HVDC Controls

1
 • Inherent capability to control the transmitted power
This controllability can be utilized for
Bulk power transmission over longer distances.
Stabilization of the connected AC systems
frequency control of the receiving end AC system
☞ Modern converter controls are so fast and reliable that
they can also be used for protection against line and
converter faults.
Power delivered (over the line) by the rectifier
Pdr  Vdr I d (1)
Vdr  Vdi
where Id  (2)
Rl
The DC output voltage of a converter brigde Vdr / Vdi can be
changed instantaneously by changing the phase position of the
gate pulses applied to the valves and by this
- the direct current I d and transmitted Pdr can be controlled.
 Vdr  Vdi 
From (2) Id   
 Rl 
•Rl is very small
•Id depends on (Vdr –Vdi)
•very sensitive to (Vdr –Vdi), Vdr and Vdi.
Practically Vdr Vdi
For rectifier: Vdr  Vd 0 r cos   I d Rcr ;  : 0 - 90
0 0
(3)
For inverter: Vdi  Vd 0i cos   I d Rci ;   900 - 1800 (4)
Both Vdr and Vdi can be controlled by
1. Firing Control
2. Converter transformer Tap Changing Control
If I d kept constant,
- Vdr depends upon Vd 0 r and 
- Vdi depends upon Vd 0i and 
3 3
where Vd 0 r (or Vd 0i ) = Em  1.35 ELL (5)

ELL - AC system line voltage Vac
Both Vd0r and Vd0i are prone to ac voltage fluctuations due to
 Change in network topology
 Faults
 Switching actions

Need for converter control

From (3) and (4), if α and γ are kept constant,

• Id will vary over a wide range and would be uncontrollable

even for a small change in the ac system voltage magnitudes.

• Resulting excessive current can damage the converter valves.

• Thus the converter controls (α and γ ) are essential to the proper

operation of a HVDC system.
Equivalent Circuit of Two-Terminal HVDC Link
From (2), (3) and (4)

Id 
Vd 0 r cos   I d Rcr   Vd 0i cos   I d Rci 
Rcr  Rci  Rl
Assuming Rcr  Rci ,

Id 
Vd 0 r cos   Vd 0i cos  
Rl
Being Rl constant, I d can be controlled by controlling
,  - Gate (firing) control
(rapid control: 1-10 ms)
Vd0r /Vd0i - Tap changing control
(slow control: 5-6 s/step)
Aim of providing controls
Prevention of large fluctuation in direct
current (Id )due to variation in ac system voltage

Maintaining direct voltage (Vd)near rated value

Prevention of commutation failure

Maintaining power factors as high as possible

both at the sending & receiving end.
But with firing control as
1
cos  (cos +cos ) (5)
2
1
cos  (cos +cos ) (6)
2
where  = - ,  = +u,  = -
To keep p.f. (cos  ) high,
 - not allowed to go below  min 0
5 to ensure
reliable thyristor firing so   (10 -15 )
0 0

 - not allowed to go below  min

so  150 to ensure commutation margin
•Current Control options
To increase I d
 Vdr  Vdi
Id  : By advancing  at rectifier end
Rl
as Vdr  Vdor cos  - I d Rcr
Vdr  Vdi 
or : By increasing  at inverter end
Rl
as Vdi  Vdoi cos  - I d Rci .
But higher  is not desirable as it results in
- poor p.f.
- inverter draws more reactive power
Since inverter end is also the load end where the reactive power
demand itself is more, the reactive power requirement due to inverter
has to be kept as low as possible. For that reason, = min .
In other words, current control is not done at the inverter end.
• Current control: At rectifier end
(with α-control)
• Voltage control : At inverter end
(by maintaining γ = γmin)
Control strategy:
Vdr  Vdi
Since I d  ,
Rl
(Vdr  Vdi ) is kept at such a level that
I d is kept constant at the current (reference) order I or .
Basic HVDC Controls

12
 Converter Control Characteristics
• Basic modes of converter controls
1. Constant-α (CIA) control: For rectifiers
2. Constant-γ (CEA) control: For inverters
3. Constant-Current (CC) control:
-To avoid wild fluctuations in Id during
variations in AC voltages

