ISLAMIC NUMISMATICS

Author(s): Michael L. Bates

Source: Middle East Studies Association Bulletin , July 1979, Vol. 13, No. 1 (July 1979),
pp. 3-21
Published by: Middle East Studies Association of North America (MESA)

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41890045

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 ISLAMIC NUMISMATICS

by
Michael L. Bates
The American Numismatic Society

4 . Specialized Studies in Islamic Numismatics *

This last part of a survey of the state of research on Islamic

coins and money is intended as a guide for the non-specialist histor-
ian to catalogues and studies of the issues of individual dynasties,
regions and periods . VJithin broad chronological periods (ca. A.D.
632-750 , 750-946, 946-1250, 1250-1517, 1517-1900) the treatment is
regional . The body of numismatic literature is vast and scattered;
this survey attempts to cite only general references and the most re-
cent work for each subject . It must be said, however, that few top-
ics have as yet been adequately treated in the secondary literature .
Especially when important conclusions are to be drawn, it is essential
to look also at the original sources - the coins themselves .

The Rãshidlin and Umayyad Caliphates

This formative era for Islamic coinage, which one may call " Umay-
yad " for convenience despite numerous non-Umayyad issues, has re-
ceived more attention from modern scholars than any other . The evo-
lution of its coinage, however, is still not clearly understood . The
basic references are the magisterial British Museum catalogues of
Walker ( 1941, 1956) , covering everything but the late Eastern revolu-
tionary issues . The catalogues describe examples from other collec-
tions where the B.M. cabinet was lacking, making them in effect a
corpus ** of Umayyad coinage . On the other hand, there is a complete
lack of historical principle in the arrangement of the material, which
can be very misleading; much has been discovered since Walker wrote;
and there are (inevitably) some typographical and other errors . In
sum, one may stand in awe of Walker r s achievement, but one ought
not to use the books uncritically . A more recent general view of
Umayyad coinage is offered by Bates (forthcoming 1979?).
No other general works have appeared since Walker wrote . Impor-
tant new museum catalogues include those ofFahmy (1965) and the Artuks
(1971). For monetary history, see Grierson (1965) and Ehrenkreutz
(1959); the latter provides gold fineness data which should be com-
pared to those in the addendum to Balaguer' s article forthcoming in
ANSMN (1979). An attempt to estimate the quantity of Umayyad mint
production by a seminar at the University of Michigan (1966) is com-
mendable in its intention, but of little practical value because it deals
with all mints together rather than the combined output of individual
mints. The main historical souiyes for the origins of Islamic coinage
are al-Balãdhum and al-Maqrïzï, recently re-edited by Eustache (1968,
1969). Extensive and detailed indices of Umayyad coins and bibliograr-
phy are available for consultation at the ANS.

ih

Parts 1, 2 and 3 appeared in previous issues of MESA Bulletin.

In numismatic parlance a " catalogue " describes the holdings of
one collection ; a "corpus" attempts to list and describe the issues of
a series, with citation of all known specimens.

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 Umayyad Syria has special interest as the metropolitan province,
and especially as the venue of the invention of true Islamic coinage .
The basic reference is still Walker (1956), passim (some Damascus
silver issues are in Vol. 1, 1941), but his notions of the early evo-
lution of Syrian coinage have been much revised by new evidence and
new ideas . It is agreed that the progression in all metals was from
imitations of Byzantine and Sasanian coinage, to attempt to create a
Muslim pictorial iconography (including the "standing caliph" type),
to the initiation of purely inscriptional Islamic coinage in 77/697 . The
disagreements have to do with the absolute chronology of this evolu-
tion and the motivations for it. For the gold dinar, the best account
is that of Miles (1967), where previous work is cited . On the transi-
tion in silver Miles is also the authority (1952, and his review of
Walker's catalogues, Ars Orientalis, 1959). the most radical revisbn
is that proposed for the so-called Arab -Byzantine Syrian copper coin-
age by Bates (1976), who argues that it began not in the period of
the conquests, the 630s, but rather in the reign of 1 Abd al-Malik,
and that Islamic Syria had no coinage of its own before that time.
The absolute and relative chronology of the many Syrian copper
issues, and (often) their attribution to specific mints, remain the ma-
jor problem of Umayyad Syrian numismatics . Solutions are likely to
be found only by a unified study of the Byzantine and inscriptional
types, using such evidence as die linkages, hoards and single finds,
metrology , and metal composition . Virtually nothing has yet been done
along these lines . The post-reform gold and silver coinage of Damas-
cus is monotonous in appearance, but nevertheless presents some
topics for study:
- the evolution of epigraphical style - metrology
- trace element composition - metal fineness
- production volume - mint organization
Careful die studies of dinars and dirhams would be a useful first
step . The latest version of a study of "secret points" on Damascus
gold and silver by Bates will appear in the Proceedings of the 1979
International Numismatic Congress .
Our picture of the monetary situation in Arabia has changed fun-
damentally since Walker wrote, largely thanks to the growing interest
in numismatics in Saudi Arabia . The major mint there seems to have
been al-Madina, according to Shamma (forthcoming). A very good
Ph.D. thesis by Hakiem offers a full treatment of the monetary situ-
ation in Arabia in the first century, with implications for Umayyad
coinage in general. His detailed listing of Arabian hoards and their
contents includes a coin attributed to Umayyad Mecca, and other sur-
prises.
If the Byzantine issues of Syria are not so early as the conquest,
then Egypt appears to have the first Muslim coins; there is reason to
believe that the Byzantine mint of Alexandria was kept in operation
by the Arabs from the time of its capture in 641. Walker barely noted
the existence of the imitations struck there, for their Muslim origin
was still uncertain. The known varieties are listed by Awad (1972),
and the nature of this coinage is discussed by Miles (1958). The lat-
ter article is also the standard reference for the Egyptian Arabic
copper coinage that replaced the imitations (with additions by Bach-
arach and Awad, 1974 ).
Although Umayyad Egypt issued only copper coins , imported gold

