Often his music is
polyrhythmic and polymetric (using conflicting rhythms and time signatures).
Among Ives's works are four symphonies; Holidays (four sketches for orchestra, 1904-
13); Three Quarter-Tone Pieces (1923-1924) and the monumental Second Piano Sonata
(subtitled Concord, Massachusetts, 1840-1860; (1909-1915), both for piano; string quartets;
violin sonatas; and 114 Songs (1921). His writings include Essays Before a Sonata (1920;
reprinted 1970 as Essays Before a Sonata, the Majority, and Other Writings).

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Complete the profile of the composer:

 Epithets to
The most The most The most characterize his Phonetic
important important famous and music, transcription of
dates in his life events in his spectacular compositional the most
and career life and career works achievements important
and proper nouns
peculiarities

2. Match the words and their dictionary definitions:

1. MAVERICK a. to form a correct idea of how

people feel about something or
2. PANDEMONIUM what they are likely to do
b. a small piece of information or
3. QUIRK music
c. an unusual person who has
4. TO GAUGE different ideas and ways of
behaving from other people,
5. TO BLARE and is often very successful
d. fast, uncontrolled and excited
6. TO BURGEON actions
e. something that continuously
7. TO SPRAWL uses time, money, strength etc.
f. a strange habit or feature of
8. SNIPPET someone’s character
g. a situation in which there is a
9. A DRAIN ON SOMETHING lot of noise because people are
angry, confused or frightened
10. FRENETICK h. to make a very loud unpleasant
noise
i. to spread out over a wide area
in an untidy and unattractive
way
j. to grow or develop quickly

3. Read the text below and complete it using the words and expressions from the box:

flavor; quotations; was observed; dissonance; releases; series; complex; prophet;

did homage; direction

The most original and, indeed, the first truly great American classical composer was
Charles Ives, whose use of polytonality and __ 1__ made him a modernist __2__. In such
works as Three Places in New England (1903-14), for orchestra, the Second Piano Sonata,
Concord, Massachusetts, 1840-1860 (1920), and the choral work General Booth Enters into
Heaven (1914), Ives combined __3__ of gospel, ragtime, and parlor music with __ 4__
symphonic and chamber structures.
The 75th birthday (October 20, 1949) of Charles Ives, American composer
outstanding for the originality and native __5__ of his works, was the signal for their
performance in many parts of the country. The Los Angeles chamber music __ 6__, Evenings
on the Roof, __7__ to Ives in a program presenting his Third Sonata for Violin and Piano, the
Concord Sonata, and several songs. His Third Symphony was performed by the National
Gallery Orchestra directed by Richard Bales in the Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.
The 100th anniversary of the birth of Charles Ives (1974) __ 8__ by various record
companies. Notable among the new __9__ were a 100th anniversary collection (Columbia
M4-32504, four discs) and a new recording of Ives' Fourth Symphony by the London
Philharmonic, under the __10__ of Jose Serebrier.
4. Be ready to give a talk on your favourite English or American composer. Musical
illustrations would be welcome.

UNIT 9. MUSICAL TYPES

Classical Music - a) strictly speaking, it's music of the period from around 1750
to 1800, typified by composers like Haydn and Mozart, who were influenced by the ideals of
classical Greek and Roman art;
b) for most people, however, “classical” refers to all “serious” music played by an
orchestra, ensemble or solo musician, and it covers most musical periods: mediaeval,
Renaissance, baroque, classical and romantic.
Any attempt to define what is meant literally by the term “classical” music is fraught with
difficulty. How does one encapsulate in just a few words a musical tradition which encompasses
such infinite varieties of style and expression, from the monastic intonings of Gregorian chant to
the laid-back jazz inflections of Gershwin's “Rhapsody in Blue”, from the elegant poise of
Mozart's “Eine kleine Nachtmusik” to the despairing, heightened emotionalism of Tchaikovsky's
“Pathetique Symphony”? One is treading on very dangerous ground indeed if one pre-supposes
that it is simply “superior” to other musical types such as popular, jazz, rock and the like, let alone
the music of other cultures.
In general “popular” music may be as clear in expression as the longer examples of
“classical” music. One important difference, however, lies in the logical connection that exists in
“classical” music between the beginning and end, with the latter a logical extension and
development of the former. “Popular” music, on the other hand, tends to present its material
without development, the music ending when interest is exhausted.
Classical music is probably more familiar than we might at first imagine. Indeed,
nowadays it is all around us, whether it be in restaurants, supermarkets, lifts, for advertising or as
theme and incidental music on television. A great deal of film music either directly uses or draws
from the “classical” tradition; a good example of the former might be “2001: Space Odyssey”, and
of the latter, the many scores John Williams has composed in recent years for such blockbusters as
the “Star Wars” and “Indiana Jones” trilogies.
In the vast and wide-ranging world of “classical” music there is truly something there for
everyone - pieces which once discovered represent the start of an exciting and irresistible journey
which will provide a lifetime's listening pleasure. For example, those who are particularly excited
by hearing instrumentalists working at full stretch will thrill to the likes of Liszt and Paganini, or if
something a little more reserved and self-contained is required, the chamber music of Haydn or
Mozart would be a good starting point. If a full symphony orchestra in overdrive is more to your
taste then Tchaikovsky or Richard Strauss could well fit the bill, whereas those who have already
warmed to Vivaldi's “Four Seasons” might well try the music of some of the great Italian's
contemporaries such as Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach or Domenico Scarlatti. Whatever your
tastes may be, there has never been a better time to start building a “classical” music collection on
CD.
Sadly, whilst “classical” music is socially undivisive in itself, it has unfortunately become
associated in most people's minds with the intellectual elite. Even now, and with certain
honourable exceptions, the attending of a “live” concert can be an intimidating (not to say costly)
experience for the uninitiated, especially in that most jealously guarded of establishments, the
opera house. The wonderful thing about the technological age in which we live, and particularly
the advent of the compact disc, is that we can bypass all irrelevant social and intellectual pretence,
and enjoy in the comfort of our own home (often at far less cost) some of the finest music ever
composed.

Folk Music - music that is transmitted orally or aurally (taught through

performance rather than with notation, and learned by hearing or by imitation). It is
composed by individuals who remain anonymous or, at any rate, are not remembered by
name. People sharing a culture may have in common an occupation, language, ethnicity, age, or
geographical location. This body of traditional material is preserved and passed on from
generation to generation, with constant variations shaped by memory, immediate need or
purpose, and degree of individual talent. Folk music is found in many of the world's societies,
and it exists in different guises and under a variety of social and cultural conditions.
Performed by members of the folk community who are not highly trained musical
specialists, folk music is often thought to be closely associated with such life activities as
ritual, work, and child-rearing. Folk music is said to be the music of largely rural, untutored
masses. When a folk song is passed from singer to singer, it tends to undergo change arising
from creative impulses, faulty memory and the aesthetic values of those who learn and teach
it, and also the influence of the styles of other types of music known to the singers. A folk
song thus develops variants, gradually changing - perhaps beyond recognition - and existing
in many forms. Folk music frequently functions as a kind of cultural backwater that retains
characteristics of older art music (the music of the cultural centres) for long periods. Folk
music may also be defined as the music with which an ethnic community most closely
identifies itself. It is music that generally flourishes outside institutions such as school
and church. Folk music is relatively simple, usually consisting of songs with strophic forms
(a short stanza is repeated with different words, several or many times). Epic songs, with
great emphasis on telling a complex story, may repeat a single line many times. Most folk
music is monophonic: instrumental accompaniment may provide simple chords or, frequently,
a drone (one note or chord repeated under a melody). Polyphonic singing, with two or three
voices pursuing independent melodies, is found in many European and Eastern European
countries.
The word “folklore” was coined in 1846 by the English antiquary William John
Thoms to replace the term popular antiquities. Folklorists today also realize that folk music is
not restricted to rural communities but may commonly be found in cities, and that, rather than
dying out, it is still part of the learning of all groups from family units to nations, albeit
changing in form and function. Folk music as a creative activity and as a body of
unscrutinized or unverifiable assertions and beliefs has not vanished. Folklore has come to be
regarded as part of the human learning process and an important source of information about
the history of human life (as it may be based in part on real characters or historical events).
 Country Music or Country-and-Western Music is the major genre of American
popular music, primarily produced by white Southerners beginning in the early 1920s.
Born out of the folk music of Southern Appalachia, country music encompasses the styles
known as Western swing, bluegrass, honky-tonk, rockabilly, and new country. The roots of
country music lie in the folk music that English, Irish, and Scottish settlers brought to the
Appalachian Mountain region of the South in the 18th and 19th centuries. English ballads
and Irish reels in particular had a major early influence. Such music was performed from
colonial times in both religious and social contexts, including church services, weddings, and
barn dances.
Over the years country music has been influenced by folk, gospel, rhythm- and-blues,
and rock music and in turn has had an impact on these popular genres. Although originally
known by the derisive label “hillbilly music”, country has since moved into the popular
music mainstream and gained wide international acceptance. Many country tunes sound very
similar and are distinguishable by their lyrics. The lyrics of country songs commonly parallel
the lives of ordinary, working-class Americans and cover such subjects as love,
relationships, loneliness, religion, poverty, and work. A song's lyric theme is frequently
repeated as a hook (a catchy musical phrase) in the chorus section. The country genre began
in the 1920s with string bands, which usually consisted of various combinations of guitar,
fiddle banjo, mandolin, and string bass, also known as double bass.

