Art 1

energies
Article
A Unified Analysis of DC–DC Converters’ Current Stress
Michael Njoroge Gitau 1 , Lebogang Masike 1, * and Grain P. Adams 2
1 Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Pretoria,

Pretoria 0002, South Africa
2 Department of Energy, NEOM, Tabuk 49643, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: lebogang.masike@up.ac.za
Abstract: There is always a need to analyze current signals generated by various DC–DC converters.
For example, to determine the current stress experienced by semiconductor devices and to evaluate
active and reactive power consumption in converters. The study demonstrates that the shape of a
current signal dictates the analytical expressions required to determine the average and RMS values
of a signal as well as the RMS value of the ripple of that signal. The study also shows that current
signals can be treated as composite waveforms comprising various combinations of trapezoidal,
rectangular, and triangular pulses. The current literature lacks a unified approach to analyze current
stresses in DC–DC converters. This study will propose a unified and generalized analytical technique
that is applicable to any type of DC waveform that can be treated as a composite waveform made
up of a combination of triangular, rectangular, or trapezoidal sections or sub-intervals. Furthermore,
the rectangular and triangular pulses are shown to be a special kind of trapezoidal pulse. This
provides the basis for a very broad generalization of current signals’ analysis based on the analysis of
a trapezoidal pulse. Additionally, a method for the direct evaluation of signals’ ripple RMS content is
developed. This is unlike in the current literature where it is necessary to evaluate the signal’s average
and RMS values before ripple content can be evaluated. The technique developed is applicable to
continuous and discontinuous conduction modes of operation.
Keywords: ripple analysis; DC–DC converter analysis; converter building blocks; converter cells
Citation: Gitau, M.N.; Masike, L.;

Adams, G.P. A Unified Analysis of
DC–DC Converters’ Current Stress. 1. Introduction
Energies 2023, 16, 3370. https:// The number and diversity of DC loads that include DC–AC converters, IT loads,
doi.org/10.3390/en16083370 electronic lighting, and electric vehicles continue to grow rapidly [1–4] in distribution
Academic Editors: Julio Cesar Rosas
networks. Similarly, the number of DC sources in the form of solar PV arrays, battery energy
Caro, Jonathan C. Mayo-Maldonado storage systems, fuel cells, and some of the wind energy conversion systems continues to
and Jesús Elias Valdez Resendiz increase [1–4]. These developments have led to the emergence of DC distribution systems
as well as hybrid AC and DC distribution systems [1–7]. Moreover, DC distribution systems
Received: 20 February 2023 have lower power losses and voltage drops, no reactive power demand, high power quality,
Revised: 4 April 2023
and simple system structures [1,2]. The importance of evaluating current stresses in DC
Accepted: 9 April 2023
systems is currently demonstrated by the numerous studies that have been carried out to
Published: 11 April 2023
evaluate current stresses in DC-link capacitors of three-phase inverters [8–15], peak–peak
and RMS ripple in DC–DC converters [15–21], peak–peak ripple in H-bridge DC–DC
converters [20], and ripple analysis in quasi-Z-source DC–DC converters [13]. In [8–10,14],
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
the dependency of the electrolytic capacitor’s lifespan on the operating temperature and
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. hence current stress was discussed. Studies have also shown that a capacitors’ lifespan is
This article is an open access article halved upon a 10 ◦ C temperature rise above the rated operating temperature [8,9]. The
distributed under the terms and converter lifespan is thus limited by the short lifespan of electrolytic capacitors [8–10,14].
conditions of the Creative Commons Furthermore, the electrolytic capacitors, used in DC-link circuits and filter circuits as
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// well as in capacitive reactive components, required to build converters are expensive and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ bulky [22–25] compared with metal film and polypropylene capacitors and semiconductor
4.0/). devices [26,27]. In general, capacitors and inductors account for more than 50% of the
Energies 2023, 16, 3370. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083370 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 3370 2 of 31
space requirements in converters. The low current handling capability of electrolytic

capacitors [8,26,27] often requires capacitors to be in parallel to meet current handling
capability, thus increasing space requirements [8]. Semiconductor devices’ current stress
is normally expressed as the mean square current through the devices and is used to
evaluate the ratings and conduction losses in these devices [11,13]. There is therefore a
need to develop generalised techniques that will make it easy to evaluate current stresses in
semiconductor devices, capacitors, and inductors used to build DC–DC converters needed
in realising DC loads and the emerging DC distribution and transmission systems.
The techniques for analyzing current signals presently in use can be grouped into
time–domain techniques [8–10,12–14,16–21] and frequency–domain techniques [11,15,17].
The frequency–domain techniques include Fourier series expansion [11,15,17] based tech-
niques that are used to evaluate current signals’ frequency spectrum. In [11], total ripple
content is evaluated using the harmonics magnitudes. The time-domain techniques include
the following: Lagrange theorem [16] used to evaluate peak–peak ripple in buck, boost
and buck–boost DC–DC converters, Cauchy-Schwarz inequality [13] to evaluate mean
and mean square values of current signals, the first mean value theorem for integrals [28]
used to evaluate a current signal’s mean, and mean squared values [8–13,16]. Additionally,
in [8,10–12,14] the root mean square value (RMS) of ripple was evaluated using the mean
and mean square values. In [8–11,14], the mean and mean square values of current wave-
forms were obtained by partitioning one period of a signal into sub-intervals by exploiting
the additivity principle with respect to the interval of integration [28]. The Taylor series
expansion is used to estimate ripple in DC–DC converters in [19] and in [19,21], state–space
averaged techniques were employed to evaluate the peak–peak inductor current ripple in
DC–DC converters.
In [29–31], the inductor voltage waveform volt-second area balance was used to
evaluate the input–output voltage relationship. The capacitor current waveform amp-
seconds area balance on the other hand is used to determine the average inductor current
in converters. The technique also allows the peak–peak current and voltage ripple to be
obtained. However, it is not suitable for evaluating signals’ RMS values.
In the present literature, the analysis of current signals generated by various DC–DC
converters is treated in a disparate manner. Each converter is treated as unique [22,23,25,32–34]
as there is no structured method that allows the analysis of the different current signals
generated by the various DC–DC converters to be conducted in a unified fashion that exists.
In particular, to evaluate the performance of these converters, it is always necessary to
derive expressions for input- and output-side currents and/or voltage ripple, expressions
for devices’, and components’ RMS currents and average values of input and output
currents. In the case of magnetic components, energy storage capabilities and apparent
power ratings need to be determined.
Studies that utilize converter cells to generate, classify, and analyze switch-mode
DC–DC converters [35,36] were carried out. The study in [36] proposed three three-terminal
basic building blocks (BBBs) and a three-terminal filter block. These were shown to be
sufficient for realizing any non-isolated DC–DC converter excluding those with coupled
inductors. It was also shown that current signals that a converter generates are dictated by
the BBBs used to realize the converter. Consequently, different DC–DC converters generate
similar or even identical current waveforms. This provides the basis for developing a
structured approach for analyzing the current stresses in non-isolated DC–DC converters.
The availability of such a structured and unified analysis technique would reduce the need
to derive equations from scratch in order to analyze the performance of new converters.
That will be the primary focus of this study.
This study will propose a unified and generalized analytical technique that is appli-
cable to any type of DC waveform that can be treated as a composite waveform made up
of a combination of triangular, rectangular, or trapezoidal sections or sub-intervals. The
technique should also be applicable to AC waveforms but limited to evaluating total signal
RMS values. It is thus not suitable for evaluating the fundamental component, individual
harmonics, or total harmonic content of an AC signal. Moreover, the BBBs employed in this
technique to predict current signals are only applicable to non-isolated DC–DC converters
excluding those with coupled inductors.
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 first classifies 3 of 31 the 14
converter cells reported in the literature [23,34] according to current signals generated at
their 3 terminals. Section 2 then unifies the analysis of DC–DC converters derived from a
given converter
harmonics, cellharmonic
or total or BBB content
irrespective of their
of an AC signal.functionality.
Moreover, the Section 3 shows
BBBs employed inthat
this trian-
technique
gular to predict current
and rectangular pulsessignals
are aare only applicable
special form of the to trapezoidal
non-isolated pulse
DC–DC converters
allowing all three
excluding those with coupled inductors.
to be described using a single general expression. In Section 3.1, current signals are treated
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 first classifies the
as composite waveforms comprising various combinations of triangular, rectangular, and
14 converter cells reported in the literature [23,34] according to current signals generated at
trapezoidal pulses. This makes it easier to derive analytical expressions for otherwise
their 3 terminals. Section 2 then unifies the analysis of DC–DC converters derived from a
seemingly complex
given converter waveforms.
cell or Section
BBB irrespective 3.2functionality.
of their develops generalized expressions
Section 3 shows for analys-
that triangular
ing
andany type of non-isolated
rectangular DC–DC
pulses are a special converters.
form Furthermore,
of the trapezoidal an expression
pulse allowing all three that
to beallows
signal ripple content to be obtained without the need to first evaluate the
described using a single general expression. In Section 3.1, current signals are treated as signal’s average
and RMS values
composite is alsocomprising
waveforms derived. Section
various4combinations
provides examples to validate
of triangular, accuracy
rectangular, and of the
trapezoidal pulses. This makes it easier to derive analytical expressions
analytical techniques that were developed. Simulated results are also presented in this for otherwise
seemingly
section complex
to further waveforms.
validate Section 3.2
the analysis. develops
Section generalized
4 also presents expressions
simulatedfor analysing
results to further
any type of non-isolated DC–DC converters. Furthermore,
validate the analysis. Concluding remarks are presented in Section 5. an expression that allows signal
ripple content to be obtained without the need to first evaluate the signal’s average and RMS
values is also derived. Section 4 provides examples to validate accuracy of the analytical
2.techniques
Signal Analysis
that were developed. Simulated results are also presented in this section to
Thisvalidate
further sectionthewill first classify
analysis. DC–DC
Concluding converter
remarks cells that
are presented have been
in Section 5. reported in the
literature according to the type of current signals generated at their terminals. The section
2. Signal Analysis
will then introduce the concept of unified analysis of DC–DC converters’ current stresses by
This section
considering will first
the current classifyofDC–DC
stresses DC–DCconverter cells based
converters that have
on been reported
converter cellin1-1
the(type-1
literature according to the type of current signals generated at their terminals. The section
BBB) and converter cell 1-4 (type-2 BBB).
will then introduce the concept of unified analysis of DC–DC converters’ current stresses
by considering the current stresses of DC–DC converters based on converter cell 1-1 (type-1
2.1. Classifying Converter Cells Based on Terminals’ Current Signals and Key Signals Generated
BBB) and converter cell 1-4 (type-2 BBB).
by Converter Cells
2.1.Figures
Classifying
1–3Converter
presentCells Based
circuit on Terminals’
diagrams of theCurrent
threeSignals
groups and
ofKey Signals Generated
converter cells proposed
by Converter Cells
in [23,34]. The current signals generated by the various converter cells are also included
Figures 1–3 present circuit diagrams of the three groups of converter cells proposed
in Figures 1–3. These signals can be explained by identifying the BBBs that are used to
in [23,34]. The current signals generated by the various converter cells are also included
realize them,
in Figures as These
1–3. demonstrated
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[35]. The type-1
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the BBBs that are1aused
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Energies
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Energies 2023, 16, 3370 4 of 31
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Energies 2023, 16, 3370 5 of 31
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non-isolated DC–DC converters.
2.2.
2.2.Unified
2.2. UnifiedAnalysis
Unified Analysisofof
Analysis ofDC–DC
DC–DCConverters
DC–DC Based
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three converters
DC–DCconverters
DC–DC converters derived
derived
derived fromit.it.it.
from
from
bb
I nI 2n 2
aa
 Tsw
T sw Tsw
Tsw
(a)
(a)Controlled
Controlledswitch
switchcurrent.
current.
bb bb
I In n3 3 I nI1n 1
cc aa cc==aa
 Tsw
T sw Tsw
Tsw  Tsw
T sw Tsw
Tsw
(b)
(b)Diode
Diodecurrent.
current. (c)
(c)Inductor
Inductorcurrent.
current.
Figure
Figure6.6.6.Current
Figure Currentwaveforms
Current waveformsgenerated
waveforms generatedby
generated converter
byconverter
by cell
convertercell
cell1-1
1-1
1-1 during
during
during CCM.
CCM.
CCM.
The
The
The Average,RMS,
Average,
Average, RMS, and
RMS,and Ripple
andRipple RMS
RMSValues
RippleRMS Values
Valuesfor
forCurrent
forCurrentSignals
Current from
Signals
SignalsfromDC–DC
fromDC–DCConverters
DC–DC
Based on Cell 1-1
Converters
ConvertersBased
Basedon onCell
Cell1-1
1-1
A technique to analyze different converter cells needs to be developed. General
AAtechnique
technique
expressions totoanalyze
for the analyzedifferent
average, RMS, andconverter
different convertercells
RMS ripplecellsneeds
fortoto
needs
values be
thebedeveloped.
developed.
various General
signalsex-
General
current ex-
pressions
pressionsfor
forthe
theaverage,
average,RMS,
RMS,and
andRMS
RMSripple
ripplevalues
valuesforforthe
thevarious
variouscurrent
currentsignals
signals
generated
generatedbybyconverter
convertercell
cell1-1
1-1shown
shownininFigure
Figure66are
arefirst
firstderived.
derived.The
Theaverage,
average,RMS,
RMS,andand
RMS
RMSripple
ripplecontents
contentsofofaaperiodic
periodiccurrent
currentsignal,
signal,i(t),
i(t),are
areobtained
obtainedusing
usingthe
thefirst
firstmean
mean
value
valuetheorem
theoremasas[28,30,31]:
[28,30,31]:
𝑇𝑠𝑤
𝑇𝑠𝑤
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 6 of 31
generated by converter cell 1-1 shown in Figure 6 are first derived. The average, RMS, and
RMS ripple contents of a periodic current signal, i(t), are obtained using the first mean
value theorem as [28,30,31]:
ZTsw
1
Iave = i (t)dt (1a)
Tsw
0
v
ZTsw
u
u 1
u
Irms =t [i (t)]2 dt (1b)
Tsw
0
q
Irms,ripple = 2 − I2 )
( Irms (1c)
ave
The function describing a signal over one switching period, Tsw , is defined and substi-
tuted into (1) to obtain the required values. The input current signals in DC–DC converters
1-1.1 and 1-1.5 comprise a single trapezoidal pulse as shown in Figure 6a. Over one
switching period, it is defined as:

a + b − a

t
,0 < t < δTsw

i (t) = δ Tsw (2a)

 0,δTsw ≤ t ≤ Tsw
a = IL,ave − 0.5∆i L,pk− pk

b = IL,ave + 0.5∆i L,pk− pk (2b)
2 ; ∆i L,pk− pk
a+b
I1 = In2 = = b−a
Using (1), (2a), and (2b) the average, RMS, and ripple RMS values for the signal in
Figure 6a are obtained as
δT
Z sw
b−a b−a

1 b+a
Isw,ave = a+ t dt = aδ + δ= δ = I1 δ (3a)
Tsw δTsw 2 2
0
v
u δT
s
Z sw 2
b−a a+b 2 b−a 2δ

u 1
u
Isw,rms = t a+ t dt = +
Tsw δTsw 2 2 3
0
s
2
∆i L,pk− pk

δ
= I12 δ + (3b)
2 3
s
2 2
b−a

a+b δ
Isw,rms−ripple = δ (1 − δ ) + (3c)
2 2 3
The output current signals in converters 1-1.2 and 1-1.5 comprise of a single trapezoidal
pulse, as shown in Figure 6b. Over one switching period, it is defined as


 0,0 < t < δTsw
i (t) = b−a (4a)

t
a +
 1− ,δTsw ≤ t ≤ Tsw
1−δ Tsw
c = a = IL,ave − 0.5∆i L,pk− pk

b = IL,ave + 0.5∆i L,pk− pk (4b)
2 ; ∆i L,pk− pk
b+c b+ a
I1 = In3 = 2 = = b−c = b−a
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 7 of 31
Similarly, using (1), (4a), and (4b) the average, RMS, and ripple RMS values for the
signal in Figure 6b are obtained as
ZTsw
b−a

1 t
ID,ave = a+ 1− dt
Tsw 1−δ Tsw
(1−δ) Tsw

b+a
= (1 − δ) = I1 (1 − δ) (5a)
2
v
ZTsw
u
b−a

u 1 t
ID,rms =t a+ 1− dt
u
Tsw 1−δ Tsw
(1−δ) Tsw
s
a+b 2 b − a 2 (1 − δ )

= (1 − δ ) + (5b)
2 2 3
s
a+b 2 b − a 2 (1 − δ )

ID,rms−ripple = δ (1 − δ ) + (5c)
2 2 3
The output current in converter 1-1.1 and input current in converter 1-1.2 comprise two
trapezoidal pulses as shown in Figure 6c. It can be defined over one switching period as
b−a

t


 a+ ,0 < t < δTsw
 δ Tsw
i (t) = (6a)
b−a

 t
a +
 1− ,δTsw ≤ t ≤ Tsw
1−δ Tsw
a+b b+c
I1 = 2 , I2 = 2 , I1 = I2 = In3
a = c = IL,ave − 0.5∆i L,pk− pk ,
(6b)
b = IL,ave + 0.5∆i L,pk− pk
∆i L,pk− pk = b − a = b − c
Using (1), (6a), and (6b) the average, RMS, and ripple RMS values for the signal in
Figure 6c are obtained by noting that it is a combination of Figure 6a,b as follows:
δT
Z sw ZTsw
b−a b−a

1 1 t
IL,ave = a+ t dt+ a+ 1− dt
Tsw δTsw Tsw 1−δ Tsw
0 (1−δ) Tsw

b+a b+a b+a
= δ+ (1 − δ ) = = I1 (7a)
2 2 2
v
u 2 2
u
u a+b
2 δ + b−2 a 3δ
IL,rms = ut 2 2
1− δ
a+b
2 (1 − δ) + b−2 a ( 3 )
s
2 2
b−a

a+b 1
= + (7b)
2 2 3
s
2
b−a

1
IL,rms−ripple = (7c)
2 3
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 29
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 8 of 31

2.3. Unified Analysis of DC–DC Converters Based on Cell 1-4
2.3. Unified Analysis of DC–DC Converters Based on Cell 1-4
The analysis that was introduced in Section 2.2 will now be extended to converter
cells The analysis
2.3. realized
Unified usingthat
Analysis of was BBBs.
DC–DC
type-2 introduced
Converters in Section
Based
This will to2.2
on Cell
help 1-4will now bethat
demonstrate extended to converter
the analysis of current
cells
signalsrealized
can
The using type-2
be unified
analysis BBBs.
across
that was This will help
differentinconverter
introduced to demonstrate
Section 2.2cells. that
will Specifically,the
now be extended analysis
it shows of current
that the anal-
to converter
signals
ysis can beusing
cellsisrealized
dictated unified across
type-2
by the ofdifferent
BBBs.
type converter
This will
signals cells.not
Specifically,
help to demonstrate
involved and thethat theitanalysis
converter shows that thethem.
anal-
of current
generating
ysis is dictated
signals by theacross
can be unified type of signalsconverter
different involvedcells.
and Specifically,
not the converter
it shows generating them.
that the analysis
is dictated
The Average,by the
RMS,type andof signals
Signal involved
Ripple Contentand not the converter generating them.
The Average, RMS, and Signal Ripple Content
The Figure
Average,7 RMS,
shows and converter
Signal Ripplecell Content
1-4 and three of the six possible DC–DC converters
Figure 7 shows converter cell 1-4 and three of the six possible DC–DC converters
derived from7 the
Figure cell. Converter
shows cell 1-4 comprises thesix
two variants of theconverters
type-2 BBB [35].
derived from the cell.converter
Convertercell cell1-41-4and three ofthe
comprises the two possible
variants DC–DC
of the type-2 BBB [35].
Figure
derived 8 from
shows thethe
cell.current signals
Converter cell 1-4generated
comprises atthe
thetwo
various
variantsterminals of the
of the type-2 DC–DC
BBB [35]. con-
Figure 8 shows the current signals generated at the various terminals of the DC–DC con-
Figure derived
verters 8 showsfromthe current signals generated atare
the various to terminals ofthe
thetwo
DC–DC
verters derived from converter cell 1-4. These are identical to those for the two variants of of
converter cell 1-4. These identical those for variants
converters derived
type-2 shown from converter cellseen
1-4. These are identical 8tothat
thosetheforfunctionality
the two variants
type-2 BBB
BBB shown in Figure
in Figure 4.4.ItItisisseen ininFigures
Figures 7 and
7 and 8 that the functionality of aofDC–
a DC–
DCof type-2 BBB
converter shown
does not in Figure
influence 4. It
the is seen
current in Figures
signals 7 and
that the 8 that the
converter functionality
generates. of
Convert-
DC converter
a DC–DC does not
converter influence
does the current
not influence signalssignals
the current that thethat
converter generates.
the converter Convert-
generates.
ers
ers 1-4.5
1-4.5 and 1-4.6 are
and 1-4.6 arecommonly
commonlyreferred referredtotoasasSepic
SepicandandZetaZetain in
thethe literature.
literature.
Converters 1-4.5 and 1-4.6 are commonly referred to as Sepic and Zeta in the literature.
11 L CC11 SS22 S N2 L 2 L 2
L11 N
N1
1 NN22 22 2 2 S 2 2N2 3 3
iit 1 it 2 it 2 iC1 iC1 iL 2 iL 2
LL22 i ti 2t 2
iicc
t1
I n 12 I n 12
++ + +
IInn11 I nI3n 3 I n 3I n 3 C1 C1 I2 I2
11
S 11 IInn55
vinvin I1 I1 vo vo
it1 it1 N1 N1 S 1 S1 it 3 it 3
IInn22
iiSS11 IInn44 i Li L2 2
− − I n11I n11 iS 1 iS 1 I
I n 2 I n 2 n5
In5 − −
I nI12
n12 L1 L1
33 1 1 In4 In4
(a) Converter
(a) Converter cell
cell1-4
1-4 (b)
(b)DC–DC
DC–DCconverter 1-4.1b
converter 1-4.1b
C
C11 SS2 2 C1 C L
11 L1 N
L 1 N11 NN2
2
2 2 2 2 S 2 S N2
2 N2 1N 1
N1 1 1L1 1
iitt11 SS 11 iiC 1 LL2 i ti2 it 2
it 2 ic i
it 1
it 1
++ ++ + +
t2
++
I C1 2 I In 3
I nn1111 In5 n3 L2 c
In5 L2
vvinin vov vinv S1
Si 1
vo v
i In4 iL 2 o in iL 2 o
−− I n2
I n2
i SS11 In4
I n 12
iL 2
−− −− iL 2 S1 iS 1 − −
I n 12
3 3
3 3
(c) DC–DC
(c) DC–DC converter
converter1-4.5
1-4.5 (d)
(d)DC–DC
DC–DCconverter 1-4.6
converter 1-4.6
Figure 7. Converter cell 1-4 and three DC–DC converters derived from it.
Figure
Figure7.
7. Converter cell1-4
Converter cell 1-4and
andthree
three DC–DC
DC–DC converters
converters derived
derived from from
it. it.
b b
b b
In2 Inom In3 Inom
In2 Inom In3 Inom
a c
a c
 T sw Tsw  T sw Tsw
 T sw Tsw  T sw Tsw
(a) Controlled switch current. (b) Diode current.
(a) Controlled switch current. (b) Diode current.
c
b In5
c d
b In5
I n1 Inom
 T sw Tsw d
I n 1a c= a
Inom a  T sw a T
In4 sw
a  T sw Tswc = a a b a
In4
 T sw Tsw b
(c) Inductor current. (d) Capacitor current.
(c) Inductor current. c (d) Capacitor current.
In5
c d
In5
 T sw Tswd
a a
In4  T sw Tsw
b
a a
In4
(e) Terminalb3 current.
Figure
Figure8.8.Current (e)generated
Current signals
signals Terminal
generated at3
at current.
various
various terminalsofofDC–DC
terminals DC–DC converters
converters derived
derived from
from cellscells
1-4.1-4.
Figure 8. Current signals generated at various terminals of DC–DC converters derived from cells 1-4.
In deriving
In deriving (2)–(7),
(2)–(7), itit was
wasshown
shownthat
thatsignal
signalanalysis
analysis is is
a function of the
a function waveform
of the waveform
and independent of the type of converter cell generating it. The expressions in
and independent of the type of converter cell generating it. The expressions in (2)–(7) (2)–(7) willwill
In deriving
therefore also be (2)–(7), it to
applicable was shown
Figure that signal analysis is a function of the waveform
8a–c.
therefore also be applicable to Figure 8a–c.
and independent of the type of converter cell generating it. The expressions in (2)–(7) will
The only difference will be in the determination of In = Inom. From Figure 8a,b, the
therefore also be applicable to Figure 8a–c.
nominal pulse amplitude and pulse amplitude variation are obtained as
The only difference will be in the determination of In = Inom. From Figure 8a,b, the
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 9 of 31
The only difference will be in the determination of In = Inom . From Figure 8a,b, the
Inom = In2 = In3 = I1 = IL1 ,ave + IL2 ,ave