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and silver coins also circulated there , as indicated by the existence
of very precise glass weights for coins in all three metals . The study
of these weights and the related heavy glass weights and glass stamps
for measures of capacity is the most interesting field of Umayyad
Egyptian numismatics . The largest and most recent catalogue, with a
full bibliography, is that by Paul Balog (1976) of his own collection,
now in the ANS ( the gram weights of the objects in that catalogue,
for a variety of reasons, are not reliable ). A.H. Morton has begun a
new catalogue of the large British Museum collection, including a study
of die identities .
The papyri are another important body of evidence for early Egyp-
tian monetary history . Much information is collected by Grohmann
(1954, pp. 181-219), but much more could be learned by a scholar with
expertise in both numismatics and papyrology.
In the Maghrib^ no Muslim coins were issued until the taking of
Carthage, about the same time as the introduction of the new Islami -
cized coinage in Syria . As a result, the earliest Maghribi coinage was
hybrid, with Byzantine images and Latin inscriptions translating the
Arabic religious legends of the reformed coinage . These transitional
Maghribi issues, which persisted in North Africa and Spain until about
720, have been a field of study unto themselves . The African issues
are well catalogued by Walker (1956), but improvements in his classi-
fication are possible . Balaguer (1976) summarizes recent Spanish re-
search on African issues, with most of the bibliography ; see Leuthold
(1967) for a suggested distinctive Maghribi weight standard for tran-
sitional and reformed dinars . Tarizzo (1976) provides a useful brief
guide to all Umayyad African issues .
For the Arab-Latin coinage of Spain, Balaguer' s model survey and
catalogue (1976) largely replaces Walker and suggests directions for
further research, but see also Bates ' review (forthcoming in NC)»
Balaguer' s catalogue of these coins in the ANS is to appear in ANSMN
(1979). The subsequent reformed issues of Spain were catalogued by
Miles (1950), with additions of detail by Walker .
The Umayyad North seems a useful designation for a_ region, ^com-
prising the provinces of al-Jazira, al-Mawsil, Adharbayjan, Arminiyya
and Arran, which has not yet been sufficiently recognized either by
numismatists or historians as an entity comparable to the Umayyad
East, unified under a single governor (after ca. 75 H). The Umayyad
issues of Armenia, Adharbayjan and Georgia are listed in the surveys
of these provinces by (respectively) Mushegian (1973), Pakhomov
(1959-63), and Lang (1955); and the copper issues of Mosul are de-
scribed by Rotter (1974). Additions could be made to all these list-
ings, but more importantly, interpretation is impossible when each
province is considered in isolation. For example, although there are
numerous mint names on the dirhams of this region, it appears that2
there was only one mint for silver at any given time; it was moved
from place to place with the governor.
For some 40 years after the conquest of the Sasanian empire, the
Muslim governors of the Umayyad East issued coins distinguishàble
from their Sasanian prototype primarily by the addition of brief Ara-
bic marginal legends. Walker (1941) provides the only general descrip-
tive catalogue of this complex and fascinating "Arab -Sasanian" coin-
age. In the light of subsequent research and discovery, his work is
severely dated. This series has been recently surveyed by Gaube