Under these operating options, the Vd /Id characteristics can be

derived from
For rectifier: Vdr  Vd 0 r cos   I d Rcr
For inverter: Vdi  Vd 0i cos   I d Rci
 • Static Vd/Id Characteristics for converters
Vd Vd
At sending end At receiving end
Const α Const γ
A Vdr  Vd 0r cos   I d Rcr J
B K
Rectifier Inverter
α Constant
Constant Current
Current
α=π/2
0 H Id
α=π/2
0 C Id
α
Vdi  Vd 0i cos   I d Rci
Rectifier

Inverter G
E
F Const α
αmax Const γ
D
- αmax is determined by u and γmin

☞Slope of constant-α line -(Rl+Rcr) is more than that of constant-γ line (-Rci)
1. Rectifier CIA control has more slope than Inverter CEA control

Taking inverter terminal voltage Vd as common reference

Vd  Vd 0 r cos   I d  Rl  Rcr  : for Rectifier

Vd  Vd 0i cos   I d Rci : for Inverter

Hence the rectifier CIA characteristics has the negative slope of Rl  Rcr
whereas the inverter CEA characteristics has the negative slope of Rci only.
 2. Current control (CC) characteristics are not truly vertical
Rectifier Inverter

Id Id
- -
Io + Io +
K Vd 0Cos K Vd 0Cos

With a current controller of finite gain K With a current controller of finite gain K
Vdo cos   K  I 0  I d  Vdo cos   K  I 0  I d 
Vd  I d Rcr  K  I 0  I d  Vd  I d Rcr  K  I 0  I d 
Vd  KI 0   K  Rcr  I d Vd   K  Rcr  I d  KI 0
In perturbed case,
In perturbed case,
Vd  ( K  Rcr )I d Vd  ( K  Rcr ) I d
Vd Vd
 ( K  Rcr )  ( K  Rcr )
I d Vd
Rectifier I d

Inverter

CC
CC

Id
17
Let initially at operating point ‘M’ Vdr  Vdi
Rectifier: with constant - αmin control
Id 
Rl
Inverter : with constant - γ control
Vd
Inverter Case1: Rectifier chs. remains constant
J” But Inverter chs. varies due to
ac voltage change at inverter end.
A K”
J 1. When Vdi increases,
M
J’ B K - inverter chs. get lifted so much
that the rectifier αmin will no
O K’ longer be met.
Rectifier α - No operating point: no power transfer
2. When Vdi decreases,
α=π/2 - Id will increase unlimited
0 Id
Ior C - To curb Id exceeding given limit,
Rectifier is provided an constant
current (CC) control - Ior
- So when Vdi decreases,
E Id will be maintained at Ior with
αmax CC control at rectifier end.
D
So during normal operation,
Rectifier : Under CC control (maintaining current Id = Ior)

Inverter : Under Constant-γ (CEA) control

(maintaining voltage constant)

☞1.With this operating point moves along BCD depending

upon dc voltage Vdi at inverter end.

2. The operating point ‘O’ can be shifted to the left or right

along inverter chs. J’-K’ by varying the current order Ior.
 Need for current control at inverter end
Vd Vdr  Vdi Case2: Inverter chs. remains constant
Id 
Rl
But Rectifier chs. varies due to
A Inverter ac voltage change at Rectifier end.
J
B
A’ O Let the drop in ac voltage on rectifier end
K
B’ causes CIA chs. A-B to A’-B’.
Rectifier
O - No operating point
(i.e. no power transfer)
α=π/2
0 Id - To avoid this situation, inverter,
Ior C
too, is provided with additional
CC control
So modified Inverter controls:
E - CEA Control
αmax +
D - CC Control
 So the HVDC system has two current controllers:
Vd  one at Rectifier end
 other at Inverter end

Rectifier
However, to avoid simultaneous
A
action of two current controllers,
Inverter the inverter current setting (Ioi)
B
J
has reduced reference current
A’ O setting than the rectifier current
K
setting Ior.
M
B’Normal op.point. Current margin:
Im I m  I or - I oi
H C Id  10% of I or
0 Ioi Ior
•Normal operating point: point ‘O’

•During voltage drop at rectifier end:

- new operating point ‘M’
where,
 Rectifier operation: Constant – α control
- Maintaining voltage constant
 Inverter operation: Constant -current (CC) control
- Maintaining current constant
☞It shows that operating controls are exchanged.