Jazz is a type of music developed by black Americans about 1900 and possessing an
identifiable history and describable stylistic evolution. Jazz has borrowed from black folk
music, and popular music has borrowed from jazz, but these three kinds of music remain
distinct and should not be confused with one another.
Since its beginnings jazz has branched out into so many styles that no single
description fits all of them with total accuracy. A few generalizations, however, can be made,
bearing in mind that for all of them, exceptions can be cited.
Performers of jazz improvise within the conventions of their chosen style. Typically,
the improvisation is accompanied by the repeated chord progression of a popular song or an
original composition. Instrumentalists emulate black vocal styles, including the use of
glissandi and slides, nuances of pitch (including blue notes, the microtonally flattened tones
in the blues scale), and tonal effects such as growls and wails.
In striving to develop a personal sound or tone color - an idiosyncratic sense of rhythm
and form and an individual style of execution - performers create rhythms characterized by
constant syncopation (accents in unexpected places) and also by swing - a sensation of pull
and momentum that arises as the melody is heard alternately together with, then slightly at
variance with, the expected pulse or division of a pulse. Written scores, if present, are used
merely as guides, providing structure within which improvisation occurs. The typical
instrumentation begins with a rhythm section consisting of piano, string bass, drums, and
optional guitar, to which may be added any number of wind instruments. In big bands the
winds are grouped into three sections - saxophones, trombones, and trumpets.
Although exceptions occur in some styles, most jazz is based on the principle that an
infinite number of melodies can fit the chord progressions of any song. The musician
improvises new melodies that fit the chord progression, which is repeated again and again as
each soloist is featured, for as many choruses as desired.
Although pieces with many different formal patterns are used for jazz improvisation,
two formal patterns in particular are frequently found in songs used for jazz. One is the
AABA form of popular-song choruses, which typically consist of 32 measures in the meter,
divided into four 8-measure sections: section A; repeat of section A; section B (the “bridge”
or “release”, often beginning in a new key); repeat of section A. The second form, with roots
deep in black American folk music, is the 12-bar blues form. Unlike the 32-bar AABA
form, blues songs have a fairly standardized chord progression.
Jazz is rooted in the mingled musical traditions of American blacks. These include
traits surviving from West African music; black folk music forms developed in the New
World, European popular and light classical music of the 18th and 19th centuries; and later
popular music forms influenced by black music - or produced by black composers. Among
the African survivals are vocal styles that include great freedom of vocal color, a tradition of
improvisation; call-and-response patterns; and rhythmic complexity.

Pop Music is an umbrella term for all modern music not classifiable as jazz or
classical. Pop became distinct from folk music with the advent of sound-recording techniques,
and incorporated blues, country and western, and music hall; electronic amplification and
other technological innovations have played a large part in the creation of new styles. The
traditional format is a song of roughly three minutes with verse, chorus, and middle eight
bars (in written music - a section which corresponds to a fixed number of beats). This kind of
music is usually simple, cheerful and up-to-date. People can dance to it or just talk to friends.
The rhythms of pop music may be new and vigorous, but they lack variety: it's the same
monotonous beat repeated again and again. The tunes are mostly primitive, snappy and easily
caught (and as easily forgotten as caught). The lyrics of the songs often deal with the young
people's world: their dreams, hopes, disappointments and joys. A song's lyric theme is
frequently repeated as a hook (a catchy musical phrase) in the chorus section.

Rock Music is a group of related music styles that have dominated popular music in the
West since about 1955. Rock music began in the United States, but it has influenced and in turn
been shaped by a broad field of cultures and musical traditions, including gospel music, the
blues, country-and-western music, classical music, folk music, electronic music, and the
popular music of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In addition to its use as a broad designation,
the term rock music commonly refers to music styles after 1959 predominantly influenced by
white musicians. Other major rock music styles include rock and roll (also known as rock 'n'
roll), the first genre of the music; and rhythm-and-blues music (R&B), influenced mainly by
black American musicians. Each of these major genres encompasses a variety of substyles, such
as heavy metal, punk, alternative, and grunge. While innovations in rock music have often
occurred in regional centers - such as New York City, Kingston, Jamaica, and Liverpool,
England - the influence of rock music is now felt worldwide.
The central musical instrument in most kinds of rock music is the electric guitar.
Important figures in the history of this instrument include jazz musician Charlie Christian, who
in the late 1930s was one of the first to perform the amplified guitar as a solo instrument; Leo
Fender, who in 1948 introduced the first mass-produced solid-body electric guitar; and Les
Paul, who popularized the instrument in the early 1950s with series of technologically
innovative recordings. Rock-and-roll guitarist Chuck Berry established a style of playing in the
late 1950s that remains a great influence on rock music. Beginning in the late 1960s a new
generation of rock guitarists, including Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton, and Carlos Santana,
experimented with amplification, feedback (a type of electronic sound distortion), and various
electronic devices, extending the musical potential of the instrument.
Other instruments commonly used in rock music include the electric bass guitar
(introduced by Fender in 1951); keyboard instruments such as the electric piano, organ, and
synthesizer; and the drum set, an African American innovation that came into rock music from
jazz and R&B music. Instruments that play important roles in certain rock-music genres include
the saxophone - prominent in jazz-rock and soul music - and a wide assortment of traditional
instruments used in world beat music. The microphone also functions as a musical instrument
for many rock singers, who rely upon the amplification and various effects (such as echo)
obtainable through electronic means.
Rock music also shares more complex technical aspects. Most rock music is based on
the same harmonies as Western music, especially the chords known as tonic, subdominant, and
dominant. The chord progression (series of chords) known as the 12-bar blues is based on these
chords and has figured prominently in certain styles, especially rock and roll, soul music, and
southern rock. Other common harmonic devices include the use of a drone, or pedal point (a
single pitch sustained through a progression of chords), and the parallel movement of chords,
derived from a technique on the electric guitar known as bar-chording. Many elements of
African American music have been a continuing source of influence on rock music. These
characteristics include riffs (repeated patterns), backbeats (emphasizing the second and fourth
beats of each measure), call-and-response patterns, blue notes (the use of certain bent-sounding
pitches, especially those related the third and fifth degrees of a musical scale), and dense buzzy-
sounding timbres, or tone colors.
The musical form of rock music varies. Rock and roll of the late 1950s relied heavily
upon 12-bar blues and 32-bar song forms. Some rock bands of the late 1960s experimented with
more flexible, open-ended forms, and some rock bands of the 1970s developed suite forms
derived from classical music. Another important formal development in rock music has been
the so-called concept album, a succession of musical pieces tied together by a loose narrative
theme.
Much rock music is performed at high volume levels, so the music has been closely tied
to developments in electronic technology. Rock musicians have pioneered new studio
recording techniques, such as multi-tracking - a process of recording different song segments
at different times and layering them on top of one another - and digital sampling, the
reproduction by a computer of the patterns of a particular sound. Rock concerts, typically huge
events involving thousands of audience members, often feature high-tech theatrical stage effects,
including synchronized lighting.
Rock music has grown to include hundreds of musical styles, some of which define a
broad mainstream, while others are supported by small but devoted audiences. As in earlier
decades, major record companies have used independent labels to find new trends and locate
promising talent.
Rap music continued to develop in the 1990s, stimulating controversy over its
sometimes violent lyrics. Heavy metal has remained popular, as evidenced by huge arena
concerts featuring such bands as Metallica, Slayer, and Megadeth. A style known as alternative
rock, popularized in the late 1980s by the group R.E.M., combines heavy-metal guitars, folk
and punk influences, and cryptic, introspective lyrics. The alternative style spawned a number
of substyles, such as the grunge rock of Seattle-based groups Nirvana, Soundgarden, and Pearl
Jam. Techno, a style of dance music that gained popularity in the 1990s, combines computer-
generated, disco like rhythms with digital samples. Acid jazz is a related style, combining rock,
soul, R&B, and jazz influences.
Music video has remained an important means of introducing new performers. Other
new media technologies, including the use of fiber-optic cables and satellite transmissions,
have changed the way people access popular music. Advances in recording-studio technology,
digital recording equipment, and synthesis techniques have allowed musicians, producers, and
music engineers to exert far greater control over their final product than previously possible. In
live concerts, miniaturized and relatively portable amplification equipment has been introduced
to create the illusion of direct communication between the audience and the performers.
As the history of rock music broadens and expands, rock music itself has increasingly
become an object of nostalgia. In 1995 the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame opened in Cleveland,
Ohio. Also in the 1990s, several television documentaries were produced on the history of rock
and roll, and historical box-set recordings were reissued featuring artists from Elvis Presley to
Led Zeppelin.
Since its inception in the 1950s, rock music has moved from the margins of American
popular music to become the center of a multi-billion-dollar global industry. Closely connected
with youth culture, rock music and musicians have helped to establish new fashions, forms of
language, attitudes, and political views. However, rock music is no longer limited to an
audience of teenagers, since many current listeners formed their musical tastes during the
golden age of rock and roll. Similarly, while rock has historically encouraged new creative
expressions, the innovations of Chuck Berry, Elvis Presley, Bob Dylan, the Beatles, and Jimi
Hendrix have defined a tradition to which successive generations of musicians have repeatedly
turned for inspiration.
From its origins, rock music has been shaped by a complex relationship between freedom
- symbolized by the image of the rebellious rock musician - and corporate control. Originally a
mixture of styles outside the mainstream of white middle-class popular taste, rock and roll soon
became a mass-produced commodity. This tension between individuality and commercialism
still looms large in rock music and is reflected in fan distaste for musicians who compromise, or
sell out, their musical values in order to secure multi-million-dollar recording contracts. Shaped
by technology, the growth of the mass media, and the social identities of its artists and
audiences, rock music continues to play a central role in the popular culture of the United States
and, increasingly, the world.