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(1973) in a handbook which , despite some weaknesses, entirely re-
places Walker's introductory discussion . The Arab issues must be
studied in connection with those of the Sasanians; GöbV s handbook
( 1968,1971 ) is the most recent survey .
The major interest of scholarship in this field so far is the in-
terpretation of the dates on these coins and the identification of the
often cryptic mint abbreviations . Given the many questions that re-
main to be solved, it is not surprising that neither Vi/alker nor Gaube
attempted a general historical overview of the evolution of this coin -
age • Nevertheless, most of the major mint abbreviations have been
identified, and our knowledge of this series has reached a point
where generalization is not only possible but essential for further
substantial progress . Neither the beginning nor the ending of this
coinage has yet been clearly elucidated, nor have such broad prob-
lems as weight standards, distribution of production, the relation of
governors ' names on the coins to the region's administrative struc-
ture, and the significance of the various religious slogans been ta-
ken up . A fairly substantial body of data on metal composition has
been built up by Adon Gordus at the University of Michigan, but is
largely unpublished; the most interesting aspect of these duta is the
use of trace elements to identify the location of mints, as described
by him in 1974 (where his earlier publications are cited).
The Arabic dirhams of the East after 79/699 are catalogued by
Walker (1956), Important subsequent works include two large hoards
described by Artuk (1966) and al-cUsh (1972), and the catalogue of
the Iraq Museum collection by al-N:aqshabandi and al-B:akri (1974)
with much useful ancillary matter . Many new mint names and new
dates for known mints have been discovered since 1956; a detailed
file of published and unpublished examples is maintained at the ANS .
The reformed dirhams have the advantage, as compared to the Arab-
Sasanian, of bearing (usually) unambiguous dates and mint names,
but their anonymity and standardized inscriptions promise little his-
torical evidence . Nevertheless, DeShazo (1974) has discovered one
way that historical information can be extracted from these taciturn
issues, by collation of changes in their ornamentation . Metrology,
fineness, and volume and distribution of production are subjects al-
most untouched .

Traditionally the Umayyad East has been regarded as a region of

silver coinage, but coppers actually are plentiful also . Raoul Curiel,
until recently curator of Islamic coins at the Bibliothèque Nationale,
built up a substantial collection of Umayyad Iranian coppers there
and is preparing a corpus of these issues . The coppers with Arabic
inscriptions only will not, however, be included; they are quite di-
verse and of great interest for administrative and religious history #
The issues of the various anti-Umayyad movements of the 5th
decade of the 8th century were formerly lumped together as " °Abba -
sid revolutionary " and catalogued with the cAbbasids , although^ they
include issues of such opponents of the cAbbãsids ás cAbd Allah b.
Mucawiya and the Khãrijis . Now Wurtzel (1978) has brought together
this entire body of numismatic evidence and studied it carefully in
its historical context .

The CAbbãsid Caliphate and its Contemporaries , 750-945

There is no recent corpus or survey of the coinage of the cAbbã

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sid caliphs in their first period of temporal sovereignty , but Nicholas
Lowick of the British Museum is hard at work to fill the gap with a
continuation in several volumes of the catalogue series begun by
Vi/alker . Like the earlier volumes, Lowick' s catalogue will include
examples from other collections of issues not represented in theB.M..
The last attempt to list all known cAbbãsid issues was the corpus of
Tiesenhausen (1873). This work is now hard to find ; but if available,
it is still a great help . It is well-indexed and generally reliable, al-
though it is a good idea to check the sources cited whenever possi-
ble. Two brief surveys of cAbbãsid coinage may be mentioned:
- Ghanima (1953) is valid in general, but often misleading in de-
tail;
- Album (1977) proposes a useful periodization.
For research, until Lowick1 s catalogues are published, it is still ne-
cessary to build up onef s own corpus from the catalogues of the ma-
jor institutional collections in London, Paris, Berlin, Istanbul, Lenin-
grad, Cairo, and elsewhere (listed in MESA Bulletin, May 1978, pp.
8-12); and from the vast literature of articles and monographs. Zam-
baur* s Münzprägungen and the mint file at the ANS are nearly essen-
tial for this sort of endeavor. A special category of Abbãsid and
post-cAbbãsid coins, the presentation pieces made for court dona-
tions rather than general circulation, is the subject of a general
study by Lutz Ilisch, now in progress, which will include both those
with and those without images.
Most general work on the c Abbãsid period has dealt with coins
of one metal only. Miles (1948) and Naqshabandi (1953) describe the
gold dinars of the ANS and the Iraq Museum. There seem to be few
gold hoards from the cAbbãsid period, but later hoards with impor-
tant representations of c Abbãsid dinars include the Khidr Ilyãs (Bagh-
dad) hoard, now in Istanbul (Naqshabandi , 1954), and the Ramla
hoard (Mitchell and Levy, 1965). Ehrenkreutz (_1959) provides data
on the gold content of à large number of Abbãsid and contemporary
dinars, and offers the interesting speculation that dinars with no
mint name might be assigned to Egypt or to Iraq on the basis of a
2% difference in fineness. On the other hand, Jungfleisch (1945-46)
attempted to assign them to mints according to the secret points that
occur under certain letters on some of them. The attribution problem
they attacked is a valid one, but will probably be solved only by a
general die study of early cAbbãsid dinars ; this remains to be beguru
Hoards of cAbbasid era dirhams are common and add much mater-
ial to that in museum catalogues . Among major Near Eastern finds are
those of Susa (Miles, 1960), Denizbaci (Artuk, 1966), Zakho (Naq-
shabandi , 1949-52), and isfahan (Lowick, 1975); the commentaries^
by Miles and LovAck have general value for the evolution of cAbbasid
silver coinage . The Viking era hoards of Europe are important for
their Islamic dirhams from . the 8th to the early 11th centuries. For
the bibliography, see Maimer et al. (1975 ff.) for Scandinavia, Kmie-
towicz (1960,1969) for Poland and Eastern Europe, and Koonan (1978)
for the Soviet Union . A series of articles in Sumer (1962-67) and ab
Maskukãt (1974 ff.) describe the cAbbãsid dirhams in the Iraq Muse-
um. A nearly complete thesis by Nicol (1979) will deal primarily with
dirhams up to 218 H, tracing the issues of the provinces Iraq (ex-
cept Baghdad) , Armenia- Arran, Jibal and Khurasan. For publication
he intends to add Egypt, Syria, Kirman and Sijistan - in other words,
the bulk of cAbbQsid issues in that period . Weight standards of the

