Chapter 3
Energy Value of Food Stuffs
3.0.1 The Energy-Yielding Food Factors
‘The energy yielding food factors are
1. Carbohydrates,
2. Fats ; and
3. Proteins.
is one of the continuous
are oxidised in the cells. The process
Within the body, these unit
‘ion of COs, water and heat
utilisation of oxygen and produ
Carbohydrates and Fats 2", CO) + Water + Heat
Proteins 2" CO, + Water + Urea
3.1 Calorific Value
Energy value of food stuffs are usually expressed in terms of a term known
The calorific value is defined as the quantity of heat liberated in calories by the com
bustion of a unit mass of the food stuff in excess air or oxygen under specified standard o
The calorific value depends on the nature of the food and relative proportion of proteins.£
carbohydrates present in that food. It is usually expressed in kilo calories and
taken is 100 g.
‘This term is used to grade different food stuffs or fuels. Greater the
quality of the food stuff or fuel.
Different fuels as well as food stuffs are graded on the basis of their calorific values
loritic val
3.1.1 Energy Units
‘The energy value of foods can be expressed in terms of kilo calories (KCal) of m
‘The International Union of Nutritional Sciences had suggested the use of M
energy unit in place of KCal
Kilo Caloric: One kilo calorie is the quantity
kg of water through 1°C. It is one thousand times the small caloric used inp
Mega Joule : One kilo calo 186 kilo joules. Hence thousand 8!
x 10% kilo joules or 4.186 mega joules.
of heat required to to ra
equals
3.1.2 Determination of Energy Value of Foods
‘The energy value of foods is usually determined using the i
It consists of a heavy steel bomb, with a cover held tightly:
1a CHAPTER 3. ENERGY VALUE OF FOOD STU Ly.
— sirer
= jacket
‘calorimeter wall
ony let
platinum resistance
sample hoe
amb vessel
A weighed amount of food sample is placed inside the «
oxygen under pressure. The calorimeter is immersed in a known quantity of water The sae
ignited by means of electric fuse and heat liberated is measured by the rise in te
alorimeter, in aceucible | led
For example, consider the evaluation of calorific value
of 2g of wheat meas:
calorimeter containing 3 kilograms of water.
Weight of wheat taken 29
Weight of water in the outside vessel = 3000 4
Water equivalent of calorimeter 500 9
Initial temperature of water 24°C
Final temperature of water 26°C
Rise in temperature 2c
Heat gained by water and calorimeter = 3500 x2 = T000
2 g of wheat produces 7 kilo calories
1 g wheat produces 3.5 KCal
Calorific value of 100 g of wheat = 350 KCal
Gross Energy Value of Foods
The average gross energy value of pure carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
bomb calorimeter are given below.
1g Carbohydrate yields 4.1 KCal
Ig Fat, 9.45
lp Protein, 6.65
Physiological Energy Value of Foods
In the utilization of carbohydrates, fats and proteins un the boxly, a certain pereetta te
above nutrients is lost in digestion and the nitrogen of protein is excreted in ure as urea whic
still contains some energy value. ‘The average losses in dl
estimated to be 2.0 percent for carbohydrates, 5.0 percent for fats and 8.0 percent for proteins
‘The loss of energy in urea has been estimated to be 1.2 KCal per gram of protein oxidised. The
physiological energy value of foods calculated from the gross energy values after allowing for the
above losses in digestion and metabolism are as follows: carbohydrates 4.0; fats, 9.0 and proteins 10
estion in human subjects have been
‘These values are known as Atwater-Bryant valuesBASAL METABOLISM
3
“utrient | Gross Energy | Loss of Food | Energy Available | Loss of Food | Physiological |
Type) Value | Energy in after Energy in | Energy Value |
__ Digestion Digestion | Metabolism | _ of Foods
Carbohydrates 41KCal/g [2 40 KCal/g 0 4.0 KCal/g
Fats | 945 KCal/g | 5 9.0 KCal/g 0 9.0 KCal/g
Proteins Oe
On the basis of the above table we can calculate the energy values of foods from their contents
{ carbohydrates, fats and proteins using the physiological energy values of 4.0 KCal per gram of
carbohydrate or protein and 9.0 KCal per gram of fat.Bes (of reactions simultaneously take
Hh oiace in a living cell, in a well-organized
nd integrated manner. The entire spectrum of
chemical reactions, occurring in the living
system, are collectively referred to as
‘metabolism.