1. Are you a lover of classical music? If so, you will fully appreciate the text that
follows. If not, you will see how much you lose!

From “Christmas Holiday”

by W. S. Maugham

Charlie was very fond of music. He knew the delight it gave him, the pleasure, partly
sensual, partly intellectual, when intoxicated by the loveliness that assailed his ears, he
remained yet keenly appreciative of the subtlety with which the composer had worked out his
idea.
Looking into himself, to find out what exactly it was he felt when he listened to one of
the greater symphonies, it seemed to him that it was a complex of emotions, excitement and at
the same time peace, love for others and a desire to do something for them, a wish to be good
and a delight in goodness, a pleasant languor and a funny detachment as though he were
floating above the world and whatever happened there didn't very much matter; and perhaps if
you had to combine all those feelings into one and give it a name, the name you'd give it was
happiness.

2. Give a talk on your attitude to classical music.

If you like it, talk about your favourite genre(s) of music and your favourite
composers explaining what attracts you in them. Music illustrations would be welcome.
If you don’t care for classical music, explain why you are not interested in it.

For and Against Classical Music

FOR AGAINST
1. Classical music gives the listener a keen 1. Classical music is a complicated art: it is
sensual delight. difficult to find one's way in it.
2. Music has a deep intellectual appeal. 2. It is also an exclusive art: most people
 3. Music has a strong ethical effect: it
ennobles the listener makes him better and
more humane.
4. Music condemns evil and supports the
ideals of good.
5. Music creates a special spiritual world for
the listener which immensely enriches his
inner life and makes him happy.
don't like or understand it. It is not a popular
art.
3. The very length of most classical pieces
can send any listener to sleep.
4. People want the kind of music to which
they can dance or just talk to friends. It
should be simple, cheerful and up-to-date.

3. What kind of music do you like? May be it is jazz?

Read the following text and work out the arguments and counter-arguments for this
personal point of view:

Jazz
from “Steppenwolf” by Hermann Hesse

When passing a restaurant with a dancing floor, I was enveloped in a wave of feverish
jazz music, hot and coarse, like a steam exuded by raw meat. I stopped: though I rejected
music of that sort, it always had a secret appeal for me. Jazz repelled me, and yet it was
incomparably dearer to me than all modern academic music; its hilarious rough savagery
deeply appealed to my instincts as well; it breathed honest naive sensuality.
I stood for a minute smelling the shrill sanguinary music. I was greedily and furiously
absorbing the atmosphere of the halls flooded by it. Half of this music, the lyrical half, was
sweetish, luscious, sentimental through and through; the other half was violent, wayward,
forceful; yet both halves merged peacefully and naively, and produced something integral. It
was a music of ruin; this kind of music must have existed in the Rome of the last emperors.
Certainly, in comparison with Bach, Mozart and genuine music, it was beastliness, but wasn't
all our art, our intellectual life, all our fake culture an equal kind of beastliness in comparison
with genuine culture? Also, this music had the advantage of great sincerity, of the dear Negro
open-heartedness, of childish high spirits. It had something of a Negro and something of an
American about it, and an American always, impresses us, Europeans, by his strength, but,
also, by his boyish freshness and childishness. Is Europe going the same way? Probably we,
the old connoisseurs and worshippers of past Europe, of past genuine music, of past genuine
poetry, are just a silly minority of pretentious neurotics who will be ridiculed and forgotten
tomorrow. Probably what we call “culture”, spirit, soul, what we regard as beautiful and
sacred, is only a ghost, was dead and buried long ago and seems real and living only to us, a
small group of fools. Has it ever been real and living? Aren't we, fools, being so painfully
concerned about a mere illusion?

4. Nowadays there is a growing tendency among the musicians to combine various

types, forms and genres of music. Read these short articles from “Moscow News” and
comment on them:

a) Jethro Tull is a true legend, but there’s something that makes this British band with
more than 35 years of proud history even more special: it is neither just blindly
imitating its own style of the seventies nor following the latest trends in order to
capture the headlines, but continues experimenting on art-rock and hard-rock, on folk
and jazz. That’s the treat that definitely makes this band unique. But any riff or chord
in Tull’s filigree sound wouldn’t be that easily recognizable without the flute solos.
 Ian Anderson, the band’s founder and inspirer, is also one of the best rock flutists. He
has been the pioneer in this field, and together with guitarist Martin Barre they are the
only two who have been continuously playing in the band since 1968. Once Jethro
Tull was listed as the second best rock group in the world - after The Beatles - and a
line superior to Rolling Stones. They’ve sold more than 60 million CDs (that’s
officially, just guess how much pirates have earned!). They were never afraid to test
new directions. Restating their own words, you’re never too old to rock’n’roll when
you’re too young to die.

b) Pseudo monks singing modern popular pop and rock songs arranged in the style of
medieval chants have hit Moscow. The name of the band is Gregorian, and it was
created thanks to Frank Peterson who before worked as a producer for Enigma and
Sarah Brightman. The first two Gregorian albums (1999/2000 and 2001) became
international bestsellers, selling one million copies each and awarded gold in a dozen
countries including Germany, Belgium, Australia, South Africa and Singapore. The
songs are mostly well-known, familiar to the biggest part of the audience. The
interesting feature of Gregorian’s performance is that they have to follow the style of
Gregorian chants which use only seven tones. Thus, some melodies had to be
converted to fit the model. Peter Weihe, responsible for the guitar sessions, did his
best to make the arrangements inspiring and atmospheric.

c) Riverdance is not a ballet, nor is it a traditional performance or concert. At the most

basic level it is an exciting display of music, dancing and singing. Or, at another level
it is the story of Ireland and its people. It spread like wildfire all over the world,
delighting people with its wonderful music and spectacular steps. Despite the fact that
the show has its origins in Irish mythology, now it incorporates many other folk
traditions and elements. For example, the classical version of Riverdance features also
Flamenco, Gaelic songs, Afro-American tunes and Christian choir. You don’t really
need to understand any language to be imbued with emotions. Riverdance tells a story
of human relationship towards nature, primitive feelings such as fear and joy, and
about the strength we can derive from nature’s spring. The main plotline is the life
story of the river. The notion of the river here implies also Human Life, Nature Life,
River of Time, and the eternal flow of History.

5. Do you agree with the statements given in the chart? You may add your own
arguments and counter-arguments for this point of view:

For and Against Pop Music

FOR AGAINST
1. Young people search for new rhythms and 1. Before rejecting the old rhythms and
new styles. styles, one should know something about
them. Most pop-music fans don't.
2. The new rhythms are full of vigour and 2. The rhythms may be new and vigorous,
force: just what appeals to young people. but they lack variety: it's the same
The tunes are snappy and easily caught. monotonous beat again and again. The tunes
are mostly primitive and as easily forgotten
3. The lyrics (words) of the songs deal with as caught.
the young people's world: their hopes, 3. The words of some of the songs are
dreams, disappointments and joys. absolutely senseless, sometimes verging on
 4. Young people “get tremendous kicks” (as the idiotic.
they put it) listening to this kind of music. 4. Why should one “get kicks” at all? One
might get thrilled, excited, stimulated,
5. It is an experimental kind of music: moved to tears. Does pop music give one all
different groups are looking for new forms these reactions?
and sometimes achieve really interesting 5. Medical research has proved beyond
results. doubt that the volume of sound produced by
powerful amplifiers at some pop concerts
does great damage both to the sense of
hearing and to the nervous system. Indeed,
cases of mass hysteria are not at all unusual
6. The very popularity of the genre speaks in at pop concerts. Are we bringing up a
its favour. It attracts great masses of young generation of half-deaf neurotics?
people. Why should we deprive them of the 6. In Australia taped pop music is used to
joy they obviously get from this music? frighten the sharks off the public beaches.
Obviously, the sharks' nerves cannot endure
this kind of noise.

UNIT 10. MUSICAL FORMS

Musical form is the structure of a musical composition. The term is regularly used in
two senses: to denote a standard type, or genre, and to denote the procedures in a specific
work. The nomenclature for the various musical formal types may be determined by the
medium of performance, the technique of composition, or by function.