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°Abbãsid dirhams have not yet been studied in detail , but useful
general data are provided by Miles and Lowick in the hoard publica-
tions just mentioned, as well as by Miles in ANSMN (I960), The silver
fineness of a large number of cAbbasid dirhams has been determined
by a group of Polish scholars (most recently, see Stós-Fertner et al.,
1977).

The very localized copper coinage of the cAbbasid era would be

difficult to discuss in general terms, but on the sudden widespread
disappearance of copper issues in the 9th century, see Miles (1959,
pp. 4-5) and Udovitch (EI2, s.v* "fais").
Turning to more specialized studies, there is a useful survey of
the mints of cAbbasid Iraq by Kirkman (1945), but up to 218 H it is
probably ^outdated by two recent theses: by Daftar (1979) on the
mint Madinat al-Salarri (Baghdad) , and by Nicol (1979) yn the other
mints . Other Iraqi mints with special studies include VJasit (Welin,
1955-56), Sumi-man ra' a (Samarra; Miles, 1954), and Kufa (Husayni,
1970). The coinage of the Zan j rebellion is listed by Miles ("Susa,"
p. 133), with some additions by Welin ("Wãsit," pp. 136-37), but new
varieties have since been discovered. Bikhazi (1974) discusses the
effects on Baghdad9 s coinage of the struggle for power in the immed-
iate pre-Buyid period.
The coinage of cAbbasid and post-cAbbasid Iran has recently been
surveyed by Miles, in Cambridge History of Iran (IV , Ch. 10, .1975).
fíe provides a good bibliography. In addition, a few of the authors
of the historical chapters of the same volume saw fit to include the
relevant numismatic works in their bibliographies.
The diversity of Iranian coinage in the cAbbasid period mandates
provincial and regional studies. Most of those done so far have been
organized on dynastic lines, or deal only with one special series to
the exclusion of other issues of a place. For southern Iran , Lowick1 s
important article (1974) shows the significance of new coin discover-
ies as evidence for commercial relations, up to the 15th century. The
first Saffãrid dynasty in Fars, Kirmãh and Sijistanãn is treated by
Vasmêr (1930) and Walker (1936); for some reason, many new Saffã-
rid issues have appeared in the trade recently.
Much work has been done on the diverse coinages of Khurasan
and Mãwarã al-nakr especially in the Soviet Union, but there is
still no accessible general guide. The "Bukhara-khuda" coinage of
the first Abbãsid century , in the Sasanian/Hephthalite tradition, is
catalogued by Walker (1941) and dealt with by Fry e (1949 ff.); by
Smimova (1963); and in two important articles by Fedorov (1971,
1973). Smimova9 s book also treats in detail the 8th-century Soghdian
issues of Transoxiana, some transitional issues, and the earliest Is-
lamic coppers of the region, all of which are little known in Western
collections. The latest work on these is the dissertation of Smirnova9 s
student Ernazarova, most accessible in a 1974 condensation. The fct-
hirid issues of this region and elsewhere i were last listed by Zambaur
( 1905, pp. 119-142) . The coinage of the Samãnids, in the 9th century
as well as later, is fairly well documented, but in a scattered litera-
ture, with no general compendium • The two major sources of know-
ledge for the region9 s money from the 9th to the 11th centuries are,
for dirhams, the Viking hoards-for the flow of silver seems to have
left the Islamic world from these easternmost provinces - and archeo-
logical finds in Soviet Central Asia, for which see the bibliographies