(8a)
∆i L,pk− pk = b − a = ∆i L1 ,pk− pk + ∆i L2 ,pk− pk
For Figure 8c, the nominal pulse amplitude and pulse amplitude variation are obtained as
In = Inom = In1 = I1 = IL1 ,ave or IL2 ,ave

(8b)
∆i L,pk− pk = b − a = ∆i L1 ,pk− pk or ∆i L2 ,pk− pk
In order to derive the expressions needed to analyze the signals in Figure 8d,e, the first
step is to define them over one switching period. The two signals are similar and hence
are described using similar expressions. The current signals can be described using the
expressions in (9).

 b−δ a t
Tsw − δ + b, 0 < t < δTsw
i (t) = (9a)
 d−c t
− 1 + d, δT < t < T
1− δ Tsw sw sw
I1 = In4 = − a+2 b , I2 = In5 = d+c

2
a = − IL2 ,ave + 0.5∆i L2 ,pk− pk , b = − IL2 ,ave − 0.5∆i L2 ,pk− pk
(9b)
c = IL1 ,ave + 0.5∆i L1 ,pk− pk , d = IL1 ,ave − 0.5∆i L1 ,pk− pk
∆i L2 ,pk− pk = b − a, ∆i L1 ,pk− pk = b − c
From (1), (9a), and (9b) the average, RMS, and ripple RMS values for signals in
Figure 8d,e are obtained as follows:
δT
Z sw ZTsw
b−a d−c

1 t 1 t
Ic,ave = − 1 + b dt + − 1 + d dt (10a)
Tsw δ Tsw Tsw 1−δ Tsw
0 (1−δ) Tsw

b+a d+c
=− δ+ (1 − δ) = I1 δ + I2 (1 − δ) = 0
2 2
v
u 2 2
a+b b− a δ
u
u 2 δ + 2 3
Ic,rms = t
u
2 2 (10b)
d+c d−c (1− δ )
2 ( 1 − δ ) + 2 3
v
u 2 2
a+b
δ(1 − δ)+ b−2 a 3δ
u
2
u
u
u 2 2
u+ c+2 d δ(1 − δ)+ d−
=u
2
c 1− δ
3
u
a+b c+d
t
+2 2 δ 2 (1 − δ )
The expressions in (10a)–(10b) are applicable to terminal three current as well. The only
exception is in the values shown in (9b) which should be substituted with those in (10c).
I1 = In4 = − a+2 b , I2 = In5 = d+c

2
a = − IL1 ,ave + 0.5∆i L1 ,pk− pk , b = − IL1 ,ave − 0.5∆i L1 ,pk− pk
(10c)
c = IL2 ,ave + 0.5∆i L2 ,pk− pk , d = IL2 ,ave − 0.5∆i L2 ,pk− pk
∆i L1 ,pk− pk = b − a; ∆i L2 ,pk− pk = b − c
Energies 2023,
Energies 16,16,
2023, x FOR
3370 PEER REVIEW 10 of 31 10 of 29
3. Generalized
3.1. Generalized Signal Analysis
Analysis of Various Types of Pulses
This section will show that it is possible to analyze signals from different converter
In Section 2 it was shown that converters built using similar BBBs generate similar
cells and ultimately all non-isolated DC–DC converters in a unified fashion.
current signals. It was also demonstrated that signal analysis is a function of the type of
waveforms under
3.1. Generalized investigation.
Analysis The ofanalysis
of Various Types Pulses was thus demonstrated to be applicable to
otherIn converter
Section 2cells.
it was shown that converters built using similar BBBs generate similar
Current
current signals.signals
It wasgenerated by non-isolated
also demonstrated that signal DC–DC
analysis converters
is a functioncanofbethetreated
type ofas com-
posite waveforms comprising several unique pulses. In general, these pulses aretotriangu-
waveforms under investigation. The analysis was thus demonstrated to be applicable
other
lar, converter cells.
rectangular, or trapezoidal. This section will demonstrate that the analysis of the three
types of pulses cangenerated
Current signals be treated byinnon-isolated
a unified DC–DC fashionconverters can be treated
by recognizing that the as com-
trapezoidal
posite waveforms comprising several unique pulses. In general, these pulses are triangular,
pulse is the most general with the rectangular and triangular being special types of trap-
rectangular, or trapezoidal. This section will demonstrate that the analysis of the three
ezoidal. Furthermore, the orientation of a trapezoidal pulse does not affect the analysis
types of pulses can be treated in a unified fashion by recognizing that the trapezoidal pulse
and a single expression
is the most general is applicable
with the rectangularto both
and positivebeing
triangular and special
negative pulses
types and also to both
of trapezoidal.
positive and negative
Furthermore, pulseofgradients.
the orientation a trapezoidal Figure
pulse9 does
shows notgeneralized trapezoidal
affect the analysis pulses. The
and a single
signal duration is from
expression is applicable to t = x
1 both T until
1 positive
sw t
and
2 = x T
negative
2 sw where x − x δ
pulses2 and1also1 to both positive ampli-
= , average pulse
tude I1 = (𝑎 pulse
and negative + b)/2,
gradients. Figureamplitude
and pulse 9 shows generalized Δi1,pk−pk = pulses.
variationtrapezoidal (b − 𝑎). The 𝑎 = b, they
If signal
duration is from t1 = x 1 T until t 2 = x 2 T sw where x 2 – x 1 = δ
become rectangular; when 𝑎 = 0 and b ≠ 0 or 𝑎 ≠ 0 and b = 0 they become triangular.
sw 1 , average pulse amplitude
I1 = (a + b)/2,band
Furthermore, > 𝑎pulse amplitude
represents a positive ∆i1,pk−pk and
variationgradient – a). If a = b,
= (b vice-versa. they become
Moreover, 𝑎 < 0 and
rectangular; when a = 0 and b 6= 0 or a 6= 0 and b = 0 they become triangular. Furthermore,
b < 0 represent a negative pulse while 𝑎 < 0 and b > 0 or 𝑎 > 0 and b < 0 represent a bipolar
b > a represents a positive gradient and vice-versa. Moreover, a < 0 and b < 0 represent a
triangular pulse.
negative pulse while a < 0 and b > 0 or a > 0 and b < 0 represent a bipolar triangular pulse.
b a
I1 I1
a b
x1T sw x 2 T sw Tsw x1T sw x 2 T sw Tsw
(a) Positive pulse, positive gradient. (b) Positive pulse, positive gradient.
x1T sw x 2 T sw x1T sw x 2 T sw
Tsw Tsw
b a
I1 I1
a b
(c) Negative pulse, positive gradient. (d) Negative pulse, negative gradient.
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Generic currentpulses.
Generic current pulses.
By recognizing
By recognizing that
that“a” and
“𝑎” “b”“b”
and cancan
assume
assumepositive or negative
positive values,values,
or negative all the pulses
all the pulses
shown in Figure 9 can be described using the following expression.
shown in Figure 9 can be described using the following expression.

 b − 𝑏a − 𝑎 t −

𝑡
) ( x− 2 𝑥+ b,x T 𝑥 < t<x T

( 2 ) + 1𝑏,sw1 𝑇𝑠𝑤 < 𝑡2 <sw𝑥2 𝑇𝑠𝑤
𝑖(𝑡) =x{
i (t) = 2 −𝑥x1− 𝑥 Tsw𝑇 (11) (11)
 2 1 𝑠𝑤
0, 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
0,elsewhere

This providesthe
This provides thebasis
basis
forfor generalizing
generalizing current
current signal
signal analysis
analysis as theas the pulses
pulses neededneeded
to
todescribe
describe aa signal
signalasasaacomposite
composite waveform
waveform share
share a common
a common expression.
expression. Consequently,
Consequently,
expressions for
expressions for average,
average,RMS,
RMS, and ripple
and RMS
ripple of the
RMS of pulses can also
the pulses canbe generalized
also as
be generalized as
shown in
shown in (12a),
(12a),(12b),
(12b),and
and(12c).
(12c).
xZ 𝑥2 𝑇𝑠𝑤
2 Tsw
1
Iave𝐼 = = 1 i∫
(t)dt𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (12a) (12a)
𝑎𝑣𝑒 Tsw
𝑇
x𝑠𝑤
1 Tsw
𝑥1 𝑇𝑠𝑤
1 𝑥2𝑇𝑠𝑤 𝑏−𝑎 𝑡 𝑎+𝑏

= ∫ (( )( − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑡 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑇𝑠𝑤 𝑥1 𝑇𝑠𝑤 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑇𝑠𝑤 2
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 11 of 31
Z x2 Tsw
b−a

1 t a+b
= 𝑥2 𝑇𝑠𝑤 − x2𝑥2𝑇𝑠𝑤 + b dt = ( x2 − x1 ) 2
Tsw 1 x1 Tsw x 2 − x 1 Tsw 1 𝑏−𝑎2 𝑡
2
v= √
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∫ (𝑖(𝑡))v𝑑𝑡 = √ ∫ (( )( − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑡 (12b)
u 𝑇
x 2𝑠𝑤
Tsw
Z 𝑥 𝑇
u xZ 𝑇
2 Tsw𝑠𝑤
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑇𝑠𝑤 2
𝑥1 𝑇b𝑠𝑤− a

u 1 u 1 t
u 1 𝑠𝑤 2
u
Irms =t (i (t)) dt = t − x2 + b dt (12b)
Tsw T2sw x2 − x1 Tsw
2
x1 Tsw a+b x1 Tsw b−a (x2 − x1 )
√
s= ( 2 ) (x2 − x1 ) + ( 2 ) 3
a+b 2 b − a 2 (x2 − x1 )

= (x2 − x1 ) +
a2+ b 2 2 3 b − a 2 (x2 − x1 ) (12c)
Irms−ripple = √( ) (x 2 − x1 )(1 − [ x 2 − x 1 ]) + ( )
s 2 2 3
a+b 2 b − a 2 ( x2 − x1 )