Principles of musical form

Music exists in time; as an aesthetician, Susanne K. Langer, put it in Feeling and

Form, “music is time made audible”. The proper perception of a musical work depends in the
main on the ability to associate what is happening in the present with what has happened in
the past and with what one expects will happen in the future. The frustration or fulfillment of
such expectations and the resulting tensions and releases are basic to most musical works.
Musical form depends, therefore, on the disposition of certain structural units successively in
time. The basic principles can be discerned from a brief consideration of melody, which may
be defined as an organized succession of musical tones. This succession of tones consists of
component parts, structural units, the principal of which is the phrase - a complete musical
utterance, roughly corresponding to what can be sung or played in one breath or played with a
single stroke of the bow. A melody, then, ordinarily consists of a succession of phrases, in
which there may occur repetition (the same phrase repeated), contrast (a completely different
phrase), or variation (the phrase altered, but in such a way that its identity remains
perceptible). The relation between these component phrases is important for form. There may,
for instance, be a complementary grouping of phrases as antecedent and consequent or
“question and answer”. The phrases may or may not be equal in length. Some writers,
pressing the analogy between music and language, also distinguish larger groupings of
phrases: into periods, sentences, paragraphs, and the like. Most musical forms are thus not
only additive but also hierarchical: phrases are conjoined to produce a melody, which in turn
may be a constituent part of a larger work. A melodic entity that functions as an element in a
larger whole is called a theme. Coherence may be produced by the use of a motive or figure,
i.e., short elements consisting ordinarily of two to four notes. But whereas the motive is
usually characterized by a striking interval or rhythmic arrangement, the figure consists of
entirely conventional elements (a scale segment, notes of a chord, etc.). Finally, coherence
may also be achieved by the consistent use of a rhythmic pattern.
In some through-composed melodies a rhythmic pattern may appear throughout to
promote coherence. Other elements contribute to formal organization in music. Among those
having solely to do with pitch are range or register - whether most of the activity is high, low,
or in the middle, or combinations of these, and whether the range of pitches used is large or
small; types of melodic motion, whether conjunct (i.e., by step along the scale) or disjunct (by
leaps); and the use of different types of scales or modes. Factors included in music's temporal
aspect include tempo, whether fast or slow, as well as duration; i.e., whether individual notes
are long or short (the gradually increasing use of constantly shorter note values, for instance,
is associated with acceleration and accumulation, thus with increasing intensity). Among the
harmonic aspects, there is key, or tonality (set of interrelated notes and chords, based on a
major or minor scale), whereby the reassertion of a key following the intervention of other
keys may produce an effect akin to the restatement of a phrase after a contrasting one has
been heard; in this respect, cadences (sections giving the impression of conclusion) are of
crucial importance in defining key. Still other factors include the use of dynamics (loud and
soft); timbre, or tone colour, especially in the employment of unusual instruments or
combinations of instruments; texture, whether monophonic (consisting of a single melodic
line) or polyphonic (many-voiced), be it contrapuntal (having simultaneous independent
melodic lines) or homophonic (one voice leading melodically, supported by chordal
procedures); and, in vocal music, whether the text is set syllabically (one note to a syllable) or
melismatically (many notes to a syllable).
Four basic types of musical forms are distinguished in ethnomusicology: iterative, the
same phrase repeated over and over; reverting, with the restatement of a phrase after a
contrasting one; strophic, a larger melodic entity repeated over and over to different strophes
(stanzas) of a poetic text; and progressive, in which new melodic material is continuously
presented (thus synonymous with through-composed).

1. Read the following texts and make up a list of words and expressions referring to
the topic.

OPERA

Opera is a musical dramatic work in which the actors sing some or all of their parts; a
union of music, drama and spectacle, with music normally playing a dominant role.
The earliest operas staged by the group of «camerata» around patrons in Florence were
courtly entertainments in the form of the pastorale. The spread of the new stile
rappresentativo to other Italian courts began with Monteverdi's Orfeo (Mantua, 1607). As
opera became a public entertainment, from 1637 at Venice, its content and structure changed
to meet the demands of new audiences. A more accessible type of opera can be seen in the
romantic dramas of Faustini which Cavalli set in 1642-52 with expressive recitative and fluid
arias.
By the 1660s the aria structure in opera had become standardized as either ABA or
ABB; the proportion of arias increased as arioso became less prominent and recitative less
melodic. Plots and action became more varied and violent and spectacular stage effects were
featured. The Venetian repertory and the operatic style of Cavalli, Sartorio, Pallavicino,
Legrenzi and others spread elsewhere, partly through the activities of travelling troupes. In
1650 one of these, the Febiarmonici, took opera to Naples, a city soon to rival Venice as a
centre for and disseminator of opera. By 1700 opera in Italy had been more or less
standardized in a form familiar from the middle-period works of Alessandro Scarlatti: a three-
movement overture followed by three acts, each consisting of a succession of sharply
differentiated recitatives and arias (almost invariably ternary, ABA, in structure), with the
occasional duet or ensemble and a final coro (chorus) for the entire cast.
The situation in France was somewhat different. French opera as seen in the tragedies
lyriques of Lully was essentially a court spectacle, predominantly on legendary or
mythological themes, and in five acts, with big choral and ceremonial scenes reflecting the
magnificence and social order of the age of Louis XIV. France and Germany both imported
Italian opera in the later 17th century, and there were attempts at German-language opera,
especially at Hamburg, where an opera house had opened in 1678. Keiser was the leading
figure and Handel wrote his first operas. In England, French influence was at first dominant in
the «semi-opera» with spoken dialogue; all-sung English operas, of which Purcell's Dido and
Aeneas is the outstanding 17th-century example, were to be a rarity until well after 1900.
In the early 18th century there was a reaction in Italy against the alleged extravagance,
over-elaboration and confusions of the 17th-century libretto; this was initiated by Zeno and
completed after 1720 by Metastasio, whose opera seria librettos were set by numerous
composers throughout the 18th century, including Vinci, Leo, Porpora, Hasse, Jommelli,
Paisiello and Cimarosa. (Handel, whose mature operas were written for London and lie off the
mainstream of the Italian tradition, set only three of them, adjusted to his requirements.)
Metastasio's librettos serve as a model of the prevailing rationalist philosophy, the action
moving through conflicts and misunderstandings to an inevitable lieto fine (happy ending), in
which merit receives its due reward, often brought about through an act of renunciation by a
benevolent despot. The music is equally orderly, largely an alternation of recitatives (in which
the action takes place) and arias (in which the characters give vent to their emotional states). It
is, however, important to realize that in 18th-century opera, particularly as given in public
opera houses, the composer was not the dominant figure he was to become: operas were
usually put together by house composers and poets, often drawing on several composers'
music, old and new, to suit the available singers, who (then as now) were the chief draw -
above all the castrates and the sopranos.
As the century went on, the structure of opera seria was again challenged, this time
from below. Lighter forms of opera, such as opera buffa in Italy, opera comique or comedie
melee d'ariettes in France, ballad opera or comic opera in England and Singspiel in Germany,
came from humble beginnings to flourish alongside opera seria and even to penetrate its
substance. Serious opera began to change in the direction of freer choice and more imaginative
treatment of subject matter, reflected in the music by modifications of the strict da capo and
the rise of new aria forms, greater use of accompanied recitatives and of the chorus, and in the
end a virtual fusion of the formerly distinct French and Italian characteristics. The «reforms»
of Traetta, Jommelli and especially Gluck (Orfeo ed Euridice, 1762) were stages in this
process; the final stage is best represented by the operas of Mozart from Idomeneo (1781),
including his three with Da Ponte with their many ensembles (including extended act finales,
following the Venetian reforms of the poet Goldoni and the composer Galuppi) which bring a
new emotional weight to comic opera. Two-act form came to be preferred, especially in
comic opera, at this period.
By the early 19th century, even «serious» opera had moved from its earlier aristocratic
milieu into the great public theatres with their mass audiences. One manifestation of this was
the popularity of «rescue» operas, of which Beethoven's Fidelio (1805) is the best known.
Popular audiences were undoubtedly an influential factor in the growth of French grand
opera, with its emotion-charged plots, colourful orchestration and massive choral numbers;
this is seen at its most successful in the collaboration between the librettist Scribe and the
composer Meyerbeer. Nature and the supernatural entered into the substance of the drama,
particularly in Germany with Weber, Marschner and others.
While Italian serious opera was cultivated by Rossini, Donizetti and Verdi remained
relatively conservative; there was a move towards greater musical continuity during the 19th
century. The rigid separation of recitative and aria was gradually broken down, and virtually
eliminated in the Wagnerian music drama, in the final works of Verdi and the verismo operas
of his Italian successors, above all Puccini.
Characteristic for the age was the rise of new types of opera based on national history,
legends and folklore and drawing on national idioms in the music. Russia took the lead with
works such as Mussorgsky’s Boris Godunov; similar examples in the 20 th century were the
operas of Janacek and, on an epic scale, Prokofiev’s War and Peace. The underlying note of
20th-century opera is tragedy, whether conveyed in terms of symbolism (as in Debussy’s
Pelleas et Melisande), expressionism (Strauss’s Salome and Elektra, Schonberg’s Erwartung)
or naturalism (Peter Grimes and other operas by Britten). At the same time composers have
engaged in fantasy (Prokofiev’s The Love for Three Oranges, Ravel’s L’enfant et les
sortileges), allegory (Tippett’s The Midsummer Marriage), grotesque comedy
(Shostakovich’s The Nose), patriotism (Prokofiev’s War and Peace), irony (Stravinsky’s The
Rake’s Progress, the last and greatest neoclassical opera), political or philosophical tract
(Henze’s Der junge Lord and The Bassarids) and personal epic (Stockhausen’s cycle on the
days of the week). New operas continue to be composed; but the expense of staging them and
the difficulty of reconciling advanced forms of musical utterance with the requirements of the
traditional opera house and its audience have induced many composers to prefer chamber
opera or other kinds of music theatre susceptible to concert, «workshop» or experimental
production.