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by Severova in Numizmatika - i epigrafika 2, 3 and 9 (up to 1965). A
general survey of the 9th century Sãmanid issues by Hattori, although
in Japanese, has a full bibliography, tables and notes in Roman script
(1975). On the Banijurids (Abu Da' udids) , see Bacharach (1976).
The independent Sasanian-type coinage of the Ispahbads of Tabar-
istarij which continued into the Abbãsid period, was last studied in
full by Unvala (1938). His catalogue remains valuable also for the si-
milar coins of the cAbbãsid governors after the conquest. These are
treated also in the standard works on Umayyad Arab-Sasanian coin-
age, but an important note by Ilisch (1973) solves some of the per-
plexing chronological problems of that series. Then, for the rest of
the cAbbãsid period and until 499 H , Stern's mint history of Ãmul
(1967) collects almost all the necessary information, including ^de-
tailed consideration of the issues of the Zaydi imams. For Jibal pro-
vince, Miles' mint history of Ra yy (1938) is the starting point for
any numismatic study, but it could now be much updated, as shown
by his annotations in his own copy in the ANS. The coinage of Ad-
harbay¿an and Arran in the °Abbasid period is covered in general by
Pakhomov ( 1959, 1963) ; for some important later articles by him, see
NL 89 (Nos. 43, 368, 369) . On the minor dynasts of that region in the
early 10th century, one may add to the citations by Miles in his
CHIr IV bibliography Bykov' s 1955 study of the coins of Daysam b.
Ibrahim. For cAbbasid Armenia, see Vasmer (1931), Djaparidze (1968),
and Mushegian (1973).
c Abbãsid Syria has been insufficiently studied . Nassar (1948)
provides an incomplete listing ofjissues of Palestine; Shamma (1971)
is more complete , but for the Tulunid period only. Mi les ' excavation
reports on Tarsus (1956) and Antioch (1948) are very important for
Syrian copver issues. Islamic coinage in Yemen does not begin until
the early Abbãsid period. BikhazV s article (1970) collects all known
issues , with extensive historical commentary , In most respects the
c Abbãsid monetary system of Egypt continued that of the Umayyads,
and the references cited in that section for copper coins , glass
weights, and the papyrological evidence are equally useful for the
rest of the 8th century. The introduction of minting of gold and sil-
ver coins (under al-Mahdi ünd al-Rashid) is discussed in a later
paper by Miles, unpublishable in its present form , but available for
reference at the ANS. Otherwise, 0 Abbãsid ^Egyptian dinars and dir-
hams are mostly unstudied as such. The Tulunid interval, on the
other hand , is well covered by Grabar' s corpus. Since then
Ehrenkreûtz has begun the die study of Tulxinid dinars (1977).
cAbbãsid Ifriqiyya is treated in the general surveys of the pro-
vince by Tarizzo and (presumably) cAbd al-Wahhãb (1968); the lat-
ter is seemingly difficult to obtain, either in the form of the original
Arabic monograph with a " catalogue " (of what?) appended, or the
French translation of the long Introduction that appeared in the Bul-
letin of the Central Bank of Tunisia (1968-70; see NL 87-311, 89-338).
The dirham coinage of that province is unstudied as such, but it
seems to have been exported to the Muslim East in quantity and,
thus, to have entered the silver flow to Europe . It bulks large in
almost all 8th and 9th-:century silver hoards from both regions (see
especially Naqshabandi, 1949-52 ). Coppers of that region are de-
scribed by Eustache (1966). For the Aghlabids, Muhammad al- Ush
has prepared a corpus, still unpublished. The London , Paris and
Berlin Museums have catalogued their Aghlabid material , and the im-

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portant holdings of the Bardo Museum in Tunisia were catalogued by
Farrugia de Candia in Revue Tunisienne (1935,1936) and Cahiers de
Tunisie (1956). A new catalogue of several public and private Tunis-
ian collections is apparently in progress (see NL 80, p. 101).
The 8th and early 9th -century coinage of western North Africa
(al-Maghrib al-Aqsa) is handsomely presented in Eustache1 s corpus
of issues of the Idrisids and their contemporaries ( 1970-71) , which
is a model in every respect, except that it omits the holdings of sev-
eral major public collections . The later monetary history of that re-
gion to the 11th century is sketched: by the same author (1970).
The standard reference for Spain under the Umayyads of Cordoba
is Miles (1950), which includes all previously published examples .
However, a new collection found in the Hispanic Society of America
in 1957 has nearly doubled the combined HSA/ANS holdings since
Miles wrote; also, the weights, as with other ANS catalogues before
1960, are not reliable . Barcelo (1975) surveys the monetary history
of that period, arguing on the basis of metrological and fineness data
that the absence of Spanish gold coinage from 745 to 930 reflects a
shortage of gold bullion .