A. metabolic pathway (or metabolic map)
constitutes a series of enzymatic reactions to
produce specific products. The term metabolite
2oplied to a substrate or an intermediate or a
product in the metabolic reactions.
‘etabolism is broadly divided into two
categories (Fig. 12.0.
1. Catabolism : The degradative processes
concered with the breakdown of complex
nolecules to simpler ones, with a concomitant
velease of energy
2. Anabolism : The biosynthetic reactions
rrvolving the formation of complex molecules
cm simple precursors.
A clear demarcation between catabolism and
anabolism is rather dificult, since there are
‘The metabolism introduces itself :
“Urepresent the chemical reactions of life:
Composed of catabolion and anaboliom:
Cataboliom is degradative to generate energy:
Anaboliom is sythetic that consumes energy.”
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several intermediates common to both the
processes. The term amphibolism is also in use
for reactions which are both catabolic and
anabolic in nature.
Catabolism
The very purpose of catabolism is to trap the
energy of the biomolecules in the form of ATP
and 10 generate the substances (precursors)
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BIOCHEMISTRY
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Fig. 122: The mee sages of eaabolion (ETC-Eiecron Wanspor chain)
the synthesis of complex molecules
Solis occurs in three stages (Fig. 12.2.
Conversion of complex molecules into
their building blocks : Polysaccharides are
sober down to monosaccharides, lipids to free
nd glycerol, proteins to amino acids.
2. Formation of simple intermediates : The
building Docks produced in stage (1) are
Segraded ft simple intermediates. such as.
pyrmvate and acetd Cod. These intermediates
S70 not readily identifiable as carbohydrates,
«és oF proteins. 4 small quantity of energy (as
P)'s captured in stage 2
Final oxidation of acetyl CoA : Acetyl CoA
sietely ovidized to CO, liberating NADH
‘OH; that Tinally get Oxidized to release
anti of energy (as ATP. Krebs eyele (or
seid Qcle) is the common metabolic
involved in the final oxidation of all
energ-rich molecules. This pathway accepts the
carbon compounds (pynnate, succinate etc.)
derived trom carbohudrates, lipids or proteins.
Anabolism
For the synthesis of a lange variety of complex
molecules, the staning materials are relatively
few. These include pyruvate, acetyl CoA and the
intermediates of citric acid cycle. Besides the
availability of precursors, the anabolic reactions
are dependent on the supply of energy (as ATP
‘or GTP) and reducing equivalents (as NADPH +
HN
The anabolic and catabolic pathways are not
reversible and operate independently. As such,
the metabolic pathways occur in specific cellular
locations (mitochondria, microsomes et-.) and
ate controlled by different regulatory signals
The terms—intermediary metabolism and
energy —_metabolism—are also in use.
Intermediary metabolism refers to the entire
range of catabolic and anabolic reacticns, not
involving nucleic acids. Energy metabolism
deals with the metabolic pathways concerned
with the storage and liberation of energy
Types of metabolic reactions
The biochemical reactions are mainly of four
types
1. Oxidation-reduction
Group transter.
3. Rearrangement and isomerizationShepter 12 : INTRODUCTION 10 MeTABOLIGM
4) Make and break of carbon-carbon bonds
These reactions are catalysed. by speci
eazymes—more than 2,000 known +0 far
Methods employed
to study metabolism
The metabolic reactions donot occur in
‘solation. They are interdependent and integrated
into ‘specific series that constitute metabolic
Pathways. It is, therefore, not an easy task to
study metabolisms. Fortunately, the basie
metabolic pathways in most organisms are
essentially identical. For this teason, many
organisms can be used to understand
imetabolisms.
Several methods are employed to elucidate
biochemical reactions and the metabolic
Pathways. These experimental approaches. may
be broadly divided into 3 categories
1. Use of whole organisms or its components,
2. Uiility of metabolic probes,
3. Application of isotopes.
The actual methods employed may be either
in vivo (in the living system) or in vitro (in the
test tube) of, more frequently, both,
1. Use of whole organism or its components :
(a) Whole organisms : The ultimate aim of
2 biochemist. is to know the
‘metabolism in the organism as a
whole. Glucose tolerance test (GTT),
SUMMAI
243
employed 1 measure the response of
man (or other animals)
towards
rbohydrate metabolism
good
‘example of the use of whole organise,
(b) Isolated organs, tissue slices, whole
cells, subcellular organolles, ‘cell-fce
systems and recently purified
components are frequently used to
elucidate biochemical reactions and
metabolic pathways.
lity of metabolic probes : Two types of
probes are commonly used to trace
out biochemical pathways. These are metabolic
inhibitors and mutations. In both the cases, there
is a specific blockade in a metabolic reaction
which helps to understand the pathway
Inhibitors of electron transport chain have been
largely responsible to elucidate the sequence of
lectron carriers (Chapter 11). The inborn errors
of metabolism in higher organisms and the
Benetic manipulations in the microorganisms
have also contributed a lot to the understanding
‘of metabolisms,
3. Application of isotopes : Isotopes are the
atoms with the same number of protons but
different neutrons. By use of isotopes, the
molecules of the living system can be labelled
without altering their chemical properties.