RONDO

The rondo is a very basic and ancient musical form. Its roots go back to refrain and
dance forms of the oral tradition. The rondeau appears throughout the Baroque era as a
component of dance suites - principally instrumental compositions. Cole suggests that the
evolution of the rondo from the French Baroque to the Classical style has not been adequately
investigated.
In the Classical era, the rondo finds its place as a middle or final movement of sonatas,
chamber music, symphonies, and concertos. The early classical rondos were simple in design
and of “little true inner value” - hence trivial in comparison with the evidently dialectical
construction of the sonata form. Cole connects the instrumental rondo of the eighteenth century
with the opera buffa use of the vocal rondo, in a light, simple, pleasing, charming style. The
basic rondo form looks like:
Figure 3
A B A C A D A etc.
where A is the main theme or refrain (or, confusingly, the ritornello), and B, C, D, etc. are
the couplets or episodes.
Douglass Green stipulates that to count as a rondo the refrain must appear at least
three times. Cole, among others, stipulates that the rondo will conclude with the main theme.
In essence, therefore, the rondo is an open-ended form. It presumes literal repetitions of A
(the theme) in the tonic key, although the repetitions are often ornamented. The theme itself
always ends in the tonic, for it is this ending that will at some point be the ending for the
piece as a whole. William Caplin suggests that the theme can be ternary, rounded binary or
binary, and will close with a PAC. The A section is more typically static, in order that the
couplets can develop dramatic tension. In keeping with the static form, rondo themes usually
exhibit regular, symmetrical phrasing.
Louis Couperin was among the first to use abbreviated repetitions of the rondo theme.
Such abbreviations would typically be understood in relation to the degree of repetition
inherent in the composition. Couperin also experimented with transposing the refrain to other
keys. Heinrich Schenker views rondo as the conjoining of two ternary forms thus:
Figure 4.
ABA+ACA=ABACA
In this way, Schenker likens the essential structure of rondo to that of ternary form.
Theorists seem to differ as to whether variety and contrast amongst the couplets is
necessary to establish the rondo form. That is, whether A-B-A-B-A is truly a rondo, or in
essence merely an extended ternary form.
The B, C, D, etc. sections—the episodes, couplets or digressions—are based on the idea
of contrast to the A theme. Nevertheless, a continuing issue in rondo is the degree of
similarity, complementarity, or difference associated with the sections. Cole notes that
C.P.E. Bach developed couplets of an open design rather than a closed binary or ternary
substructure. Caplin takes this idea further, and suggests that in principle the first couplet
will either function as a “subordinate-theme complex”, like the transition, second theme
and closing theme of a sonata form, or as an “interior theme”, similar to the B section of a
ternary form. Caplin suggests that the former is more typical of a B section and the latter for
a C section; thus, “C” is construed as having more developmental and contrasting quality, as
compared to the “B” section. Caplin strongly suggests that in the case of a “subordinate-theme
complex’, the various parts are to be considered as all under the umbrella of “B”. This is a
distinction which is perhaps more important for theory than for practice. It comes into
question when we begin to think of classical rondos as variants of sonata forms.
Among the important means of contrast in the rondo is that of key. Rameau
established something of a standard by using the order V and vi for the two couplets (B and
C) of a major key rondeau, and III and v for the two couplets of a minor key rondeau. These
key choices, of course, are also reflected in countless Baroque dances and imitative forms
such as fugue. Many later rondos bear important relations to these fundamental harmonic
plans. Classical rondos admit of introductions, codas, transitional and re-transitional
passages, complementing their overtly rhetorical nature. It may be interesting to see how such
passages are used in specific movements. Cole suggests that Leclair, in the later 18th century,
was one of the first to adopt the retransition as a linking passage. The retransition, in fact,
often becomes one of the dramatic focal points of the rondo form in the Classical period.
As a result of our study, we are finding in the Classical repertoire several
interesting phenomena concerning the rondo. First, the ending of the rondo theme is often not
as clear cut as the theory would suggest. Composers make use of several PACs in quick
succession, any of which could be used as the “real” ending of the theme. Further, we are
finding that extensive use of transitions and retransitions in the Classical rondo provide more
dramatic and developmental qualities to the couplets. These devices are essentially borrowed
from the sonata-allegro form; indeed, in many later rondos, the B section follows the plan of
a sonata-allegro transition, second theme and closing group. Finally, we find the
intermixture of elements from the rondo theme and the couplet themes, particularly near the
end of a rondo.
All of these “aberrations” may be understood primarily as means of investing the
basically static form of the rondo with various degrees of dramatic and narrative elements.
These trends are increasingly evident in sonata-rondo. Ernst Levy and Siegmund Levarie
make very clear the idea that it is the varied sections of a piece - the solos of a ritornello, the
episodes of a rondo - that hold the narrative content of the music.
 Cole points to the fantasy as a concept that may be used to understand the great
variety of treatments that C.P.E. Bach and later composers employed. In a similar way, we
can see how Beethoven, in his rondo finales, often makes direct or hidden reference to earlier
movements, adding another layer of formal and dramatic complexity. According to Cole, both
Haydn and Mozart moved from a simple, sectional structure to a complex, integrated form into
which he built surprise and variety, and within which he attempted to offset and even exploit
the regularity inherent in the traditional layout.

SONATA

Sonata is a piece of music, almost invariably instrumental and usually in several

movements, for a soloist or a small ensemble; or a structural principle, the sonata form.
In the late 16th century numerous terms were used for instrumental pieces, one of
which was «sonata», indicating something played as opposed to something sung (“cantata”).
Until circa 1650 it was used interchangeably with “canzona”. Around 1600 Giovanni Gabrieli
popularized a type of sonata for two or more instrumental groups, but he also pointed to the
future meaning of the word in his Sonata per tre violini (1615). In the early phase the forms
are single-movement or multi-sectional, in the manner of the canzona. The single-movement
sonata survived later in the era in such byways as G.C. Arresti's anthology of 18 Sonate de
organo (circa 1700) and the keyboard sonatas (or “toccatas”) of Seixas, but by the time of
Corelli (1653-1713) the sonata usually consisted of a number of separate movements.
Corelli was largely responsible for establishing the slow-fast-slow-fast order of
movements in the Sonata da chiesa (church sonata). He used it in most of his trio sonatas opp.
l and 3, but added a fifth movement in his solo church sonatas op.5. The order of movements
in the Sonata da camera (“chamber sonata”) was less standardized, but many examples follow
the order of the four main dances of the Baroque suite: allemande, courante, sarabande, gigue.
More often the chiesa and camera types cross or even fuse, as in the earliest published sonatas
of Telemann and Vivaldi.
In the late Baroque there is greater standardization both of the cycle and of individual
movements, whether in the more conservative, motivic styles like Bach's, which still lead to
fugal types of form, or in the more progressive, homophonic ones of composers like Tartini or
Leclair, which lead to the newer rondo, the ternary ABA form and similar sectional, integrated
designs.
As far as instruments are concerned, the main Baroque type was the trio sonata,
especially that for two violins and continuo. In addition to those of Corelli, Handel and Bach,
the 22 sonatas of Purcell are outstanding among the trio type (though the cello part is
sometimes independent of the continuo). After 1700 the “solo” sonata, for one melody
instrument and bass, became more popular; violin, flute, oboe and cello were the most favoured
instruments. More exceptional were sonatas for unaccompanied solo instruments, such as
Biber's and Bach's for violin, Handel's for harpsichord and Bach’s for organ.
A significant starting-point for the Classical period (circa 1735 - circa 1820) is the
sudden flowering of the solo keyboard sonata with Domenico Scarlatti, Alberti and C.P.E.
Bach. As the clavichord and harpsichord were superseded by the piano, the keyboard sonata
continued to rank high in the works of Haydn, Clementi, Mozart and Beethoven. Just as
numerous, but of less artistic and historical importance, were the “accompanied sonatas” for
keyboard, usually with violin (sometimes optional). Only towards the end of the period, in the
mature violin sonatas of Mozart and Beethoven and in the latter's cello sonatas, are string and
keyboard instruments treated as equals.
There is no consistent trend in the number and order of movements. The three-
movement sequence, fast-slow-fast, predominates; a fourth is often present, but its character
and placing vary. The so-called “Italian plan” in two movements, usually both fast or one fast
and one moderate, occurs in about half the sonatas of the main Italian composers from Alberti
to Boccherini, and the single-movement keyboard sonatas of the three notable pre-Classical
composers in Iberia - Seixas, Scarlatti and Soler - are often paired by key in the source
manuscripts.
The first movement of Classical sonatas is most often in Sonata form. The slow
movement may also approximate to sonata form, though usually with less development and a
simpler phrase structure; other common forms include ABA or AB designs, rondos, variations
and free fantasias. Among forms used for inner and final movements are the minuet or scherzo,
the rondo or sonata-rondo and variations.
The sonatas of the Romantic period (circa 1790- circa 1915) exemplify the rich variety
of national and personal styles that characterize that era. As far as structure and basic
approach are concerned, they fall into two categories. To the first belong the sonatas of
Schubert, Weber, Chopin, Schumann, Brahms, Grieg, Faure and Franck, which expand the
Classical three- or four-movement form but do not break with it. While rarely achieving the
logic or fluent rhythmic organization of the high Classical masterworks, they often sought a
more positive organization of the cycle of movements. The “basic motif” in Brahms's Violin
Sonata op.78 and the “cyclical procedures” in Franck's Violin Sonata represent conscious
methods of tying the movements together. Among sonatas in the smaller second category are
those based on a programme, like Liszt's Apres une lecture de Dante, fantasia quasi sonata,
or those which experiment with structure, such as the same composer's single-movement
Piano Sonata in b Minor.
While traditional sonata structures have served the expressive purposes of many 20th-
century composers, including Prokofiev and Shostakovich, the distinctiveness of the genre
has during this time all but disappeared. The title no longer necessarily implies a work in
several movements, one or more of them in sonata form, for piano alone or with another
instrument. The break with tradition is evident both in those sonatas by Bartok, Stravinsky,
Poulenc and Hindemith which look back to a much earlier age and in the piano sonatas of
Barraque and Boulez, which have no links of form or genre with any previous Sonatas.