The Regional Dynasties, 945-1250

It is difficult to think of an appropriate general designation for

this era, for in it the regions of the Muslim world began more and
more to go their own way in coinage, both in coin design and in mon-
etary standards . The major phenomenon of widespread importance is
in the "silver famine," the debasement or cessation of silver coinage,
which seems to have affected almost all the Muslim lands in the 11th
and 12th centuries . A host of articles and monographs have attempt-
ed to explain this lack of fine silver coinage by a scarcity of silver
metal, brought about by massive flows of the metal to western Europe
and India, where silver was the primary coinage metal at that time .
Among the most recent discussions in this vein are those of Watson
(1968) and Ashtor (1971), but see also Hennequin (1972,1975).
But was there, in fact, a shortage j>f silver? Cahen, in a 1974
paper (still in press), has noted for Fatimid Egypt, at least, that
the literary and documentary sources often mention payments in sil-
ver coins as a routine feature of economic life. He suggests that the
rarity of Fatimid Egyptian silver in museum catalogues may be ex-
plained by tack of collecting interest in these unattractive issues,
not by scarcity of silver coinage at that time . His point is well taken.
In fact, Fatimid silver coins are by no means so rare as the cata-
logues suggest, and are found in abundance at the site of medieval
Fustat. Whether this holds true for other parts of the Muslim world
remains to be seen.

It must be said frankly that sloppy thinking has characterized

much of the discussion on this topic, including my own. I cannot re-
sist quoting Hennequin ( 1974, p. 6,n. 2) , who, at the time he wrote,
was a secondary school economics teacher. He deplores "le temps
perdu et les efforts gaspillés par tant d'auteurs dont la science des
langues mortes ou orientales impressionne, mais dont la compétence
économique - surtout en ce qui concerne les problèines monétaires -
n'atteint pas le minimum exigé de nos élèves de Première B [llth
grade." One doubts that any of us will attain the level of Henne -

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quin9 s enviable students , but it is certain that study of medieval
monetary history must start with a firm grasp of the theoretical con-
siderations set forth by Hennequin in his various articles, as well
as a more careful and precise treatment of the evidence than has so
far been seen .
The question of scarcity of silver is likely to be settled only by
comparative study of the relative market values of gold and silver in
each Muslim country over the years. The basic data for such a study
are fairly abundant, in the form of dinar/dirham exchange rates
mentioned in literary sources and documents; but such references
are useless unless one knows the fineness and weight standard of
both currencies . With the latter information in hand, the exchange
rates for actual dinars and dirhams can be turned into comparable
index rates for theoretical standard dinars and dirhams of pure met-
al, and these into value ratios for equal weight units of the two
metals . This work has not yet been done, nor are there as yet much
reliable data for the fineness and weight standards of 10th to 13th-
century Islamic coins (or those of any other period ). The presenta-
tions of such data so far have been marred by a tendency to gener-
alize results for an entire dynasty, ignoring variations in time and
place . Ehrenkreutz (JAOS, 1954,1956; JESHO, 1963) provides a mass
of data for the fineness of dinars of the period, but more is needed .
As for silver, only a large handful of Fatimid and Ayyubid dir-
hams has been analyzed by Balog (1961); the data he gives are not
dated except by reign, nor is any distinction made between Syrian,
Egyptian and North African issues . Metrological data for Egyptian
dynasties only are presented by Ehrenkreutz for dinars (1956) and
Balog for dirhams (1961), but this work must be done over, using
weights determined on modern balances - the older catalogues are
never reliable- and more sophisticated statistical techniques . The met-
rological evidence of coin weights, bronze and glass, may well be
more informative than that of the coins, since coins were often struck
without careful attention to standards .
Tumifig to more specifically numismatic studies, one may well
begin with the East, where the classical tradition introduced bycAbd
al-Malik was perpetuated longest . For Iraq and^ western Iran a full-
scale study and corpus of the coinage of the Buyids by Roy Motta -
hedeh has been long in progress; its delay is regrettable ^ for there
is no substitute general reference . A general sketch of Buyid coin-
age, provided by Miles in the Cambridge History of Iran, Volume IV,
is generally useful for all Iran up to the mid-llth century . The most
recent specialized studies result from two ANS Summer Seminar pa-
pers: Wïhitcomb* s study of a hoard from Fars (1976) and Carol
Bier* s discussion of the appearance of a die-cutter1 s name on coins
of Buyid Jibal (forthcoming, ANSMN, 24). Miles, with his bibliography,
is also the only general guide to the coinage of the various minor
dynasties associated with the Buyids.
The coinage of the Great Seljuks, including those of eastern Iran,
is collected in a corpus by Alptekin (1971), which covers the older
material well, but omits much unpublished museum material. The coin
descriptions are not always reliable, according to someone who has
re-examined many of the coins. Among recent works not available to
Alptekin, the most general is Lowick (1970). There is a scattering of
very limited studies, but for the most part, the dynasty, its branches,