It Iisrmsseen that
−ripple = (12a), (12b),( xand
2 − x(12c)
1 )( 1 −are
[ x 2 identical
− x 1 ]) + to (3a), (3b), and (3c), respectively,
(12c)
2 2 3
as would be expected.
It is seen that (12a), (12b), and (12c) are identical to (3a), (3b), and (3c), respectively, as
would be expected.
3.1.1. Analyzing Converters Employing a Type-3 BBB
3.1.1.As converter
Analyzing cells are Employing
Converters built usinga aType-3
very small
BBB set of BBBs, most converters generate
similar current waveforms. Hence, the analysis
As converter cells are built using a very small setdeveloped for one
of BBBs, most converter
converters cell is appli-
generate
cable
similartocurrent
other converter
waveforms.cells with
Hence, thesimilar waveforms.
analysis This
developed for onesection will
converter utilize
cell the expres-
is applica-
sions
ble to in (12a)–(12c)
other to validate
converter cells this waveforms.
with similar assertion by considering
This currents
section will utilize the in capacitors that
expressions
in (12a)–(12c)
employ to validate
a type-3 BBB asthis
oneassertion by considering currents in capacitors that employ a
of the BBBs.
type-3 BBB as one of the BBBs.
Current Stress in Converters 2-3.1 and 3-3.1
Current Stress in Converters 2-3.1 and 3-3.1
The DC–DCconverters
The DC–DC converters shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 10a,b
10a,b havehave a decoupling
a decoupling capacitor
capacitor that con-
that con-
nects to a node which forms a type-3 BBB. The capacitors’ current signals for a type-3
nects to a node which forms a type-3 BBB. The capacitors’ current signals for a type-3 BBB BBB
are
are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure10a–d.
10a–d.Figure
Figure 10c,d
10c,d shows
shows howhow the shape
the shape of theof the capacitor
capacitor currentcurrent
waveform changes with load.
waveform changes with load.
2 N3 3
S4 L2 L2
it 2 S3 C it 3
2 S4 3
1
it 2 it 3
N2
+
S1
+
+
C1
S2 +
Co Ro vo v in S2 vo
v in L1
ic S3 it 1
−
− N1 ic 1 − L1 −
it1
S1 1
1
(a) Converter 2-3.1 (b) Converter 3-3.1

a a
I1 I1
b e b e
I3 I4 c
f I2 x 3T sw f
x 1T sw x 2 T sw x 3T sw x 4 T sw x 1T sw x 2 T sw g x 4 T sw x5Tsw
c − I3
− I2
d d
(c) CCM significant load operation. (d) CCM reduced power operation.
Figure
Figure 10. Someof
10. Some ofthe
thegroup
group 1 converters
1 converters andand
theirtheir capacitor
capacitor current
current waveforms.
waveforms.
Figure 10c
Figure 10c can
can be
be partitioned
partitionedinto
intothree
threeunique
uniquetrapezoidal pulses.
trapezoidal The
pulses. nominal
The nominal am-
amplitude, amplitude variation, and durations of the pulses are:
plitude, amplitude variation, and durations of the pulses are:
I1 = , ∆i1,pk− pk = (b − a), δ1 = ( x2 − x1 )
a+𝑎b + 𝑏
𝐼1 = 2 , ∆𝑖1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 = (𝑏 − 𝑎), 𝛿1 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
c+d 2
I2 = 2 , ∆i2,pk− pk = (d − c), δ2 = ( x3 − x2 ) (13a)
𝑐+𝑑
I3𝐼2== 2 ∆i
e+ f , ∆𝑖2,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 =e(𝑑
= (f − ), δ3−=𝑐),( x𝛿42−=x3(𝑥
) 3 − 𝑥2 )
(13a)
2 3,pk− pk
𝑒+𝑓
𝐼3 = ∆𝑖3,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 = (𝑓 − 𝑒), 𝛿3 = (𝑥4 − 𝑥3 )
2
Using (12a), (13a), and Figure 10c the signal’s average, RMS, and ripple RMS values are
obtained as:
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 12 of 31
Using (12a), (13a), and Figure 10c the signal’s average, RMS, and ripple RMS values are
obtained as:
Iave = I1 δ1 − I2 δ2 + I3 δ3 = 0 (13b)
v
u ∆i 2
u 2 1,pk−pk δ1
u I1 δ1 + 2 3
u
u ∆i 2
Irms =u 2 2,pk−pk δ2 (13c)
u+I2 δ2 + 2 3
u
t ∆i 2
3,pk−pk δ3
+I23 δ3 + 2 3
From (13b) and (13c), the signal’s RMS ripple content is

v
u ∆i 2
1,pk − pk
u I12 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) + δ1
u
u 2 3
u ∆i 2
2,pk− pk
u + I22 δ2 (1 − δ2 ) + δ2
u
Irms−ripple =u 2 3 (13d)
u ∆i 2
− pk
u + I32 δ3 (1 − δ3 ) +
u 3,pk δ3
t 2 3
+2I1 δ1 I2 δ2 − 2I1 δ1 I3 δ3 + 2I2 δ2 I3 δ3
For a capacitor, the RMS and ripple RMS values should be identical as the average
value is zero. The waveform in Figure 10d is applicable during CCM light load operation.
From Figure 10d, four unique pulses are identifiable (two trapezoidal and two triangular)
in each waveform. The nominal amplitude, amplitude variation, and pulses’ durations are:
2 , ∆i1,pk−pk
a+b
I1 = = (b − a), δ1 = (x2 − x1 )
c+g
I2 = 2 , ∆i2,pk−pk = (g − c), δ1 = (x3 − x2 )
c ( x4 − x2 )
x3 − x2 = c+d (14)
g+d
I3 = 2 ∆i3,pk−pk = (d − g), δ3 = (x4 − x3 )
d(x4 −x2 )
2 ∆i4,pk−pk
e+f
x4 − x3 = c + d I4 = = (f − e), δ4 = (x5 − x4 )
From (12), (14), and Figure 10d, the signal’s average, RMS, and ripple RMS values are
obtained as:
Iave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 − I3 δ3 + I4 δ4 = 0 (15a)
v
u ∆i 2
u 2 1,pk−pk δ1
u I1 δ1 + 2 3
u
u ∆i 2
u+I2 δ + 2,pk−pk δ2
u 2 2 2 3
Irms =u
u
∆i 2 (15b)
u+I2 δ + 3,pk−pk δ3
u 3 3 2 3
u
t ∆i 2
4,pk−pk δ4
+I24 δ4 + 2 3
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 13 of 31
From (15a) and (15b), the signal’s RMS ripple content is 2

∆i 1,pk−pk δ1
I12 δ1 (1
− δ1 ) + ( )
22 3
v
u ∆i
1,pk−pk δ1 2
u I21 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) + ∆i δ2
u
2,pk−pk
u +I22 δ2 (1 − δ2) +2( 3 )
∆i2,pk−pk 22 δ2 3
u
u +I22 δ2 (1 − δ2 ) +
u
2 ∆i 3 2
Irms−rippleu
= 3,pk−pk δ 3 (15c)
+I2 δ (1 − δ3)∆i+3,pk(−pk 2 δ3 )
u
2 3 3 2 3
+I3 δ3 (1 − δ3 ) +
u
Irms−ripple = u 2 3
2 (15c)
∆i ∆i4,pk−pk δ4
u
u 2
2
2+I δ (1 − δ ) + ( 4,pk − pk δ 4 )
u +I4 δ4 (41 4− δ4 ) + 4
u
u 2 2 3 3
u −2I δ I δ + 2I δ I δ + 2I δ I δ
u−2I1 δ1 1I2 δ12 2+ 2I2 1 δ1 I31δ31+32I32 δ2 I3 δ2 3 2 3 3
−2I δ I δ − 2I δ I δ + 2I 3 3 4 δ4
δ I
−√2I1 δ11I4 δ14 4− 2I
t
4 2 2 4 4
2 δ2 I4 δ4 + 2I3 δ3 I4 δ4
3.1.2. Converter Cells with Type-2 BBBs

3.1.2. Converter Cells with Type-2 BBBs
The DC–DCconverters
The DC–DC converters shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 11a,b
11a,b are realized
are realized using using
at leastatone
least one type-2
type-2
BBB.
BBB. They generatecapacitor
They generate capacitor currents
currents as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 11c,d.11c,d. It isseen
It is also alsothat
seen
thethat the
capacitor currentwaveform
capacitor current waveform changes
changes withwith load.
load.
2 L2 3
S4
1 L1 N
1 N2 L2 2
S3 C1
it 2
+ it1
C1 it 2
+ + S1 S2 −
L1 vo
vin Co Ro v in vo
− S2 − − it 3
ic1
it1
S1 it 3
+
3
1
(a) Converter 2-2.1. (b) Converter 3-1.5.

a a a
I1
a I1
b b
I2
c
e
x 1T sw x 2 T sw x 3T sw x 1T sw x 2 T sw x 3 T sw x 4 T sw
− I3
− I2
c
d d
(c) CCM significant load operation. (d) CCM light load operation.
Figure
Figure 11. Someofofgroup
11. Some group2 converters
2 converters
andand their
their capacitor
capacitor current
current waveforms.
waveforms.
The waveform
The waveformininFigure 11c11c
Figure cancan
be partitioned into into
be partitioned two unique trapezoidal
two unique pulses. pulses.
trapezoidal
The nominal
The nominal amplitude,
amplitude,amplitude
amplitudevariation, and and
variation, durations of theof
durations pulses are: are:
the pulses
a+𝑎
, ∆i1,pk− pk = (b − a), δ1 = ( x2 − x1 )
b +𝑏
I1 =
𝐼1 =2 , ∆𝑖1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 = (𝑏 − 𝑎), 𝛿1 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) (16a)
I2 = c+2 d , 2∆i2,pk− pk = (d − c), δ2 = ( x3 − x2 ) (16a)
𝑐+𝑑
𝐼2 = , ∆𝑖2,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 = (𝑑 − 𝑐), 𝛿2 = (𝑥3 − 𝑥2 )
Using (12), (16a), and Figure 11c, 2the average, RMS, and ripple RMS values are obtained as
Using (12), (16a), and Figure 11c,
Iavethe
= Iaverage, RMS, and ripple RMS values are obtained
1 δ1 − I2 δ2 = 0 (16b)
as
vI
uave = I1δ1∆i− I2 δ22= 0 (16b)
u I2 δ + 1,pk−pk δ1
u 1 1 2∆i 3 2δ
Irms = t
u 2 1,pk−pk 1 (16c)
I δ +(
2 1 1 ∆i2,pk−pk
2 )
δ2
Irms =+√I2 δ2 + 2
2 3 3 (16c)
2
∆i2,pk−pk δ2
+( ) +I22 δ2
2 3
∆i1,pk−pk 2 δ1
I12 δ1 (1
− δ1 ) + ( )
2 3
Irms−ripple = 2 (16d)
∆i2,pk−pk δ2
+I22 δ2 (1 − δ2 ) + ( )
2 3
√ +2I1 δ1 I2 δ2
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 14 of 31

v
u ∆i 2
1,pk−pk δ1
u
u I21 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) + 2 3
u ∆i 2
Irms−ripple = u[2mm]+I2 δ (1 − δ ) +
u 2,pk − pk δ2 (16d)
t 2 2 2 2 3
+2I1 δ1 I2 δ2
The waveform shown in Figure 11d is applicable during a CCM light load operation.
Three unique pulses (one trapezoidal and two triangular) are identifiable in Figure 11d.
The nominal amplitude, amplitude variation, and durations of the pulses are:
2 , ∆i1,pk− pk
a+b
I1 = = (b − a), δ1 = ( x2 − x1 )
2 , ∆i2,pk− pk
c+e
I2 = = (e − c), δ2 = ( x3 − x2 ) (17a)
2 , ∆i3,pk− pk
e+d
I3 = = (d − e), δ3 = ( x4 − x3 )
Using (12), (17a), and Figure 11d the capacitor current average, RMS, and ripple RMS
values are obtained as:
Iave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 − I3 δ3 = 0 (17b)
v
u ∆i 2
u 2 1,pk−pk δ1
u I1 δ1 + 2 3
u
u ∆i 2
Irms = u+I22 δ2 +
u 2,pk − pk δ2 (17c)
u 2 3
t ∆i 2
− δ
+I23 δ3 + 2,pk
2
pk
3
3

v
u ∆i 2
1,pk−pk δ1
u I21 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) +
u
u 2 3
u ∆i 2
2,pk−pk δ2
u +I22 δ2 (1 − δ2 ) +
u
Irms−ripple =u 2 3 (17d)
u ∆i 2
3,pk−pk δ3
u +I23 δ3 (1 − δ3 ) +
u
t 2 3
−2I1 δ1 I2 δ2 + 2I1 δ1 I3 δ3 + 2I2 δ2 I3 δ3
It is seen that (17d) and (13d) are similar, as expected.
3.2. Generalized Analysis to Cater for Different Types of Signals and Hence a Broad
Range of Converters
Considering the generalized composite waveform shown in Figure 12, the expression
for the current waveform over one switching cycle is obtained as
b−a

t

 − x 2 + b,x1 Tsw < t < x2 Tsw



 x2 − x1 Tsw


d−c

t


− x4 + b,x3 Tsw < t < x4 Tsw



x − x3 Tsw

 4



i (t) = f −e (18a)

t
 − x6 + b,x5 Tsw < t < x6 Tsw
x6 − x5 Tsw







h−g


 t
− x 8 + b,x7 Tsw < t < x8 Tsw


 x8 − x7 Tsw





0,elsewhere
𝑥4 − 𝑥3 𝑇𝑠𝑤
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑓−𝑒 𝑡 (18a)
( )( − 𝑥6 ) + 𝑏, 𝑥5 𝑇𝑠𝑤 < 𝑡 < 𝑥6 𝑇𝑠𝑤
ℎ−𝑔 𝑡
( )( − 𝑥8 ) + 𝑏, 𝑥7 𝑇𝑠𝑤 < 𝑡 < 𝑥8 𝑇𝑠𝑤
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 { 0, 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 15 of 31
b e
I1 I3
a f
x3T sw x 4 T sw x 7 T sw x 8 T sw
x1T sw x 2 T sw x 5T sw x 6T sw Tsw
c h
I2 I4
d g
Figure 12. Generalized composite waveform.

