EE 2

Disinfection
The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing bacteria in it. These
bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe for drinking. The process of killing these
bacteria is known as Disinfection or Sterilization.
Disinfection Kinetics
When a single unit of microorganisms is exposed to a single unit of disinfectant, the reduction in
microorganisms follows a first-order reaction.
dN/dt=-kN N=N0e
-kt
This equation is known as Chick‟s Law:-
N = number of microorganism (N0 is initial number)
k = disinfection constant
t = contact time
Methods of Disinfection
1. Boiling: The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by boiling it for a long time.
However it is not practically possible to boil huge amounts of water. Moreover it cannot
take care of future possible contaminations.
2. Treatment with Excess Lime: Lime is used in water treatment plant for softening. But if
excess lime is added to the water, it can in addition, kill the bacteria also. Lime when
added raises the pH value o water making it extremely alkaline. This extreme alkalinity
has been found detrimental to the survival of bacteria. This method needs the removal of
excess lime from the water before it can be supplied to the general public. Treatment like
recarbonation for lime removal should be used after disinfection.
3. Treament with Ozone: Ozone readily breaks down into normal oxygen, and releases
nascent oxygen. The nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidising agent and removes the
organic matter as well as the bacteria from the water.
4. Chlorination: The germicidal action of chlorine is explained by the recent theory of
Enzymatic hypothesis, according to which the chlorine enters the cell walls of bacteria
and kill the enzymes which are essential for the metabolic processes of living organisms

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Density:
It is expressed as mass per unit volume (kg/m�). This parameter is required for designing
a solid waste management program. A reduction in volume by 75% is achieved through
normal compaction equipment, so that an initial density of 100kg/m� may readily be increased
to 400 kg/m�. Significant changes in the density occur as waste moves from sources to
disposal site, as A result of scavenging, handling, wetting, and drying by the Weather and
vibration during transport.
Moisture Content
Values greater than 40% are also not common. Moisture increases the weight of the solid
wastes and therefore the cost of collection and transport increases. Consequently waste
should be insulated from rain or other extraneous water source. Moisture content is critical
determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration. During
incineration energy must be supplied for evaporation of water and raising the temperature of
vapour
Chemical properties
Information of chemical characteristics is important in evaluating alternative processing and
recovery options
Lipids
These are included in the class of fats, oils and grease. The principal sources of lipids in the
garbage are cooking oil and fats. Lipids have high heating values about 38,000 Kj/Kg
(kilojoules/kilograms), which makes the waste with high lipid content suitable for energy
recovery
Carbohydrates
These are primarily originated from the food sources rich in starch and celluloses. These
readily biodegrade into carbon dioxide, water and methane. Decomposition of carbohydrates
attracts the flies and rats and hence should not be left exposed for long duration.
Proteins
These are the compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen and organic acid
with amino groups. They are primarily found in food and garden wastes, but their partial
decomposition result in the production of amines, which impart unpleasant odors.
These are found in paper products, food and yard wastes. Paper is almost100% cellulose,
cotton over 95% and wood products over 40-50%. These are highly combustible products
most suitable for incineration. The calorific value of oven dried paper products are in the
range 12000-18000 kj/kg.

Q.Sewage and Sludge.

Sewage is a sort of wastewater produced by a group of people. It is also known as domestic
sewage, domestic wastewater, or municipal wastewater. Typically, it is disposed of in a sewer
system. Sewage is wastewater that is discharged from houses, businesses, organisations, and
government buildings in the region.

Sludge is a semi-solid slurry created by a variety of industrial processes, including water

treatment, wastewater treatment, and on-site sanitation. It can be made from a settled
suspension acquired from standard drinking water treatment, sewage sludge received from
wastewater treatment operations, or faecal sludge obtained from pit latrines and septic tanks,

Q.METHODS OF DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE (MSW)?