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and its epigones have been neglected L Miles Jias compiled^the coins
of the Bawandids (1971) and the Nizãrf IsmacTliš of Alamût (1972).
Kouymjian' s thesis (1969) is very good for the 11th to 13th-century
dynasts of A dharbay jan and the Caucasus . Arlette Nègre treated the
gold coinage of the late Abbasids of Iraq in a recent paper (in the
press).
For northeastern Iran and Transoxiana, the recent Soviet lit-
erature is extensive and very important , but not easily accessible .
The Sãmãnids await a general thorough treatment, but two major ar-
ticles by Davidovich (1966) and Fedorov ( 1972) may serve as start-
ing points . For the evidence from East European and Scandinavian
dirham hoards , see Lewicki (1974). One extraordinary late Sarrtanid
and early Ghaznavid series, the oversized debased dirhams of Ba-
dakhshan and Tukharistan, have elicited a copious literature of late,
thanks to the introduction into the trade of a huge hoard, appar-
ently unearthed about 1960 . The last word on them is an important
note by Lowick (1977) on the chronology of this series, where the
rest of the bibliography is cited .
The^ exceedingly complicated numismatics of the Qcœakbânids, or
Ilek-Khãns, is discussed most recently by Fedorov (1974); Davido-
vich (I960) is also important . An earlier general survey by Vasmer
(1927) and Pritsak' s historical study (2954) are still the basic ref-
erences. Further to the north, Islamic coins were imitated by the
Khazars and Volga Bulghars . The Khazar imitations have been iden-
tified by Bykov, who describes the two sorts (1971,1974). In his
1974 article he also treats certain Bulghar issues and recommends
Ianina ( 1962) as a general reference, but see also Mukhamadiev
(1972) for the 11th to 13th centuries.
The coinage of the SaffãHds of the 10th century was last treated
by VJalker (1936). The coinage of the Ghaznavids has been unjustly
neglected. There is no general reference. Recent works with sub-
stantial assemblages of coin descriptions include S our del1 s catalogues
of the Kabul Museum collection ( 1963) and of a dinar hoard ( 1963-64),
and Gar din' s Lashkari Bazar excavation^ report (1963). H attori1 s
study (1976) of certain issues of Mafrmüd' s reign seems to be well-
documented, but is in Japanese aside from tables, notes and coin
descriptions. The evolution of one special coinage, the Ghaznavid
continuation of the Hindu bull-and-horseman series, has been clearly
set forth by Bhatia (1977). One looks forward to her detailed cata-
logue of the entire series. For the Ghurids, there is virtually noth-
ing recent to cite ; see Album's bibliography (1977) for the older lit-
erature.

Returning westward, the Hamdãnids of Syria and al-JazZra h

recently been treated by Welin (1961) and Bacharach ( 1974), the lat-
ter dealing also with IkhshTdid issues of Syria and the confrontation
there between the two dynasties. The difficulty of reading coins of
this region (e.gL, Hamdanid coins of Wãsit have more than once.been
attributed to Fiíãslih), has led to some duůious historical conclusions.
Ramzi Bikhazi is jpreparing a PhLD. thesis dealing also with the coin-
age of the Ikhshidids and Hamdãnids in Syria. For the Qarmãtis, see
most recently Levy and Mitchell ( 1965-66 ; a^Palestinian gold hoard of
368 H) and Scanlon (1960). Syrian and Jaziran coinage in the 11th
and first half of the 12th centuries is only cursorily known. Uqay -
lid coins have scarcely been studied ; the Mirdãsids of Aleppo were
last treated by Crawford (1953); and Miles (1948) discusses an inter-