Figure 12. Generalized composite waveform.
The signal’s average, RMS, and ripple RMS values are obtained as
xZ
8 Tsw
1
Iave = i (t)dt
Tsw
x1 Tsw
a+b c+d e+f g+h

= (x2 − x1 ) − (x4 − x3 ) + (x6 − x5 ) − ( x8 − x7 ) (18b)
2 2 2 2
= I1 δ1 − I2 δ2 + I3 δ3 − I4 δ4 (18c)
v
u a+b 2
u 2
x −x
u 2 ( x2 − x1 ) + b−2 a ( 2 3 1 )
u
u c + d 2 x − x + d − c 2 ( x4 − x3 )
v u
u xZ8 Tsw
u 1
u
2 ( 4 3) 2 3
(i (t))2 dt = u
u
Irms =t 2 2 (18d)
Tsw

u e + f ( x − x ) + f − e ( x6 − x5 )
u
x1 Tsw u 2 6 5 2 3
u
t g + h 2
h− g
2
( x8 − x7 )
2 ( x8 − x7 ) + 2 3
Figure 12 comprises four unique trapezoidal pulses. The pulses’ nominal amplitude,
amplitude variation, and durations are:

I1 = a+2 b , ∆i1,pk− pk = b − a, δ1 = x2 − x1

I2 = c+2 d , ∆i2,pk− pk = d − c, δ1 = x4 − x3
(19a)
e+ f
I3 = 2 , ∆i3,pk− pk = f − e, δ3 = x6 − x5

g+h
I4 = 2 , ∆i4,pk− pk = h − g, δ4 = x8 − x7
Substituting (19a) into (18d) yields an expression for RMS current as

v
uI2 δ + ∆i1,pk−pk 2 δ1 + I2 δ + ∆i2,pk−pk 2 δ2
u
u1 1 2 3 2 2 2 3
Irms =u
t ∆i 2 ∆i 2 (19b)
3,pk−pk δ3 4,pk−pk δ4
I23 δ3 + 2
2
3 + I4 δ4 + 2 3
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 16 of 31
Making use of (1), the ripple RMS value is obtained with reference to (18c) and (18b) as
v
u ∆i 2
1,pk−pk δ1
I21 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) +
u
2 3
u
u
u ∆i 2
2,pk−pk δ2
I22 δ2 (1 − δ2 ) +
u
u
u 2 3
u ∆i 2
3,pk−pk δ3
I23 δ3 (1 − δ3 ) +
q u
Irms−ripple = I2rms − I2ave =u
u 2 3 (19c)
u ∆i 2
4,pk−pk δ4
I24 δ4 (1 − δ4 ) +
u
u
u 2 3
+2I1 δ1 (I2 δ2 − I3 δ3 + I4 δ4 )
u
u
t
+2I2 δ2 (I3 δ3 − I4 δ4 ) + 2I3 δ3 I4 δ4
It is seen that (19c) and (15c) are similar, as would be expected.

From (13)–(19), further generalization of expressions for determining the signal’s
average, RMS, and ripple RMS values are obtained as
k
Iave = ∑ In δn × pulse polarity (20a)
n =1
pulse duration Tn
= = δn
signal period Tsw
where δn is the normalized duration of the nth pulse.
v
2
∆in,pk− pk
u k k
δn
= t ∑ In2 δn + ∑
u
Irms (20b)
n =1 n =1
2 3
q
Irms−ripple = 2 − I2
Irms (20c)
ave
k
k k
2
Iave = ∑ In2 δn2 + ∑m=1 Im δm ∑n6=m In δn (20d)
n =1
v
k k ∆i 2
u
2δ + n,pk− pk
∑ ∑
u δn
u I n n 2 3
n =1 n =1
u
Irms−ripple =u k
u (20e)
2 2 k k
− ∑ In δn + ∑m=1 Im δm ∑n6=m In δn
t
n =1
v
u k
∑ In2 δn (1 − δn )
u
u
u
u n =1
k 2
Irms−ripple u + ∑ ∆in,pk− pk δn
=u (20f)
u 2 3
t n =1
−∑km=1 Im δm ∑kn6=m In δn
Expressions in (20) are suitable for analyzing any type of signal generated not only by
the various converter cells or any non-isolated DC–DC converter but also by any converter
generating waveforms that can be treated as composite waveforms comprising trapezoidal,
rectangular, and triangular pulses.
4. Analytical Validation
4.1. Analytical Validation of Derivations
Some examples are presented to analytically validate all the theoretical derivations
in particular, to show that analysis is a function of signal shape and can be generalized to
rectangular, and triangular pulses.
4. Analytical Validation
4.1. Analytical Validation of Derivations
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 17 of 31
Some examples are presented to analytically validate all the theoretical derivations
in particular, to show that analysis is a function of signal shape and can be generalized to
cater for any non-isolated DC–DC converter, for example. Figure 13 presents four exam-
cater for any non-isolated DC–DC converter, for example. Figure 13 presents four examples
ples of practical DC–DC converters. Those in Figure 13a,b are derived from converter cell
of practical DC–DC converters. Those in Figure 13a,b are derived from converter cell 1-1.w
1-1.w in group 1, whilst that in Figure 13c is derived from converter cell 2-3.w in group 2,
in group 1, whilst that in Figure 13c is derived from converter cell 2-3.w in group 2, and
andfinally
finally
thethe converter
converter in Figure
in Figure 13d is13d is derived
derived from converter
from converter cell
cell 3-3.w in 3-3.w in group 3.
group 3.
2 S2 N1 L 3
it 3
+ it 2 I n1 +
vin In2 S1 vo
it 1
− I n3
−
1
(a) Converter 1-1.1.

3 L N1
S2 2
it 3 it 2
+ I n1 I n3 +
vin S1 vo
it1
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW − I n2
− 17 of 29
1
(b) Converter 1-1.2.

2 S4 N3 3
L2 it 3
S3
it 2
N2
C1 +
+ S2
v in ic 1 Co Ro vo
L1
− it 1 N1
−
S1
1
(c) Converter 2-3.1.

2 L2 S4 3
it 2 it 3
S1
C1 +
+
v in S2 vo
ic S3 it 1
−
L1 −
1
(d) Converter 3-3.1

Figure13.
Figure Examples of
13.Examples of DC–DC
DC–DCconverters
convertersfrom various
from converter
various cells.cells.
converter
Converter Cell 1-1.w Family of Converters
Converter Cell 1-1.w Family of Converters
This section will validate the unification of analysis across a family of converters
This from
derived section
thewill
samevalidate the cell.
converter unification of analysis
Conventional buck across a family
(converter 1-1.1)ofand
converters
boost de-
rived from the
(converter same
1-1.2) converter
converters cell.
based onConventional buck (converter
cell 1-1 are considered. 1-1.1)
The circuit and boost
diagrams are (con-
verter
shown1-1.2) converters
in Figure based
13a,b while on cell
relevant 1-1 are current
terminals’ considered. The circuit
waveforms are showndiagrams
in Figureare
1a,shown
Figure 6a–c, and Figure 13a,b. Current signals generated at terminals 1, 2, and 3
in Figure 13a,b while relevant terminals’ current waveforms are shown in Figures 1a, 6a–of converter
c,1-1.1
andduring
13a,b. CCM operation
Current aregenerated
signals as shown inat Figure 6a–c, respectively,
terminals 1, 2, and 3 and also in Figure
of converter 13a.during
1-1.1
The techniques developed in [35] will be employed to determine the converter gains, the
CCM operation are as shown in Figure 6a–c, respectively, and also in Figure 13a. The
nominal amplitudes, In , and variations of pulses’ amplitudes, ∆in,pk−pk . Consider the
techniques developed in [35] will be employed to determine the converter gains, the nom-
following operating conditions for converter 1-1.1:
inal amplitudes, In, and variations of pulses’ amplitudes, Δin,pk−pk. Consider the following
operating conditionsVinfor converter
= 48 V, f sw = 1-1.1:
25 kHz, L = 40 µH, P0 = 300 W,
Vo
(21a)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 48δ V,
= 𝑓0.65,
𝑠𝑤 =C25
0 =kHz, 𝐿=
20 µF, M40
= μH,
Vin = δ
𝑃0 = 300 W,
𝑉𝑜 (21a)
𝛿 = 0.65, 𝐶0 = 20 μF, 𝑀 = =𝛿
𝑉𝑖𝑛
From Figures 6 and 13a, the following data applicable to the analysis of signals from
converter 1-1.1 are obtained:
a+b P0 300
I1 = ( ) = I0,ave = = = 9.615A (21b)
2 V0,ave 31.2
(Vin −Vo )δTsw
∆i1,pk−pk = ∆iL,pk−pk = = 10.92A (21c)
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 18 of 31
From Figures 6 and 13a, the following data applicable to the analysis of signals from
converter 1-1.1 are obtained:

a+b P0 300
I1 = = I0,ave = = = 9.615A (21b)
2 V0,ave 31.2
(Vin − Vo )δTsw
∆i1,pk−pk = ∆iL,pk−pk = = 10.92A (21c)
L
From (3), (20), (21), and Figure 6b with δ1 = (1 − δ) the average, RMS, and ripple RMS
values of it1 are
a+b
It1,ave = (1 − δ) = I1 δ1 = 3.365A (22a)
2
s
∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ1

2
It1,rms = I1 δ1 + = 5.986A (22b)
2 3
s
∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ1

2
It1,rms−ripple = I1 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) + = 4.95A (22c)
2 3
Using (3), (20), (21), and Figure 6a and letting δ1 = δ, terminal’s two’s current signal is
analyzed as follows:
a+b
It2,ave = δ = I1 δ1 = 6.25A (23a)
2
s
∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ1

2
It2,rms = I1 δ1 + = 8.158A (23b)
2 3
s
∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ1

2
2 3
Using (3), (20), (21), and Figure 6c with δ1 = δ, δ2 = 1 − δ, terminal three’s current
signal is analyzed as follows:
It3,ave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 = 9.615A (24a)
s
2
∆iL,pk−pk ∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ2

δ1
It3,rms = I21 δ1 + 2
+ I2 δ2 + = 10.12A (24b)
2 3 2 3
s
∆iL,pk−pk 2 1

It3,rms−ripple = = 3.152A (24c)
2 3
From (22)–(24), it is seen that (3) and (20) yield identical values for the signal average
and RMS values as well as the signals’ ripple RMS values. This demonstrates that the
generalized expressions in (20) yield identical results as those in (3) which were derived by
considering signals generated by converter cell 1-1.w.
The current signals generated at terminals 1, 2, and 3 of converter 1-1.2 during the
CCM operation are as shown in Figure 6a–c, respectively, and also in Figure 13b. Consider
the following operating conditions:
Vin = 31.2 V, f sw = 25kHz, L = 40 µH, P0 = 300 W,

Vo 1
(25a)
δ = 0.35, C0 = 250µF, M = Vin = 1− δ
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 19 of 31
From Figures 6 and 13b, the following data applicable to the analysis of the signals
from converter 1-1.2 are obtained:

a+b I 300
I1 = = Iin,ave = 0,ave = = 9.615A (25b)
2 (1 − δ) 48(1 − 0.35)
Vin δTsw
∆i1,pk−pk = ∆iL,pk−pk = = 10.92A (25c)
L
From (3), (20) (25), and Figure 6a with δ1 = δ the average, RMS, and ripple RMS values
of it1 are
a+b
It1,ave = δ = I1 δ1 = 3.365A (26a)
2
s
∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ1