SYMPHONY

A symphony, as it is generally defined today, is a large-scale composition for orchestra,

usually in three or four movements. However, this definition only scratches the surface of
what is a great musical tradition.
The origins of the symphony can be traced back to the Baroque sinfonia. During the
Baroque period, the sinfonia was used as an orchestral overture to an opera, oratorio, or
cantata. It usually consisted of three or four contrasting sections or movements, often using
popular dance forms.
Towards the end of the Baroque period, operatic sinfonias began to be performed in
the concert hall, and the sinfonia gradually became a stand-alone orchestral composition.
However, it wasn't until the development of sonata form that composers really began to take
notice of this new genre.
Arguably the most important structure in classical music, sonata form provided the
framework for composers who wanted to express ideas on a larger scale than was possible
using the old Baroque binary and ternary forms. The development and refinement of sonata
form is largely due to the efforts of early Classical composers, particularly Carl Philip
Emmanuel and Johann Christian Bach (sons of the great Johann Sebastian), Stamitz, and
Sammartini, who, through their symphonies and sinfonias, transformed what was then an
unrefined concept into a viable proposition for the new generation of composers. All of the
great Romantic and 20th Century symphonists owe a great deal to these composers, whose
basic designs for the symphony are still in use today.
By 1780, the Classical sinfonia/symphony, even taking into account the delightful
works of C.P.E. Bach and Stamitz, was still in its embryonic stages, essentially rooted to
archaic Baroque compositional techniques. It took the symphonies of Joseph Haydn (1732 -
1809) to inject a much-needed burst of life into a genre that had reached a point of stasis.
Haydn's 104 symphonies, particularly Nos 80-104, finally freed the symphony from the
shadow of the Baroque masters. Haydn's symphonies are structurally sound, yet often
unpredictable; they are witty and profound at the same time. He is now regarded as the 'Father
of the Symphony'.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) perfected the form that Haydn had by then
firmly established. His greatness as an opera composer is fully evident in his 41 symphonies,
which contain some of the most beautiful melodies in the entire symphonic repertoire, as well
as some wonderfully dramatic moments. The Jupiter symphony, No. 41, is arguably his most
important contribution to the genre. Its finale is a masterly composition that combines sonata
form and fugue in a way that was to remain unequalled until well into the 19th century.
By 1830, the possibilities of the symphony appeared to have been exhausted. After the
monumental Ninth symphonies of Beethoven and Schubert, what else could be done with the
genre? Enter the dynamic young French composer Hector Berlioz (1803-1869), who took a
completely different approach to the challenges of symphonic writing. In the first 5 months of
1830, he composed one of the most important symphonies of all time - the Symphonie
Fantastique. Subtitled Episodes in the Life of an Artist, it was inspired by Berlioz's passion for
the young Irish actress Harriet Smithson. It is a strongly programmatic work in five
movements: Dreams and Passions, A Ball, Scene in the Fields, March to the Scaffold, and
Witches' Sabbath. Berlioz's melodic invention and imaginative orchestration shine throughout
the entire work, and it remains one of the most enduringly popular works in the symphonic
repertoire.
In the late 19th century, the Austro-German symphonic tradition had two main
exponents, both standing at the polar opposites of the musical politics of the era. Representing
traditionalism and conservatism was Johannes Brahms (1833-1897). His four symphonies
conform to Classical ideals of proportion and structure, and even look back to the Baroque era
with their dense contrapuntal textures. But they are essentially Romantic works. Their beauty
and drama have captivated audiences, and today they form the backbone of most modern
symphony orchestras' repertoire.
At the other end of the spectrum was Anton Bruckner (1824-1896). Bruckner is one of
the most fascinating personalities in all music - and it is the countless, often contradictory,
facets of his persona that make his music so totally unique. He was a devout Catholic, and in
many ways a simple peasant boy - but there is nothing simple about his eleven symphonies,
which speak about a profound love of God and nature, but also express deeply personal
sentiments, often using the folk tunes of his Upper Austrian homeland. His music is on a huge
scale, with most of his symphonies lasting over an hour. He was strongly influenced by
Wagner, but essentially his music is rooted in the tradition established by Mozart, Beethoven,
and Schubert.
The development of the symphony during the Romantic period was not limited to
Austria, Germany, and France - other European countries also began to establish a presence.
One of these countries was Czechoslovakia, whose national composer was Antonin Dvorak
(1841-1904). His nine symphonies combine Germanic influences, particularly Brahms and
Wagner, with traditional Czechoslovakian folk melodies.
The composition of orchestral music in Russia began to explode in the mid to late 19th
century. Composers such as the «Mighty Five» (Rimsky-Korsakov, Borodin, Mussorgsky, Cui,
and Balakirev) established a distinctive Russian orchestral style, which was taken to its zenith
with the six symphonies of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840 -1893). They fully display the
composer's mastery of classical form, colourful and imaginative orchestration, and his unique
gift for lyrical melodies.
By the turn of the 20th century, the great Austro-Germanic Romantic tradition was
drawing to a close, and most composers were turning to emerging new styles and techniques,
such as Schoenberq's pioneering twelve-tone method. However, the Bohemian-born composer
and conductor Gustav Mahler demonstrated that the possibilities of the large-scale Romantic
symphony had not yet been totally exhausted. His ten symphonies represent the very height of
Romanticism, drawing together wildly contrasting elements into compelling musical arguments.
The intense chromaticism of his harmonic language pushes tonality to its limits, and his huge,
labyrinthine musical structures are unequalled in the symphonic repertoire. His music
expresses the joy and despair of the 20th century.
Around the same time, monumental symphonies of a very different nature were being
written in England, by the most famous English composer of all time, Edward Elgar. His two
completed symphonies are conservative in style, but their huge dimensions, luscious
chromatic harmonies, and sensuous orchestration make them highly original and distinctive
works. The introspective melancholy of his music is a far cry from the often grotesque, death-
obsessed sound-world of Mahler.
At the turn of the 20th century, composers were becoming frustrated with the
limitations of conventional tonality and the straight-jacket of Romantic style. The widespread
social and political upheavals occurring around the world were forcing many composers to
find completely new methods of expression. A disparate array of new styles emerged, all of
which broke the established traditions of composition. Debussy and Ravel spearheaded the
rise of Impressionism in France, Schoenberq and the Second Viennese School explored the
dark, nightmarish world of Expressionism and atonality in Germany, and composers in
England, the United States, and Russia were exploring completely new styles inspired by their
respective countries.

2. Name the most important composers mentioned in the texts.

3. There are many musical forms and genres. Choose the one you like more and
give a talk on it. Music illustrations would be welcome.

MUSIC GLOSSARY
Aleatory music – music produced by chance procedures, such as by throwing dice or
using computers. Pioneered by the American composer John Cage in the 1950s.
 Alto – (Italian “high”); 1. low-register female voice also called contralto; 2. an
unusually high adult male voice, also known as a counter tenor; 3. (French) viola.

Ambrosian chant – plainsong named after St Ambrose, who introduced it in the

fourth century. It was influenced by Middle Eastern singing.

Anthem - 1.a short, usually elaborate, religious piece of music for a choir, sometimes
accompanied by the organ; 2. a religious or moral choral composition in English; performed
liturgically, the Protestant equivalent of the motet; 3. song of loyalty or devotion; Example: a
national anthem.

Aria - (Italian: “air”) an elaborate, lyric song, often in three sections, the third
repeating the first, after a contrasting central section; generally expressing intense emotion,
for solo voice in an opera, cantata or oratorio - any choral work.

Aria opera – (also opera seria – Italian), the chief operatic genre in the 17th and 18th
centuries, formal and complex, with elaborate display arias.

Arioso - a small aria of a free structure. In most cases it is a part of a recital.

Bagatelle – (French “trifle”) a short character piece, often for piano.

Ballade - 1. a verse form consisting of three stanzas and an envoy, all ending with the
same line; 2. French poetic form and chanson type of the Middle Ages and Renaissance with
courtly love texts; 3. a romantic instrumental composition, esp. a lyric piano piece, possibly
inspired by the literary equivalent.

Ballad opera – a popular type of 18th-century English stage entertainment, consisting

of spoken dialogue and simple songs adapted from folk tunes or from operas of the period.
The style was imitated by some composers in the 20th century.

Barcarole\ Barcarolle - a song of Venetian gondoliers.

Baritone – lower-range male voice midway between bass and tenor.

Bass – 1. lowest range of male voice; 2. lower regions of musical pitch.

Bel canto – (Italian “beautiful song”) term which usually refers to the 18 th-century
Italian style of singing with great emphasis on perfect technique and beautiful tone which
reached its peak in the operas of Rossini, Donizetti and Bellini.

Blues – 1. a type of folk song originating among Black Americans; 2. dance tunes for
haunting jazz melodies.