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esting class of copper coins ( rare in this period) with figurai types ,
ascribed to the Seljuks of Syria in the late 11th century .
These latter issues may have been one precursor of a remarka-
ble coinage struck by various dynasties in al-Jazira , Anatolia and
the Caucasus in the 12th and 13th centuries: large copper pieces,
conspicuous for the images that frequently appear on them, are
drawn from a variety of sources ancient and medieval . The first to
strike such coins were the Danishmendids, whose issues are cata-
logued and put in chronological order bý Whelan (ANSMN, forthcoming
Other dynasties that issued similar pieces were the Artuqids (Lane-
Poole, 1875) L the Zengids (al-tfusaynT, 1966), the Ayyubids, the
Seljuks of Rum, and a number of minor princes, as well as the Chris-
tian kings of Armenia and Georgia . Whelan' s thesis (1979) may well
be, for some time, the last word on these issues from the art his-
torical viewpoint, but their monetary significance remains to be clar-
ified .
JThese coppers were by no means the only coinage of Syria, al-
Jazira and Anatolia in the 12th to 13th centuries, but few general
studies can be cited . Album1 s dynastic bibliographies (1977) list
some of the more important partial catalogues . A corpus of Rum Sel -
jûk coinage by Robert Gurnet was left unfinished at his death last
year; its fate is unknown . Kouymjian ( 1969) covers the Ildeghizids,
Shirvanshahs, and associated rulers . A fine discussion of Artuqid
silver coinage is provided by Ilisch (1973), whose thesis, in pro-
gress, deals with later (post-Mongol) Artuqid issues . The coins of
Christian Armenia and Georgia show much Islamic influence or, to
put it another way, often are Islamic coins in all but the ruler's
name • The basic references for them are, respectively , Bedoukian
(1962) and Lang ( 1955 ). Bedoukian has more recently studied the
hybrid Armenian/Rum S el]uk issues (1978),
The coinage of the Crusaders is part of Syrian monetary history .
A forthcoming general survey of all Crusader coinage, edited by
Seltman, will include chapters by Metcalf and Bates on the Crusader
imitations of Muslim coins in gold and silver . These same authors are
committed to write the chapter on imitations for the History of the
Crusades, Volume VI, edited by Setton . The study by Balog and
Yvon (1958) remains the standard descriptive reference •
The coinage of Yemen to 569 H is catalogued by Bikhazi (1970)*
More recently, see Shamma (1971) on the 10th century, Bates (1972)
on the Ismaruf issues of the 11th to 12th centuries, and Lowick
(1976), where Najahid coins of Zabïd arejrecognized for the first
time. The most recent publication of Ayyubid Yemeni coins is by
Balog (1960), while Stern (1949) treats the Zaydi issues of the same
period .
More evidence on monetary history is available for 10th to 13th-
century Egypt than for any other part of the world before modern
times . It includes:

- information in contemporary and later historical works;

- large quantities of glass and bronze coin weights;
- a mass of everyday business documents on papyrus and pap
either from the soil or from the Cairo Geniza; and
- the coins themselves, which are abundant .
Much has been written by specialists in each of these bodies of evi -

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dence , but there is unfortunately still no coherent description of ti
monetary system , and misconceptions abound . For IkhshZdid coins
Balog (1959) listed all the issues then known . Since then Bacharaci
has been the most active student f most recently with a study of th<
earliest Ikhshidid dirhams (1975, with Shamma) , and a general sur-
vey of the coin evidence (written 1976 , in press). He is preparing
new corpus of that dynasty' s issues. A very recent paper by Ehrer
kreutz, presumably to be published, discusses the production leveli
fineness and metrology of Ikhshidid gold .
There is no general compilation of Fatimid coinage . Miles' cata-
logue of the ANS holdings (1951) is a haňdy reference, with a full
bibliography and a list of the mints and dates recorded at that time
For the silver, Balog (1961) lists known specimens, citing his earlie
descriptive articles . Much information on the mint and monetary sys
tem will be found in Rabie (1972) and G oit ein1 s A Mediterranean Soci
ety (1967-), the importance of which cannot be overemphasized . Hei
nequin' s articles , especially that oj 1974, are also essential . A cor-
pus of the numerous and varied Fa'imid glass coin weights has beer
published by Balog (1971-73), who calls them " jetons " and argues
that they were used as token currency . An article by Bates (forth-
coming) attempts to refute this idea and offers suggestions about th
actual nature of the Fatimid currency system . Balog has also identified
Fatimid bronze coin weights ( 1970, 1973) . For the papyrological evi-
dence, see Grohmann (1954). Ehrenkreutz1 s studies on the metrolog<
and fineness of Fatimid dinars are cited at the beginning of this sec
tion.

Balog* s massive corpus of the Ayyubid coinage of Egypt and Syr

ia is moving toward publication. For monetary history, the works of
Rabie, Goitein and Hennequin are equally useful for the Ayyubid per
iod. From that era there survive three valuable descriptions of the
Egyptian mints, cited in Part 3 of this survey (MESA Bulletin, Dec.
1978, p. 12). Ayyubid glass coin weights were catalogued by Balog
in 1966. He has also recently identified the copper coinage of al-
Kamil , previously unrecognized (1977).
The coinage of the Maghrib under the Fatimids is covered in the
general works on that dynasty and by Tarizzo (1977). A corpus by
Hazard begins with the first post-Fatimid issues of the 11th century
and catalogues all North African coins down to the Ottoman conquest
in the 16th century. It also includes Spanish issues of North African
dynasties. For the Spanish dynasties , there is Miles' corpus of the
Umayyads (1950), and^then his catalogue of ANS holdings of the 11th
century Muluk al-Tawa'if (1954); but for the latter, Prieto (1926) is
the more complete* reference. For other Spanish issues, the old cat-
alogue of Vives ( 1843) is still the best available reference.
Islamic coins from A.D. 1250 onward will be treated in the final
installment of this survey.

Abbreviations

ANSMN American Numismatic S

ANSNN&M American Numismati
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
JESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

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NC Numismatic Chronicle NZ Numismatische Zeitschrift
NE Numizmatika i Epigrafika RN Revue numismatique
NL Numismatic Literature

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