2
It1,rms = I1 δ1 + = 5.986A (26b)
2 3
s
∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ1

2
2 3
Using (3), (20), (25), and Figure 6a and letting δ1 = 1 − δ, terminal two’s current signal
is analyzed as follows:

a+b
It2,ave = (1 − δ) = I1 δ1 = 6.25A (27a)
2
s
2
∆iL,pk−pk

δ1
It2,rms = I21 δ1 + = 8.158A (27b)
2 3
s
2
∆iL,pk−pk

δ1
2 3
Using (3), (20), (25), and Figure 6c with δ1 = δ, δ2 = 1 − δ I2 = I1 terminal three’s
current signal is analyzed as follows:
It3,ave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 = 9.615A (28a)
v
u I2 δ + ∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ1
u
u 1 1 2 3
It3,rms =u
t ∆i 2 = 10.12A (28b)
L,pk−pk δ2
+I22 δ2 + 2 3
s
2
∆iL,pk−pk

1
It3,rms−ripple = = 3.152A (28c)
2 3
Figure 14a,b presents simulated current waveforms it1 , it2 , and it3 for converters 1-1.1
and 1-1.2, respectively. It is seen from Figure 14a,b that the waveforms are identical to the
analytical waveforms shown in Figure 1a, Figure 5a–c, Figure 6a–c, and Figure 8a–c. On
the other hand, Tables 1 and 2 present analytical and simulated data for converters 1-1.1
and 1-1.2, respectively. In particular, the average and RMS values as well as the ripple RMS
for the current signals it1 , it2 , and it3 .
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 20 of 31
Table 1. Analytical and simulated data for converter 1-1.1 when in CCM.
Analytical values for converter 1-1.1 signal it1

δ δ1 = 1 − δ
0.65 0.35
I1 ∆i1,pk− pk It1,ave It1,rms It1,rms−ripple
9.615 A 10.92 A 3.365 A 5.986 A 4.95 A
Simulated values for converter 1-1.1 signal it1
9.615 A 11.35 A 3.357 A 6A 4.973 A
δ δ1 = 1 − δ
0.65 0.65
9.615 A 10.92 A 6.25 A 8.158 A 5.243 A
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9.615 A 11.35 A 6.258 A 8.212 A 19 of5.317
29 A
δ δ1 = δ δ2 = 1 − δ
2
0.65 0.65 ∆iL,pk−pk
0.35 1
It3,rms−ripple = √( ) = 3.152A (28c)
I1 ∆i1,pk− pk 2I 3 I It3,rms−ripple
t3,ave t3,rms
Figure 14a,b presents simulated current waveforms it1, it2, and it3 for converters 1-1.1
9.615 A 10.92 A 9.615 A 10.12 A 3.152 A
and 1-1.2, respectively. It is seen from Figure 14a,b that the waveforms are identical to the
Simulated
analytical values for
waveforms converter
shown 1-1.1 signal
in Figures it3 6a–c, and 8a–c. On the other hand, Tables
1a, 5a–c,
1 and 2 present
I1 analytical and simulated
∆i1,pk− pk data for converters 1-1.1 and
It1,ave 1-1.2, respectively.
It1,rms It1,rms−ripple
In particular, the average and RMS values as well as the ripple RMS for the current signals
9.615
it1, it2, and it3. A 11.35 A 9.615 A 10.17 A 3.314 A
It1
20
10
0
It2
20
10
0
It3
10
0.00994 0.00996 0.00998 0.01

Time (s)
(a) Waveforms for it1, it2, and it3 for converter 1-1.1
It1
20
10
0
It2
20
10
0
It3
10
0.02992 0.02994 0.02996 0.02998 0.03

Time (s)
(b) Waveforms for it1, it2, and it3 for converter 1-1.2
Figure
Figure14.14.
Current waveforms
Current for converters
waveforms 1-1.1 and
for converters 1-1.2
1-1.1 andduring
1-1.2 CCM.
during CCM.
Table 1.From
Analytical and simulated
(26)–(28), datathat
it is seen for converter
(3) and1-1.1
(20)when in identical
yield CCM.signals’ average and RMS
values as well as signals’ ripple RMS values.
Analytical values for converter 1-1.1 signal it1 This, together with the analyses in (22)–(24),
𝛿 𝛿1 = 1 − 𝛿
0.65 0.35
𝐼1 ∆𝑖1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 𝐼𝑡1,𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑡1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑡1,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
9.615 A 10.92 A 3.365 A 5.986 A 4.95 A
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 21 of 31
validates the unification of analysis across a family of DC–DC converters derived from a
given converter cell and further validates the generalized analysis in (20). This analysis is
valid for operation up to the boundary between continuous and discontinuous inductor
current operations.
Table 2. Analytical and simulated data for converter 1-1.2 when in CCM.

δ δ1 = 1 − δ
0.35 0.35
9.615 A 10.92 A 3.365 A 5.986 A 4.95 A
9.605 A 10.923 A 3.357 A 5.974 A 4.942 A
δ δ1 = 1 − δ
0.35 0.65
9.615 A 10.92 A 6.25 A 8.158 A 5.243 A
9.605 A 10.923 A 6.248 A 8.156 A 5.242 A
δ δ1 = δ δ2 = 1 − δ
0.35 0.35 0.65
9.615 A 10.92 A 9.615 A 10.12 A 3.152 A
9.605 A 10.923 A 9.605 A 10.11 A 3.152 A
4.2. Analysis Applicable to Different Types of Converters

This section will demonstrate that the analysis is applicable to any type of non-isolated
DC–DC converter. Circuit diagrams for converter cell 2-3.w and a DC–DC converter 2-3.1
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEWwith buck–boost functionality are shown in Figures 2c and 13b, respectively. Terminals’
21 of and
29
capacitor current waveforms generated during CCM are shown in Figure 2c, Figure 6a,b,
Figures 13c and 15a,b.
e
I3 a
c f I1
I2 b e
d I3 c
I2 f
 T sw 0 . 5T sw (0.5+ )Tsw T sw
a d
− I1  T sw 0 . 5T sw (0.5+ )Tsw T sw
b
(a) ic in CCM operation. (b) it3 in CCM operation.
Figure 15.15.
Figure Capacitor and
Capacitor terminal
and three
terminal current
three waveforms
current (ic(iand
waveforms it3).
c and it3 ).
4.2.1. CCM Operation of Converter 2-3.1

Current signals generated at terminals 1, 2, and 3 of converter 2-3.1 as well as con-
verter coupling capacitor current waveform during CCM operation are as shown in Fig-
ures 6a,b and 15a,b, respectively. During CCM, operating conditions are as follows:
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 22 of 31
4.2.1. CCM Operation of Converter 2-3.1

Current signals generated at terminals 1, 2, and 3 of converter 2-3.1 as well as converter
coupling capacitor current waveform during CCM operation are as shown in Figure 6a,b
and Figure 15a,b, respectively. During CCM, operating conditions are as follows:
Vo δ2
Vin = 48 V, fsw = 25 kHz, Po = 200 W, M = Vin = (1−2δ)
(29a)
L1 = 40 µH, L2 = 80 µH, C1 = 160 µFCo = 60 µF, δ = 0.35
Using (29a) and Figure 6b, data relating to it1 are obtained as:
(1 − δ) P0 (1 − δ) 200 × (1 − 0.35)

a+b I
I1 = IL1,ave = = 0,ave = = = 22.11A (29b)
2 (1 − 2δ) V0,ave (1 − 2δ) 19.6 × (1 − 2 × 0.35)
Vo (1 − δ)Tsw 19.6 × (1 − 0.65)
∆iL1,pk−pk = = = 12.74A (29c)
L1 40 × 10−6 × 25 × 103
Using (20), (29), and Figure 6b with δ1 = (1 − δ) the average, RMS, and ripple RMS
values of it1 are
It1,ave = I1 δ1 = 22.11 × 0.65 = 14.372A (30a)
s s
2
∆i L,pk− pk
2
δ1 12.74 0.65
It1,rms = I12 δ1 + = 22.112 × 0.65 + = 18.07A (30b)
2 3 2 3
v
u 2
u I1 δ1 (1 − δ1 )
It1,rms−ripple = t ∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ1 = 10.955A (30c)
+ 2 3
From (29) and Figure 6a, the following data relating to it2 are obtained:
200 × 0.35

a+b I δ P0 δ
I1 = IL2,ave = = 0,ave = = = 11.905A (31a)
2 (1 − 2δ) V0,ave (1 − 2δ) 19.6 × (1 − 2 × 0.35)
(Vin + Vo )δTsw (48 + 19.6) × 0.35
∆iL2,pk−pk = = = 11.83A (31b)
L2 80 × 10−6 × 25 × 103
Using (20), (29), (31), and Figure 6a with δ1 = δ, terminal two’s current signal is
analyzed as follows:
a+b
It2,ave = δ = I1 δ1 = 4.167A (32a)
2
s
∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ1

It2,rms = I21 δ1 + = 7.327A (32b)
2 3
s
∆iL,pk−pk 2 δ1

2 3
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 23 of 31
The capacitor current signal shown in Figure 15a can be divided into three unique
trapezoidal pulses (i.e., k = 3). The following data are relevant to the capacitor current signal:

a = IL2,ave − IL1,ave + 12 1−δ δ ∆iL2,pk−pk + 21 ∆iL1,pk−pk
a = 11.905 − 22.11 + 11.83 0.35
12.74
2 1−0.35 + 2 = −0.65

b = IL2,ave − IL1,ave − 21 1−δ δ ∆iL2,pk−pk − 12 ∆iL1,pk−pk
b = 11.905 − 22.11 − 11.83 0.35
12.74
2 1−0.35 − 2 = −19.76
(33a)
c = IL2,ave − 12 1−δ δ ∆iL2,pk−pk
c = 11.905 − 11.83 0.35

2 1−0.35 = 8.721
d = IL2,ave − 12 ∆iL2,pk−pk
11.83
d = 11.905 − 2 = 5.991
e = IL2,ave + 0.5∆iL2,pk−pk
e = 11.905 + 0.5 × 11.83 = 17.821
(33b)
f = IL2,ave + 0.5 1−δ δ ∆iL2,pk−pk
0.35
f = 11.905 + 0.5 × 1−0.35 × 11.83
δ1 = δ = 0.35
(33c)
δ2 = 0.5 − δ = 0.5 − 0.35 = 0.15
δ3 = 0.5 − δ = 0.5 − 0.35 = 0.15
The nominal pulse amplitudes, durations, and amplitude variations are obtained
using (33a) and Figure 15a as:
I1 = a+b
2 = −10.205; ∆i1,pk−pk = (b − a) = 19.11
I2 = c+d
2 = 7.356; ∆i2,pk−pk = (d − c) = −2.73 (34a)
I3 = e+f
2 = 16.456; ∆i3,pk−pk = (f − e) = −2.73
Using (20), (29), (33b), and Figure 15a, the capacitor current signal is analyzed as follows:
v
u ∆i 2
u 2 1,pk−pk δ1
u I1 δ1 + 2 3
u
u ∆i 2
Ic,rms =u 2 2,pk−pk δ2 = 9.8A (34b)
u+I2 δ2 + 2 3
u
t ∆i 2
− δ
+I23 δ3 + 3,pk
2
pk
3
3
v
u ∆i 2
u 2 1,pk−pk δ1
u I1 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) + 2 3
u
u ∆i 2
u 2 2,pk−pk δ2
u+I2 δ2 (1 − δ2 ) + 2 3
u
Ic,rms−ripple =u
u 2
∆i
3,pk−pk
2 = 9.8A
δ3 (34c)
u+I3 δ3 (1 − δ3 ) + 2 3
u
+2I1 δ1 × (I2 δ2 + I3 δ3 )
u
u
t
−2I2 δ2 × I3 δ3
Figure 16a presents simulated current waveforms it1 , it2 , and it3 . Figure 16b, on the other
hand, presents current waveforms for the coupling capacitor, ic , inductor L1 , iL1 , and inductor
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 24 of 31
L2 , iL2 , for converter 2-3.1. It is seen from Figure 16 that the simulated waveforms are similar
to the analytical waveforms shown in Figure 2c, Figure 5a–c, Figure 6a–c, and Figure 8a–e
and which were used to derive the analytical expressions. On the other hand, Table 3 presents
analytical and simulated data relevant to converter 2-3.1. In particular, the average and RMS
values as well as ripple RMS values for the current signals it1 , it2 , it3 , and ic .
Table 3. Analytical and simulated date for converter 2-3.1 under CCM.
Analytical values for DC–DC converter 2-3.1 signal it1