Application of isotopes in biochemisty has
revolutionized the study of metabolisms. More
details on the utility of isotopes in biochemistry
are given elsewhere (Chapter 41,
ry
1, The wide range of chemical reactions occurring
known as metabolism, Catabolism is concerni
in the living system are collectively
ied with the degradation of complex
molecules to simpler ones coupled with the liberation of energy (ATP). On the other
hand, anabolism deals with the synthetic re
complex molecules,
factions converting simple precursors to
coupled with the consumption of energy (ATP). A metabolic
7
Pathway constitutes a series of enzymatic reactions to produce specific products,
2 Several methods are employed to study metabolism. These include the use of the whole
‘organism or its components (organ, tissue, cells,
‘organelles etc.) utility of metabolic
Probes (inhibitors and mutations) and application of isotopes.—
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Last Updated: March 24, 2021
Anabolism and Catabolism are the two types
of biochemical reactions that make up
the metabolism. Anabolic reactions involve
the building of larger, complex molecules
from smaller, simpler ones, and require an
input of energy. Catabolic reactions are the
Opposite of anabolic reactions, and break the
chemical bonds in larger, more complex
molecules. This process releases energy while
breaking larger molecules down into their
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Anabolism Catabolism
Requires energy Releases energy
Breaks down large,
complex molecules
into smaller, simpler
ones
Builds larger, complex
molecules from
smaller, simpler ones
Forms chemicalbonds Breaks chemical bonds
between molecules within molecules
What is Anabolism?
Anabolic processes are building reactions.
These processes use small, simple molecules
to create larger, more complex molecules, and
require an input of energy to do so. For
example, single amino acids may be used to
assemble large, complex proteins. Because
anabolism involves the synthesis of new
biological molecules, it is also known
as biosynthesis.#1 fT ‘
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The products of anabolism are often used as
Structural materials for the building of new |
Cells. Therefore, anabolism is the driving force
behind the physical growth of organisms.
Examples of Anabolic
Reactions
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One example of an anabolic reaction is
photosynthesis. This is series of biochemical
reactions that takes place in the chloroplasts
of plants and involves the synthesis of
glucose from carbon dioxide gas and water
molecules. Like all anabolic reactions,
photosynthesis requires an input of energy
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Glycogen synthesis (AKA glycogenesis) is
another example of anabolism. During
glycogen synthesis, glucose molecules are
assembled into long chains of glycogen,
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What is Catabolism? .
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Catabolism is the opposite of anabolism. Ala codece
Catabolic processes break large, biological TO
molecules down into smaller, simpler
molecules. These reactions involve the
breaking of chemical bonds, which is
accompanied by a release of energy. Around
40% of the energy released is used to
synthesize ATP molecules (the energy
currency of cells). The remaining 60% is
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What is Catabolism?
Catabolism is the opposite of anabolism.
Catabolic processes break large, biological
molecules down into smaller, simpler
molecules. These reactions involve the
breaking of chemical bonds, which is
accompanied by a release of energy. Around
40% of the energy released is used to
synthesize ATP molecules (the energy
currency of cells). The remaining 60% is
released as thermal energy and is absorbed by
the body tissues and fluids.
Examples of Catabolic
Reactions
Cellular Respiration
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Examples of Catabolic
Reactions
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Cellular respiration is a type of catabolic
reaction that takes place inside every living
cell. This process involves the breaking down
of glucose molecules to release energy, which
is then used to power all other cellular
processes. Respiration may take place in the
presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration) or its
absence (anaerobic respiration).
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Digestion of Food
Another vital type of catabolism is the
digestion of food. Digestion involves a series
of catabolic reactions that break large food
molecules down into smaller, simpler
molecules. For example, proteins are broken
down into amino acids; complex
carbohydrates are broken down into simple
sugars; lipids are broken down into fatty acids
and glycerol.
The body may then break these smaller
simpler molecules down even further to
release energy or use them as ‘building