Composting
Garbage accumulation has never been much of a concern in the past, but due to globalization
and industrialization, there is a need for a more efficient waste disposal method. Following are
some of the methods that are used today.
Landfill
In this process, the waste that cannot be reused or recycled are separated out and spread as a
thin layer in low-lying areas across a city. A layer of soil is added after each layer of garbage.
However, once this process is complete, the area is declared unfit for construction of buildings
for the next 20 years. Instead, it can only be used as a playground or a park.
Incineration
Incineration is the process of controlled combustion of garbage to reduce it to incombustible
matter such as ash and waste gas. The exhaust gases from this process may be toxic, hence it
is treated before being released into the environment. This process reduces the volume of
waste by 90 per cent and is considered as one of the most hygienic methods of waste disposal.
In some cases, the heat generated is used to produce electricity. However, some consider this
process, not quite environmentally friendly due to the generation of greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Waste Compaction
The waste materials such as cans and plastic bottles are compacted into blocks and sent for
recycling. This process prevents the oxidation of metals and reduces airspace need, thus
making transportation and positioning easy.
Biogas Generation
Biodegradable waste, such as food items, animal waste or organic industrial waste from food
packaging industries are sent to bio-degradation plants. In bio-degradation plants, they are
converted to biogas by degradation with the help of bacteria, fungi, or other microbes. Here, the
organic matter serves as food for the micro-organisms. The degradation can happen aerobically
(with oxygen) or anaerobically (without oxygen). Biogas is generated as a result of this process,
which is used as fuel, and the residue is used as manure.
Composting
All organic materials decompose with time. Food scraps, yard waste, etc., make up for one of
the major organic wastes we throw every day. The process of composting starts with these
organic wastes being buried under layers of soil and then, are left to decay under the action of
microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.
This results in the formation of nutrient-rich manure. Also, this process ensures that the nutrients
are replenished in the soil. Besides enriching the soil, composting also increases the water
retention capacity. In agriculture, it is the best alternative to chemical fertilizers.
Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is the process of using worms for the degradation of organic matter into
nutrient-rich manure. Worms consume and digest the organic matter. The by-products of
digestion which are excreted out by the worms make the soil nutrient-rich, thus enhancing the
growth of bacteria and fungi. It is also far more effective than traditional composting.

Q.Sewer Appurtenances?

Sewer appurtenances are those structures and devices of a sewerage system which are
constructed at suitable intervals along a sewer line to assist in the efficient operation and
maintenance of the system.
Following are the important sewer appurtenances: 1. Inlets 2. Catch Basins or Catch Pits 3.
Clean-Outs 4. Manholes 5. Drop Manholes 6. Lamp-Holes 7. Flushing Devices 8. Grease and
Oil Traps 9. Inverted Siphons 10. Storm Water Regulators.
Inlets
An inlet is a small box like chamber made of brickwork or concrete, having an opening at the top
in vertical or horizontal direction for the entry of storm water (or rain water) and surface wash.
The water from this chamber leaves through an outlet provided at its bottom and carried by a
pipeline to a nearby manhole.
Catch Basins or Catch Pits:
A catch basin or catch pit is a device meant for the retention of heavy debris in storm water
which otherwise would be carried into the sewer. It is an inlet with its outlet being placed well
above its bottom so that heavy debris such as grit, sand, etc., flowing along with storm water is
allowed to settle down and thus prevented from entering the sewer.
. Clean-Outs:
Clean-outs are the devices meant for cleaning the sewers. These are generally provided at the
upper ends of lateral sewers in place of manholes. A clean-out consists of an inclined pipe, one
end of which is connected to the underground sewer and the other end brought up to ground
level. A cover is provided at the top end of the clean-out pipe at the ground level.
Manholes:
Manholes are the masonry or R.C.C. chambers constructed at suitable intervals along the
alignment of sewers to provide access to the sewers for the purpose of inspection, testing,
cleaning and removal of obstructions from the sewer lines.
They also help in joining sewer lines and in changing the direction or alignment as well as
gradient of sewer lines.
Drop Manholes:
A drop manhole is a type of manhole which is constructed on a sewer line where a sewer at a
high level is to be connected to another sewer at a lower level.
Lamp-holes are small openings provided on sewer lines mainly to permit the insertion of a lamp
into the sewer for the purpose of inspection of sewer lines and detecting the presence of any
obstructions inside the sewers.
A lamp-hole consists of a vertical stone ware or concrete or cast iron pipe 225 to 300 mm
diameter, connected to the sewer line through a ‘T’ junction
Flushing Devices:
When sewers are to be laid in a flat country, it is not possible to obtain a self-cleansing velocity
even once a day due to flatness of gradient especially at the top ends of branch sewers which
receive very little flow.
Grease and Oil Traps:
Grease and oil traps are the chambers provided on the sewer line to exclude grease and oil
from sewage before it enters the sewer line. These are located near the sources contributing
grease and oil to sewage, such as automobile repair workshops, garages, kitchens of hotels,
grease and oil producing industries, etc.
Inverted Siphons:
An inverted siphon is a section of sewer which is constructed lower than the adjacent sections
to pass beneath a valley, river, stream, road, railway and such other obstructions. It runs full at
greater than atmospheric pressure because the crown is depressed below the hydraulic grade
line.
Storm Water Overflow Devices or Storm Water Regulators:
In the case of combined system of sewerage a large quantity of storm water (or rain water) flows
through the sewer along with domestic sewage. Usually it is neither advisable nor practicable, to
pump and/or treat such a large quantity of sewage. Moreover, the percentage of domestic
sewage in a combined system is very much less, and hence the domestic sewage gets diluted
by storm water to a considerable extent.