22.11 A 12.74 A 14.372 A 18.07 A 10.955 A
Simulated values for DC–DC converter 2-3.1 signal it1
22.04 A 12.726 A 14.326 A 18.023 A 10.936 A
11.905 A 11.83 A 4.167 A 7.327 A 6.027 A
11.864 A 11.911 A 4.172 A 7.34 A 6.039 A
I1 I2 I3 δ1 = δ3 δ2
27.01 A 10.206 A 17.21 A 0.15 0.35
It3,ave It3,rms It3,rms−ripple b−a = f −e d−c
10.205 A 14.17 A 9.827 A −2.94A −18.69 A
I1 I2 I3 δ1 = δ3 δ2
26.985 A 10.113 A 17.041A 0.15 0.35
It3,ave It3,rms It3,rms−ripple b−a = f −e d−c
10.154 A 14.129 A 9.825 A −2.79 A −18.755 A
Analytical values for DC–DC converter 2-3.1 signal ic
I1 I2 I3 δ1 δ2 = δ3
−10.205 A 7.356 A 16.456 A 0.35 0.15
Ic,ave Ic,rms Ic,rms−ripple b−a d−c
0 9.8 A 9.8 A 19.11 A −2.73 A
Simulated values for DC–DC converter 2-3.1 signal ic
I1 I2 I3 δ1 δ2 = δ3
−10.258 A 7.259 A 16.432 A 0.35 0.15
0 9.808 A 9.808 A 19.046 A −2.22 A
Energies
Energies 2023,16,
2023, 16,3370
x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 29 25 of 31
It1
25
It2
20
10
0
It3
25
0
0.03992 0.03994 0.03996 0.03998 0.04
Time (s)
(a) Waveforms for it1, it2, and it3 for converter 2-3.1.
I(C1)
20
0
-20
I(L1)
30
20
10
I(L2)
10
0.03992 0.03994 0.03996 0.03998 0.04
Time (s)
(b) Coupling capacitor and inductors L1 and L2 current waveforms.

Figure
Figure16.16.
Various current waveforms for converter 2-3.1. 2-3.1.
From (30)–(35) and Table 3, it is seen that expressions in (24) yield accurate signal
Various current waveforms for converter
averages andand
Table 3. Analytical RMS values
simulated asconverter
well as signals’ ripple RMS values. The good agreement be-
From (30)–(35) anddate for
Table 3, it is2-3.1
seen under CCM.
that expressions in (24) yield accurate signal
tween
Analytical
analytical
averagesvalues
andforRMS
and simulated
values
DC–DC as well
converter
values
2-3.1 as
validates
signals’
signal it1
the accuracy of the analytical techniques
ripple RMS values. The good agreement
that were𝐼 developed.∆𝑖
between1 analytical and1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘
simulated values 𝐼 𝐼
𝑡1,𝑎𝑣𝑒validates the𝑡1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑡1,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
accuracy of the analytical techniques
22.11 A
that were developed.12.74 A 14.372 A 18.07 A 10.955 A
Simulated values for DC–DC converter
4.2.2. CCM Operation of Converter 3-3.1 2-3.1 signal i t1
4.2.2. CCM𝐼1 Operation ∆𝑖1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘

of Converter 3-3.1 𝐼𝑡1,𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑡1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑡1,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
Current
22.04 A signals12.726 generated
A at14.326
terminalsA one,18.023
two,Aand three10.936 of converter
A 3-3.1 and cur-
rent Current
through
Analytical signals
theDC–DC
values for generated
decoupling 2-3.1 signal it2during CCM operation are as shown inand
at
convertercapacitor terminals one, two, and three of converter 3-3.1 Figures 6c
current𝐼1through the decoupling∆𝑖1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 capacitor𝐼𝑡2,𝑎𝑣𝑒during CCM operation are𝐼𝑡2,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝐼𝑡2,𝑟𝑚𝑠 as shown in Figures 6c
and 17a,b, respectively.
and 17a,b,
11.905 Arespectively. 11.83 A 4.167 A 7.327 A 6.027 A
𝐼1 ∆𝑖1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 𝐼𝑡2,𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑡2,𝑟𝑚𝑠 e 𝐼𝑡2,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
11.864 b I3
I2 A 11.911 A 4.172 A 7.34 A 6.039 A
f
c c
Analytical values for DC–DC converter 2-3.1 signal it3 I2
I1 I
𝐼1 3 𝐼2 e 𝐼3 𝛿1 = 𝛿3 d 𝛿2
27.01 Aa 10.206 AT 4
I
17.21 A  T sw0.150 . 5T sw (0.5+ )Tsw T sw 0.35
d
𝐼𝑡3,𝑎𝑣𝑒
0.5Tsw
𝐼
sw
𝐼𝑡3,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
a
𝑏−𝑎 =𝑓−𝑒 𝑑−𝑐
 T sw (0.𝑡3,𝑟𝑚𝑠
5 +  )Tsw − I1
10.205 A 14.17 A 9.827 A −2.94Ab −18.69 A
(a) it3—CCM
𝐼1
heavy load 𝐼2
operation. 𝐼3
(b) ic CCM heavy load operation.
𝛿1 = 𝛿3 𝛿2
Figure
Figure26.985
17. A
17. Converter
Converter 10.113 A
3-3.1terminal
3-3.1terminal 17.041A
3 and
3 and capacitor
capacitor current
current 0.15 waveforms. 0.35
waveforms.
𝐼𝑡3,𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑡3,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑡3,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑏−𝑎 =𝑓−𝑒 𝑑−𝑐
10.154
Consider a converter that is operating under the following conditions:A
A 14.129 A 9.825 A −2.79 A −18.755
Consider
Analytical values fora DC–DC
converter converter that2-3.1
is operating
signal ic under the following conditions:
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼3 𝛿1 𝛿2 = 𝛿3
Vin V= = V,
in 24 24fsw
V,16.456
f=sw25= 25 kHz,
kHz, P0 =P0540= W,
540δ W, δ = 0.35
= 0.35
−10.205 A 7.356 A A 0.35 0.15
Vo𝑑 − 1−𝑐δ 1 − δ
(35a)
𝐼𝑐,𝑎𝑣𝑒 L1 L= 80𝐼𝑐,𝑟𝑚𝑠
µH, L = 𝐼𝑐,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
50 µH, C = C = 80𝑏− 𝑎 M= o =
µF, V (35a)
1 = 80 μH, 2 L = 50 μH,
2
1 C =
1
0 C = 80 μF, MV=
0 in (1=−2δ)
0 9.8 A 9.8 A 19.11 A Vin−2.73 (1
A − 2δ)
From (35a) and Figure 6c, the following data are relevant to it1 and it2 :
From (35a)
𝐼1 and Figure𝐼2 6c, the following 𝐼3 data are relevant
𝛿1 to it1 𝛿and
2 = 𝛿i3t2:
−10.258A 7.259A (V − V 16.432A)(1 − δ)T 0.35
(52 − 24) × 0.65 0.15
(Vo − V o)(1 − inδ)Tsw sw (52 − 24) × 0.65
∆iL2,pk−pk
𝐼𝑐,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝐼𝑐,𝑟𝑚𝑠= in
∆iL2,pk−pk 𝐼𝑐,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
L2 = = 𝑏 − 𝑎 −6
50−×6 ×1025 × =
253× 103
× 10
− 𝑐= 14.56A
𝑑14.56 A (35b) (35b)
0 9.808A L2 9.808A 50 × 1019.046A −2.22A
V δT o 52×0.35sw
∆iL1,pk−pk = = = 9.1A (35c)
L1 80×10−6 ×25×103
Vo δTsw 52 × 0.35
∆iL1,pk(35b),
From (20), (35a), −pk = and Figure
= 6c with (1A− δ) the average,
δ = δ, δ ==9.1 (35c) RMS,
L1 80 × 10−6 × 125 × 103 2
and ripple RMS values for signal it1 are obtained as follows:
I0,ave δ P0 δ 540 × 0.35
I1 = I2 = = = = 12.115A (36a)
(1 − 2δ) V0,ave (1 − 2δ) 52 × (1 − 2 × 0.35)
It1,ave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 = 12.115 × 0.35 + 12.115 × 0.65 = 12.115A (36b)
2 2
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 26 of 31
From (20), (35a), (35b), and Figure 6c with δ1 = δ, δ2 = (1 − δ) the average, RMS, and
ripple RMS values for signal it1 are obtained as follows:
I0,ave δ P0 δ 540 × 0.35

I1 = I2 = = = = 12.115 A (36a)
(1 − 2δ) V0,ave (1 − 2δ) 52 × (1 − 2 × 0.35)
It1,ave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 = 12.115 × 0.35 + 12.115 × 0.65 = 12.115 A (36b)
v v
u I 2 δ + ∆i L,pk− pk 2 δ1 u 12.1152 × 0.35 + 9.1 2 0.35
u u
u 1 1 2 3 u 2 3
It1,rms =u
t ∆i 2 = t
u
2 = 12.4 A (36c)
2 L,pk − pk δ2
+ 12.1152 × 0.35 + 9.1 0.65
+ I2 δ2 + 2 3 2 3
v
u ∆i 2
u 2 L,pk−pk δ1
u I1 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) + 2 3
u
∆i 2
It1,rms−ripple =u 2 δ1 = 2.627 A (36d)
u
L,pk−pk
u+I1 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) + 2 3
t
−2I1 δ1 I2 δ2
From (35a) and Figures 6c and 13d, the following data are relevant to it2 :
I0,ave (1 − δ) P0 ( 1 − δ ) 540 × 0.65

I1 = I2 = = = = 22.5 A (37a)
(1 − 2δ) V0,ave (1 − 2δ) 52 × (1 − 2 × 0.35)
Using (20), (37a), and Figure 6c with δ1 = δ, δ2 = (1 − δ),terminal two’s current signal
is analyzed as follows:
It2,ave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 = 22.5 × 0.35 + 22.5 × 0.65 = 22.5 A (37b)
v v
u I 2 δ + ∆i L,pk− pk 2 δ1 u 22.52 × 0.35 + 14.56 2 0.35
u u
u 1 1 2 3 u 2 3
It2,rms =u
t ∆i 2 = t
u
2 = 22.89 A (37c)
2 L,pk − pk δ2 2 14.56 0.65
+ I2 δ2 + 2 3
+22.5 × 0.35 + 2 3
v
u ∆i 2
u 2 L,pk−pk δ1
u I1 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) + 2 3
u
∆i 2
It2,rms−ripple =u 2 δ1 = 4.203 A (37d)
u
L,pk−pk
u+I1 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) + 2 3
t
−2I1 δ1 I2 δ2
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 27 of 31
From (35a) and Figures 13d and 17b, the following data relating to ic are obtained:
a = IL1,ave − IL2,ave + 12 ∆iL2,pk−pk + 21 ∆iL1,pk−pk