Cadenza – usually a bravura passage for the soloist in a concerto.

Canon – a form for a number of “voices” or parts in which each enters successively,
at fixed time intervals, in exact imitation of each other. The parts may then end together or
continue their repetition as in a round.
 Cantata – 1. a musical setting of a text, consisting of arias, duets, and choruses; 2. the
most important genre of vocal chamber music in the Baroque period; 3. the principal musical
constituent of the Lutheran service; 4. since the late 18 th century the term has been applied to a
wide variety of works, sacred and secular, mostly for chorus and orchestra, sometimes with
solo voices.

Capriccio – (Italian “caprice”) a short, lively instrumental piece of music with a free
structure and virtuous, often humorous or whimsical, in character; in a bright, spectacular
style abounds in sudden movements and effects.

Carol – 1. in medieval times a round dance with music accompaniment, which soon
developed into a song for two or three voices usually (but not necessary) to a text dealing with
the birth of Christ; 2. a joyful religious song (of praise and celebration) sung at Christmas.
Catch – a kind of English round for three unaccompanied male voices, usually with
lighthearted words. It was popular from the late 16th into the 19th century.

Chamber music – music written for a small instrumental group, such as a string
quartet, in which each part is played by a single instrument, performed in a room rather than a
concert hall.

Chant – unaccompanied, vocal liturgical music.

Chorale – a traditional hymn tune of the German Protestant (Lutheran) Church.

Choir - 1. an organized group of singers, usually for singing in church; 2. the part of a
church, in front of the altar, occupied by the choir.

Chorus - (pl -ruses) 1. a large choir; 2. a piece of music to be sung by a large choir; 3.
a part of a song repeated after each verse; 4. (also a choir) a group of singers who perform
together in a show; 5. (in ancient Greece) a group of actors who commented on the action of a
play; 6.(in Elizabethan drama) the actor who spoke the prologue and epilogue.

Chromatic – a scale proceeding by semitones. All 12 notes in the octave are used
rather than the seven notes of the diatonic scale.

Clef – the symbol used to indicate the pitch of the lines of the staff in musical
notation.

Coda – (Italian “tail”) a concluding section of a movement added to indicate finality.

Coloratura – a rapid ornamental vocal passage with runs, trills, etc. A coloratura
soprano has a light, high voice suited to such music.

Concerto - (pl -tos or -ti) a large-scale composition for an orchestra and one or more
soloists. It usually denotes a work in which a solo instrument (or instrumental group)
contrasts with an orchestral ensemble.

Concrete music – music created by reworking natural sounds on record or tape, in

particular that of Pierre Schaeffer in 1948.
 Consort – a small group of musicians playing Renaissance or Baroque instruments
which all belong to the same family, such as recorders.

Continuo – short for basso continuo, the bass line on which a keyboard player, often
accompanied by a bass stringed instrument, built up a harmonic accompaniment in much
17th-century music.

Counterpoint – the simultaneous combination of two or more independent melodic

lines to form a harmonious whole. The adjective is “contrapuntal”.

Da-capo aria – aria in which the first part is repeated (da capo in Italian means: from
the beginning).

Dance - 1. a series of rhythmical steps and movements in time to music; 2. a piece of

music in the rhythm of a particular dance.

Descant – a high-pitched line above the soprano melody.

Diatonic – a diatonic scale consists of the seven notes of any major or minor key.

Divertimento - (pl –ti) a piece of entertaining music in several movements.

Electronic music- music produced since the 1950s in which composers work with
electronically assembled or arranged sounds.

Etude – (French “study”) a short composition for a solo instrument, esp. intended to
be played as an exercise to develop technique or to demonstrate virtuosity.

Fanfare – a short, dramatic piece for bright instruments such as trumpets.

Fantasia - 1. any musical work not composed in a strict form; 2. a mixture of popular
tunes arranged as a continuous whole.

Folk rock – a combination of folk music with the amplified instrumentation of rock
usually including drums and electric stringed instruments.

Fugue – (Latin “flight”) a musical form consisting of a theme repeated above or below
the continuing first statement. It is a process in which a subject is stated and developed in
imitative counterpoint. Because the fugal process may yield various forms, it is not
technically a form (although it is often referred to as such).

Galliard – lively dance, from the 15th century or earlier, in simple triple time. Often
paired and contrasted with the slower pavan (see below).

Gamelan – a type of Indonesian orchestra, mainly using tuned metal percussion

instruments, the music of which has influenced Western composers.

Gamut – 1. a scale; 2. the whole range of notes.

 Gigue (jig) - 1. a lively folk dance; 2. music for this dance.

Glee – an 18th-century type of unaccompanied choral composition for three or more

men's voices.

Gregorian chant – plainsong choral chants associated with Pope Gregory the Great
590-604, which became standard in the Roman Catholic Church.

Impromptu - 1. a short piece of instrumental music that suggests spontaneity; 2.

something that is impromptu (without planning or preparation; improvised).

Incidental music – music which accompanies a feature film.

Intermezzo - (pl -zos or -zi) 1. a short piece of instrumental music performed between
the acts of a play or opera to denote the passage of time; 2. a) a short composition between
two longer movements in an extended musical work; b) a similar composition intended for
independent performance.

Introduction - a preliminary part of a musical composition.

Jazz - a kind of music of American Negro origin, characterized by syncopated

rhythms, solo and group improvisation, and a variety of harmonic idioms and instrumental
techniques.

Lament - a poem or song in which a death is lamented.

Leitmotiv – (German “leading motive”) a recurring theme or motive used to indicate a

character or idea – a technique used especially by Wagner in his operas.

Libretto – (Italian “little book”) the text of an opera or other dramatic vocal work, or
the scenario of a ballet.

Lied – (German “song”) a genre particularly associated with the Romantic songs of
Schubert, Schumann, Brahms and Wolf.

Lullaby - (pl -bies) a quiet song to lull a child to sleep.

Madrigal – a secular composition for several voices, a four- or five-part song which
reached its height in Italy in the 16th century and became popular in Elizabethan England.

March - a piece of music suitable for marching. It is essentially an ornamentation of a

regular and repeated drum rhythm.

Mass – in music, the setting of the invariable parts of the Mass, that is Kyrie, Gloria,
Credo, Sanctus with Benedictus, and Agnus Dei, such as Bach’s Mass in B Minor.

Melody - a succession of notes forming a distinctive sequence; tune.

Mezzo-soprano – female voice halfway between soprano and contralto.

 Minimalism – the music of late 20th - century American composers, based on a small
number of ideas repeated many times, in which the repetition of short figures is used
extensively.

Minstrel songs (Minstrels) – in modern usage, the term is loosely applied to all sorts
of musical entertainers, ancient and modern, especially for comedians appearing in the guise
of Afro-Americans. The Negro minstrel shows became a popular national institution in the
US in the 1830s.

Minuet - 1. a stately court dance of the 17th and 18th centuries for groups of two
couples (of French origin) in a moderate triple metre; 2. music for this dance; 3. the third
movement in a classical symphony.

Modulation – passing from one key to another through harmonic progressions.

Morris dance – a type of English folk dance performed by six men, in two groups of
three, with bells attached to their legs and each holding a white handkerchief or a stick. There
are numerous morris dances, and the term is sometimes extended to include the sword dance
as well.

Motet – a form of sacred, polyphonic music for unaccompanied voices which

originated in the 13th century.

Motive - same as motif- 1. a distinctive idea, esp. a theme elaborated on in a piece of

music or literature; 2. a fundamental unit of composition, consisting of at least two notes
which build up into longer themes and passages.

Movement – a section of a large work, such as a symphony, which is often complete

in itself.

Musette – 1. an old bucolic dance; 2. an instrumental Baroque dance with a bagpipe-

like drone bass.

Nocturne - a short lyrical, soft and dreamy piano piece with nighttime associations,
introduced by John Field and adopted by Chopin.

Opera – an extended art form consisting of a dramatic stage performance set to music.
The drama is presented using the typical elements of theater, such as scenery, costumes, and
acting. However, the words of the opera (collectively referred to as the libretto) are sung
rather than spoken. The singers are accompanied by a musical ensemble, which in some
operas can be as large as a full symphonic orchestra.

Operetta – a term used in the 17th and 18th centuries for a variety of stage works
shorter or less ambitious than opera, and in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for a light
opera with spoken dialogue and dances.

Opus – (Latin “work”) an artistic creation, esp. a musical work by a particular

composer, numbered in order of publication; Example: Beethoven's opus 61.
 Oratorio - (pl -rios) a musical composition for soloists, chorus, and orchestra, based
on a religious or mythological theme, performed in a church or concert hall. It differs from an
opera in that it doesn’t have décor, costumes or acting.

Orchestral miniature - a small piece of music performed by an orchestra.

Overture – 1. a piece of orchestral music played at the beginning of an opera,

oratorio, or ballet, musical comedy, or film, often containing the main musical themes of the
work; 2. a one-movement orchestral piece, usually having a descriptive or evocative title;
Example: the 1812 Overture.

Passacaglia - 1. a Spanish dance of the 17th-18th centuries; 2. a musical composition

for an organ, clavier in form of a variation, with a melody constantly repeated. Its tone is
serious, quite often tragic.

Pavan – a dance of Italian origin, popular in the 16th and 17th centuries, in simple
duple time. Usually paired with the galliard and their association was the origin of the suite.

Piece - a literary, musical, or artistic composition.