Q.Small bore systems

Simplified sewerage, also called small-bore sewerage, is a sewer system that collects all
household wastewater (blackwater and greywater) in small-diameter pipes laid at fairly flat
gradients. Simplified sewers are laid in the front yard or under the pavement (sidewalk) or - if
feasible - inside the back yard, rather than in the centre of the road as with conventional
sewerage. It is suitable for existing unplanned low-income areas, as well as new housing
estates with a regular layout.[2] It allows for a more flexible design.[1] With simplified sewerage
it is crucial to have management arrangements in place to remove blockages, which are more
frequent than with conventional sewers. It has been estimated that simplified sewerage reduces
investment costs by up to 50% compared to conventional sewerage.
Q.EFFECTS OF SOLID WASTE ON ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH?
Health impacts: Due to the absence of standards and norms for handling municipal wastes,
municipal workers suffer occupational health hazards of waste handling. At
the dumpsites in the city of Mumbai, for example, 95 workers were examined and it was found
that about 80% of them had eye problems, 73% respiratory ailments, 51% gastro intestinal
ailments and 27% skin lesions. Also, municipal workers and rag pickers who operate
informally for long hours rummaging through waste also suffer from similar occupational health
diseases ranging from respiratory illnesses (from ingesting particulates and bio-aerosols),
infections (direct contact with contaminated material), puncture wounds (leading to tetanus,
hepatitis and HIV infection) to headaches and nausea, etc. Studies among the 180 rag pickers
at open dumps of Kolkata city reveal that average quarterly incidence of diarrhoea was 85%,
fever 72% and cough and cold 63%.
Environmental impacts: In addition to occupational health, injury issues and environmental
health also need to be mentioned in the context of waste management. Contaminated leachate
and surface run-off from land disposal facilities affects ground and surface water quality. Volatile
organic compounds and dioxins in air-emissions are attributed to increasing cancer incidence
and psychological stress for those living near incinerators or land disposal facilities. Drain
clogging due to uncollected wastes leading to stagnant waters and subsequent mosquito vector
breeding is a few of the environmental health issues, which affect the waste workers as well as
the public.
quantification of storm water:-
Generally there are two methods by which the quantity of storm water is calculated:
1. Rational method
2. Empirical formulae method
In both the above methods, the quantity of storm water is a function of the area, the intensity of
rainfall and the co-efficient of runoff.
Rational method:-
Runoff from an area can be determined by the Rational Method. The method gives a reasonable
estimate up to a maximum area of 50 ha (0.5 Km2).
Assumptions and Limitations
Use of the rational method includes the following assumptions and limitations:
1. Precipitation is uniform over the entire basin.
2. Precipitation does not vary with time or space.
3. Storm duration is equal to the time of concentration.
4. A design storm of a specified frequency produces a design flood of the same frequency.
5. The basin area increases roughly in proportion to increases in length.
6. The time of concentration is relatively short and independent of storm intensity. The
runoff coefficient does not vary with storm intensity or antecedent soil moisture.
7. Runoff is dominated by overland
8. Basin storage effects are negligible.
This method is mostly used in determining the quantity of storm water. The storm water quantity
is determined by the rational formula:
Q = cla/360