a = −0.654
b = IL1,ave − IL2,ave − 21 ∆iL2,pk−pk − 12 ∆iL1,pk−pk
b = −20.114

c = IL1,ave − 21 1−δ δ ∆iL1,pk−pk
c = 9.666
(38a)
d = IL1,ave − 12 ∆iL2,pk−pk
d = 7.566
e = IL1,ave + 21 ∆iL1,pk−pk
e = 16.666
f = IL1,ave + 12 ∆iL1,pk−pk
f = 14.566
δ1 = δ = 0.35
(38b)
δ2 = 0.5 − δ = 0.5 − 0.35 = 0.15 = δ3
I1 = a+b
2 = −10.384, ∆i1,pk−pk = (b − a) = −19.46
I2 = c+d
2 = 8.616, ∆i2,pk−pk = (d − c) = −2.1 (38c)
I3 = e+f
2 = 15.616, ∆i3,pk−pk = (f − e) = −2.1
Using (20), (35a), (38), and Figure 17b the capacitor current signal is analyzed as follows:
v
u ∆i 2
u 2 1,pk−pk δ1
u I1 δ1 + 2 3
u
u ∆i 2
Ic,rms = u+I22 δ2 +
u 2,pk − pk δ2 = 9.829 A (39a)
u 2 3
t ∆i 2
3,pk−pk δ3
+I23 δ3 + 2 3
v
u ∆i 2
u 2 1,pk−pk δ1
u I1 δ1 (1 − δ1 ) + 2 3
u
u ∆i 2
u 2 2,pk−pk δ2
u+I2 δ2 (1 − δ2 ) + 2 3
u
Ic,rms−ripple =u
u 2
∆i
3,pk−pk
2 = 9.83 A
δ3 (39b)
u+I3 δ3 (1 − δ3 ) + 2 3
u
+ 2I δ ( I δ + I δ )
u
u 1 1 2 2 3 3
t
−2I2 δ2 × I3 δ3
Figure 18a shows the current waveforms generated at the three output terminals
of converter 3-3.1. Figure 18b, on the other hand, shows the current waveforms for the
coupling capacitor and controlled switches S1 and S3 . It is seen that these waveforms are in
agreement with the analytical waveforms shown in Figure 4c, Figure 10b, and Figure 13d
and which were used to derive the analytical expressions.
Table 4 presents analytical and simulated data relevant to the analysis of current
signals generated by converter 3-3.1. In particular, the nominal amplitudes of various
current pulses, variations of the pulses’ nominal amplitudes, signals it1 , it2 , it3 , and ic
average and RMS values, and the signals’ ripple content RMS values. The simulated data
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 28 of 31
coupling capacitor and controlled switches S1 and S3. It is seen that these waveforms are
in agreement
are used to with thethose
validate analytical waveforms
derived shown
analytically inturn
and in Figures 4c, 10b,
validate and 13d of
the accuracy and
thewhich
were used totechniques
analytical derive thethat
analytical expressions.
were developed.
It1
16
12
8
It2
30
20
10
It3
25
0
0.03992 0.03994 0.03996 0.03998 0.04
Time (s)
(a)
I(C1)
-20
I(S1)
20
10
0
I(S3)
25
0
0.03992 0.03994 0.03996 0.03998 0.04
Time (s)
(b)
Figure
Figure18.18.
Current waveforms
Current waveformsat
at output terminalsand
output terminals andthrough
through some
some of the
of the components
components of converter
of converter
3-3.1. (a) Current
3-3.1. waveforms
(a) Current forfor
waveforms it1,it1,
it2,it2,
andand
it3;it3;
(b) (b)
Coupling capacitor
Coupling and
capacitor switches
and S1S1
switches and S3S3
and current
waveforms.
current waveforms.
Table 4. Analytical and simulated data for converter 3-3.1 under CCM.
Table 4 presents analytical and simulated data relevant to the analysis of current sig-
nalsAnalytical
generated by converter
values for DC–DC3-3.1. In particular,
converter 3-3.1 signal it1the nominal amplitudes of various current
pulses, variations
I1 of the pulses’
I2 nominal∆iamplitudes,
1,pk − pk signals
∆i2,pk−ipk
t1, it2, it3, and iδc average and
RMS values, and

12.115 A the signals’
12.115 A ripple content
9.1 A RMS values. 9.1 A simulated data
The 0.35 are used to
validate those
δ1
derived analytically
δ2
and in Iturn validate theI accuracy of the analytical tech-
It1,rms−ripple
t1,ave t1,rms
niques that were developed.
0.35 0.65 12.115 A 12.4 A 2.627 A
Simulated
Table valuesand
4. Analytical for DC–DC converter
simulated 3-3.1
data for signal it13-3.1 under CCM.
converter
I1 I2 ∆i1,pk− pk ∆i2,pk− pk δ
12.233 A 12.233 A 9.232 A 9.232 A 0.35
𝐼1 𝐼2 ∆𝑖1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 ∆𝑖2,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 𝛿
δ δ2 It1,ave It1,rms It1,rms−ripple
12.1151 A 12.115 A 9.1 A 9.1 A 0.35
0.35 0.65 12.233 A 12.523 A 2.679 A
𝛿1 𝛿2 𝐼 𝑡1,𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑡1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑡1,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
0.35 0.65 12.115 A 12.4 A 2.627 A
Simulated Ivalues
1 for DC–DC I2
converter ∆i 1,pk −signal
3-3.1 pk it1 ∆i2,pk− pk δ
22.5
𝐼1 A 22.5
𝐼2 A 14.56
∆𝑖1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 A 14.56
∆𝑖 A 0.35 𝛿
2,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘
12.2331 A
δ 12.233
δ 2 A It2,ave A
9.232 I9.232
t2,rms A It2,rms−ripple
0.35
𝛿10.35 𝛿2
0.65 𝐼𝑡1,𝑎𝑣𝑒
22.5 A 𝐼𝑡1,𝑟𝑚𝑠
22.89 A 𝐼𝑡1,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
4.203 A
0.35 0.65 12.233 A 12.523 A 2.679 A
𝐼1 𝐼2 ∆𝑖1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 ∆𝑖2,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘 𝛿
22.5A 22.5A 14.56 A 14.56 A 0.35
𝛿1 𝛿2 𝐼𝑡2,𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑡2,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑡2,𝑟𝑚𝑠−𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
0.35 0.65 22.5 A 22.89 A 4.203 A
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 29 of 31
Table 4. Cont.

I1 I2 ∆i1,pk− pk ∆i2,pk− pk δ
22.662 A 22.662 A 14.811 A 14.811 A 0.35
δ1 δ2 It2,ave It2,rms It2,rms−ripple
0.35 0.65 22.662 A 23.065 A 4.293 A
I1 I2 I3 I4 δ1 = δ3
10.723 A 20.235 A 10.4 A 0.9575 A 0.15
It3,ave It3,rms It3,rms−ripple δ2 δ4
10.571 A 12.72 A 7.072 A 0.15 0.15
I1 I2 I3 I4 δ1 = δ3
10.425 A 19.693 A 10.387 A 1.118 A 0.15
It3,ave It3,rms It3,rms−ripple δ2 δ4
10.429 A 12.452 A 6.804 A 0.15 0.15
Analytical values for DC–DC converter 3-3.1 signal ic
I1 I2 I3 δ1 δ2 = δ3
−10.384 A 8.616 A 15.616 A 0.35 0.15
0 9.829 A 9.83 A −19.46 A −2.1 A
I1 I2 I3 δ1 δ2 = δ3
−10.509 A 8.633 A 15.826 A 0.35 0.15
0 9.973 A 9.973 A −19.7 A 2.028 A
From (35)–(39) and Table 4 it is seen that expressions in (20) yield accurate values
for signal averages and RMS values as well as signals’ ripple RMS values. There is good
agreement between analytical and simulated values. This validates the accuracy of the
analytical technique that was developed.
5. Conclusions
The analysis of current stress in various components of any DC–DC converter is
needed to evaluate losses and size components. At the moment, the analysis of current
signals is treated as unique to a given DC–DC converter. However, recent studies have
shown that there is a set of three three-terminal BBBs and a three-terminal filter block
which between them, are sufficient for realizing all non-isolated DC–DC converters without
coupled inductors. Additionally, these BBBs generate unique current signals at their
terminals.
This paper has shown that the analysis of current signals is a function of the signals’
shape and is independent of the converter topology. The study also demonstrated that
current signals generated by DC–DC converters can be treated as composite waveforms
comprising triangular, rectangular, trapezoidal, or a combination of these pulses. The
triangular and rectangular pulses were shown to be special cases of the trapezoidal pulse.
Consequently, generalized analysis of any signal was possible based on the analysis of a
generalized trapezoidal pulse. A generalized expression that allows the direct evaluation
Energies 2023, 16, 3370 30 of 31
of current signal ripple content without the need to first evaluate signal average and RMS
values (as is currently the case) was derived.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.N.G., G.P.A. and L.M.; methodology, M.N.G. and
L.M.; software, M.N.G., G.P.A. and L.M.; validation, L.M. and M.N.G.; formal analysis, M.N.G. and
L.M.; investigation, M.N.G., G.P.A., L.M. and M.N.G.; data curation, M.N.G.; writing—original draft
preparation, M.N.G.; writing—review and editing, G.P.A., L.M. and M.N.G.; visualization, L.M. and
M.N.G.; project administration, G.P.A., L.M. and M.N.G. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: All generated data are contained in the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.
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energies

1 Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Pretoria,

Citation: Gitau, M.N.; Masike, L.;

Energies 2023, 16, 3370. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083370 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

space requirements in converters. The low current handling capability of electrolytic

(a) Converter cell 1-1. (b) Converter cell 1-2.

(c) Converter cell 1-3. (d) Converter cell 1-4.

i ci cci c it 3itt33it 3 i ci cci c it 3itt33it 3

111 N 1N 11N 1 N 2N 22N 2 22 2 11 1 22 2

(a) Variant 1 of type-2 BBB. (b) Variant 2 of type-2 BBB.

(c) Type-3 BBB. (d) Filter block.

a = IL,ave − 0.5∆i L,pk− pk

c = a = IL,ave − 0.5∆i L,pk− pk

Energies 2023, 16, 3370 8 of 31

Inom = In2 = In3 = I1 = IL1 ,ave + IL2 ,ave

In = Inom = In1 = I1 = IL1 ,ave or IL2 ,ave

I1 = In4 = − a+2 b , I2 = In5 = d+c

I1 = In4 = − a+2 b , I2 = In5 = d+c

x1T sw x 2 T sw Tsw x1T sw x 2 T sw Tsw

1 𝑥2𝑇𝑠𝑤 𝑏−𝑎 𝑡 𝑎+𝑏

(a) Converter 2-3.1 (b) Converter 3-3.1

From (13b) and (13c), the signal’s RMS ripple content is

From (15a) and (15b), the signal’s RMS ripple content is 2

3.1.2. Converter Cells with Type-2 BBBs

(a) Converter 2-2.1. (b) Converter 3-1.5.

From (16b) and (16c), the signal’s RMS ripple content is

From (17b) and (17c), the signal’s RMS ripple content is

It is seen that (17d) and (13d) are similar, as expected.

Figure 12. Generalized composite waveform.

a+b c+d e+f g+h

Substituting (19a) into (18d) yields an expression for RMS current as

It is seen that (19c) and (15c) are similar, as would be expected.

(a) Converter 1-1.1.

(b) Converter 1-1.2.

(c) Converter 2-3.1.

(d) Converter 3-3.1

It3,ave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 = 9.615A (24a)

Vin = 31.2 V, f sw = 25kHz, L = 40 µH, P0 = 300 W,

It3,ave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 = 9.615A (28a)

Analytical values for converter 1-1.1 signal it1

0.00994 0.00996 0.00998 0.01

0.02992 0.02994 0.02996 0.02998 0.03

Analytical values for converter 1-1.2 signal it1

4.2. Analysis Applicable to Different Types of Converters

4.2.1. CCM Operation of Converter 2-3.1

4.2.1. CCM Operation of Converter 2-3.1

Analytical values for DC–DC converter 2-3.1 signal it1

(b) Coupling capacitor and inductors L1 and L2 current waveforms.

4.2.2. CCM𝐼1 Operation ∆𝑖1,𝑝𝑘−𝑝𝑘

It1,ave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 = 12.115 × 0.35 + 12.115 × 0.65 = 12.115A (36b)

I0,ave δ P0 δ 540 × 0.35

It1,ave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 = 12.115 × 0.35 + 12.115 × 0.65 = 12.115 A (36b)

I0,ave (1 − δ) P0 ( 1 − δ ) 540 × 0.65

It2,ave = I1 δ1 + I2 δ2 = 22.5 × 0.35 + 22.5 × 0.65 = 22.5 A (37b)

a = IL1,ave − IL2,ave + 12 ∆iL2,pk−pk + 21 ∆iL1,pk−pk

Energies 2023, 16, 3370 28 of 31

RMS values, and

Simulated values for DC–DC converter 3-3.1 signal it2

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