Plainsong – Early Christian chanting.

Polka - 1. a piece of music of middle-European origin for a lively kind of dance in

duple time; 2. a lively 19th century dance.

Polonaise - 1. a stately heroic or ceremonial Polish dance in triple time; 2. a piece of

slow music for this dance or a kind of ceremonial rhapsody.

Polyphony - (pl -nies) polyphonic style of composition (consisting of several

melodies played together) or a piece of music using it.

Prelude – 1. an introductory (often a mood-setting) movement in music not

substantial enough to merit the term overture; 2. a short independent piece of music for piano
or organ.

Programme music – music that tells a story, depicts a scene or painting, or illustrates
a literary or philosophical idea, such as Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony.

Psychedelic rock (also acid rock) – a style of rock, played chiefly by bands in the
San Francisco area in the 1960s. It is characterized by extended, blues-inspired improvisations
and surrealistic lyrics, and sometimes uses exotic (especially Indian) instruments; the music is
intended to evoke or accompany a drug-induced state. The performances took place in large
Rock Palaces and were accompanied by lavish light shows.

Quintet -1.a group of five singers or instrumentalists; 2. a piece of music for five
performers.

Quartet -1.a group of four singers or instrumentalists; 2. a piece of music for four
performers.
 Raga – a traditional form in Hindu music, consisting of a theme that expresses some
aspect of religious feeling and sets forth a tonal system on which variations are improvised
within a prescribed framework of typical progressions, melodic formulas, and rhythmic
patterns.

Ragtime - (1920-s) popular music and dance of US Negro origin, the accent of the
melody falling just before the regular beat of the accompaniment; a style of jazz piano music
with a syncopated melody.

Recital - a musical performance by a soloist or soloists.

Recitative – speech-like declamation of narrative episodes in opera.

Requiem – the Mass for the Dead in the Roman Catholic Church. Notable settings
include those by Mozart and Berlioz.

Rhapsody - (pl -dies) a freely structured and emotional piece of music, an

instrumental fantasia, often based on folk melodies, such as Liszt’s Hungarian Rhapsodies.

Rockabilly – a form of American popular music that combined the plucked string
sounds of country and western music with song-forms and lyrics of rock'n'roll. The genre
flourished from about 1954 to 1960 in the southern US and for somewhat longer in England.

Rock opera – popular form of modern opera using rock and jazz elements.

Rondo - (pl -dos) a piece of music with a leading theme continually returned to (often
forms the last movement of a sonata or concerto).

Sarabande - 1. originally a fast triple dance; 2. by the 17th century it had become a
grand slow Spanish dance; 2. music for this dance.

Scale - a sequence of notes taken in ascending or descending order, esp. within one
octave.

Scherzo - (Italian “joke”) a lively piece of music, usually in rapid triple time, often the
second or third movement in a sonata or symphony.

Score – a complete orchestration written out on the page, with all the parts set out
separately.

Serenade - 1. a piece of music played or sung to a woman by a lover; 2. a piece of

music suitable for this performance; 3. an orchestral suite for a small (chamber) ensemble or
wind instruments, originally intended for evening entertainment.

Shanty – a work song sung by sailors, especially one that rhythmically coordinates
strenuous effort.

Sonata - a piece of classical music, usually in three or more movements, for piano or
for another instrument with or without piano.
 Song - a piece of music with words, composed for the voice.

Soprano – the highest range of female voice.

Soul – a type of black American popular music that appeared in the mid-1960s. Soul
singers brought to secular singing the impassioned improvisatory vocal devices of black
gospel music (sudden shouts, falsetto cries, moans, etc.) and a collection of church-derived,
idiomatic formulas.

Spiritual - (Also called: Negro spiritual) a type of religious folk song originally sung
by Black slaves in the American South.

Suite – 1. formerly a grouping of old dance forms; 2. a composition of several related

movements in the same key; 3. a set of instrumental pieces, sometimes assembled from a
stage work, such as Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker Suite.

Symphony - (pl -nies) - means “sounding together”. It is 1. a large-scale orchestral

composition with several movements; 2. an orchestral movement in a vocal work such as an
oratorio; 3. short for symphony orchestra (a large orchestra that performs symphonies).

Syncopation – the deliberate upsetting of rhythm by shifting the accent to a beat that
is normally unaccented.

Tango - (pl -gos) 1. a Latin-American dance in duple time characterized by long

gliding steps and sudden pauses; 2. music for this dance.

Tarantella - 1. an Italian peasant rapid dance for two persons in 6/8 time,
characterized by light, quick hops and turns; 2. music for this dance.

Tenor – the highest range of adult male voice.

Theme – the basic melody or musical figure from which a piece of music is
developed.

Toccata – a display piece for keyboard instrument, particularly the organ.

Twist - a dance popular in the 1960s in which dancers vigorously twist the hips.

Variation - the repetition of a simple tune with the addition of new harmonies or a
change in rhythm.

Variations – a series of different developments of one self-contained theme, such as

Variations on the St Anthony Chorale by Brahms.

Verse anthem – an anthem in which solo voice and full chorus are contrasted.

Vocal cycle - a set of plays, or songs performed by the voice.

 Waltz - 1. a ballroom European 19th-century dance in triple time of Austrian and
Bavarian origin in which couples spin round as they progress round the room; 2. music for
this dance.

78s - 78s were made of shellac and were first produced in 1888. They were played at
78 revolutions per minute (rpm) on a record player or gramophone. Sound quality was not
very good. Famous musicians and singers like Louis Armstrong, Bing Crosby, Ella Fitzgerald
and Buddy Holly were first recorded on 78s.

LPs (Long Playing records) were first produced by Columbia Records in the USA in
1948, and the first stereo LPs were sold in 1958. These new records were made of a plastic
called vinyl and were very similar to the records sold today. Sound quality was improved but
dust and scratches on the surface were still a problem. They are kept in sleeves in order to
protect them. The pop industry was born as a result of the introduction of 33 rpm LPs and
45 rpm “singles”. These records were quite cheap, so more people could buy them. The
Beatles, the Rolling Stones and thousands of others recorded their first songs on LPs.

HI-FI - Audio equipment and sound recordings are of such high quality nowadays that
we sometimes forget the long evolution of hi-fi. Here is a quick guide to the history of hi-fi.
Tape recorders were common in the 1950s, but they were for the specialist user and
were quite complicated. Compact Cassettes were introduced by Philips at the Berlin Show in
1963. They were successful because the players were small, portable and simple but music
quality was not as good as that of LPs. Quality was improved in 1971 with the introduction of
the Dolby noise reduction system. The record industry has suffered as a result of cassettes
because a lot of people no longer buy records — they borrow them and make copies on
cassettes.

Compact Discs (CDs) : Compact Discs were first produced in 1982 in the laboratories
of Philips and Sony. Compact Discs are made of plastic and aluminium. They are usually
recorded from digital master tapes. A laser beam is used to translate the irregularities of the
surface of the disc into sound. Sound quality is excellent and they have a very long life as the
disc suffers no direct mechanical contact. They are expensive, however, and recordings can't
be made on them at home.

Digital Audio Tape (DAT) is a new kind of tape from Japan which is going to
revolutionize home recording. With DAT, studio-quality recordings can be made (from
Compact Discs, for example) on small, portable recorders. Cassettes are slightly smaller than
conventional Compact Cassettes. Prices are very high at the moment but it is expected that
they will be lowered when DAT becomes more popular.

REFERENCES

1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Самохина Т.С. Пособие по

развитию навыков устной речи (Беседы об искусстве). М.:
«Просвещение», 1987.
2. English Reader for Musical Institutes. М.: «Высшая школа», 1974.
3. The World of Music. М.: «Высшая школа», 1991.
4. Tom Boyd. In Their Own Words. Nelson, 1988.
 5. David McDowall. Britain in Close-Up. Essex: Longman Group UK
Ltd, 1993.
6. Richard Musman, D.'Arcy Adrian-Vallance. Britain Today. Essex:
Longman Group UK Ltd, 1992.
7. Eckhard Fiedler, Reimer Jansen, Mil Norman-Risch. America in
Close-Up. Essex: Longman Group UK Ltd, 1990.
8. Mark Greenow. Relay 3. London, Melbourne, Auckland, 1990.
9. Lucy Hale. Relay 2. London, Melbourne, Auckland, 1990.
10. Sally Burgess, Richard Acklam. Advanced Gold Exam Maximiser.
Essex: Longman, Pearson Education Ltd, 2001.
11. Richard Mann, Jacky Newbrook, Judith Wilson. New Proficiency
Gold Exam Maximiser. Essex: Longman, Pearson Education Ltd,
2003.
12. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Essex: Longman,
Pearson Education Ltd, 2001.
13. Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English. Oxford
University Press, 2003.
14. The Little Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus. Oxford University Press,
1996.
15. Michael Kennedy. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, 1980.
16. The Larousse Encyclopedia of Music, 1977.
17. The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge, Mass., London,
1986.
18. The Wordsworth Pocket Encyclopedia. Wordsworth Reference, 1994.
19. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc, 2001.
20. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2002.

БОБОК ОЛЬГА АЛЕКСАНДРОВНА (кандидат филологических наук, доцент

кафедры английской филологии факультета иностранных языков)

Учебное пособие по теме устной речи «МУЗЫКА»

Часть 1: стр. 1 – 61
Часть 2: стр. 62 - 120