Still, converter station with higher direct voltage

– controls current
converter station with lower direct voltage
– controls voltage.
•Current margin principle:
Although at new operating point ‘M’,
- the power transfer over the DC line is less as compared
to the normal operating point ‘O’
- But still this situation is better than the one when inverter
has no current control
- Reduction in power transfer depends upon current margin Im
and therefore, kept minimum.
Generally, I m  10% of I o
So, I or  I o (Rectifier: converter with higher current setting)
I oi  I o  I m (Inverter: converter with lower current setting)

☞A reliable communication link between two stations is needed to

transmit the current orders so as to coordinate the current controllers.
☞Normally the nominal voltage of a HVDC line is taken to be that of
the inverter end.
•Mode stabilization:
Vd
Rectifier Vd
A Inverter Vdi  Vdoi cos  I d Rci
J O K
A’ B Rectifier
A
Constant β
Im
H C B
Id
0 Ioi Ior
J
Vd L
Rectifier K
J Inverter
A
Inverter
O’’ Im
O’ B
O
A’
K H C Id
Im 0 Ioi Io r
H C
Id
0 Ioi Ior Only one operating point
Operating point oscillates
•Power Reversal – By changing the sign of current margin Im

I o1  I or  I o
I o 2  I oi  I o  I m

I o1  I o
Io2  Io  Im
or
I o1  I o  I m
Io2  Io

☞Both stations get same current order (Io) but at the station designated as inverter,
the current margin (Im) is subtracted from that current command.
•Power and Current Limits

Vd Loci of constant Power

Pd = Vd Id

Vdmax


Vdmin


o Id
Idmin Idmax
•Voltage Dependent Current Order Limit •Complete Vd/Id Characteristics
(VDCOL)
Vd When Vd < 0.7, VDCOL is applied. Vd

Rectifier Rectifier
A Constant β A
Constant β
Inverter Inverter
B B
J J

K K
Im
Vdm Vdm

Vdl Vdl
Im Im Im
Id Id
0 Ioi Ior 0 Ioi Ior

Small time lag: When voltage goes down α>900: To avoid rectifier operation
Large time lag : when voltage recovers ≃ (950 – 1050)
to avoid voltage oscillations & VS.
 •Tap Changer Control
 Slow acting control

 OLTC are provided on both ends

 At Rectifier (i.e. Current controlling) end:
- To maintain α within (100-200)
At Inverter end (when controlling current):
- performs same function to keep γ within (150-200)
Power Flow Control
HVDC Control System Hierarchy
 Auxiliary Control Functions
• Frequency Control

 No inherent sensitivity to System Frequency unless deliberately introduced.

 Without it, when constant DC power flows, receiving AC system will over-speed
when load is lost.
 Similarly, sending end AC System will come to grinding halt if more power is
required it than the connected generation can produce.

• Stabilization of AC networks
 Dynamic stabilization against low frequency swings when large AC systems
are tied with long weak link.
 can produce negative damping leading to increase in oscillations.
 Parallel AC-DC link to damp out low frequency inter-area oscillations
Converter Firing Control (CFC) Schemes
The CFC system establishes the firing instant for the convertor valves
so that the convertor operates in the required mode of controls
- Constant Ignition Angle (CIA) Control
- Constant Current (CC) Control
- Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) Control
☞At a time, converter station would work under any one of the above controls.

•Functional requirements of CFC

 Should ensure Symmetrical firing of valves under steady state

conditions

 Should be insensitive to normal variations in (commutation) voltage

and frequency of the ac supply networks.

35
A. Individual Phase Control (IPC)
The main features of this scheme are –

1. The phase position of the firing pulse is determined separately for

each valve and hence, is independent of each other.

2. Firing pulse of each individual valve (or phase) is directly synchronized

with the zero-crossing instant of its commutation voltage.

(a) Constant-α control

(b) Inverse Cosine control
- Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) Control with IPC

B. Equidistant Pulse Control (EPC)

1. Pulse Frequency Control (PFC)
2. Pulse Phase Control (PPC)
3. Pulse Period Control
- Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) Control with EPC 36
A. Individual Phase Control (IPC)
(a) Constant-α control
• six timing signals (i.e. commutation voltages) are derived from
main ac system using PTs.
•Then six pulses are generated with the identical time delay to
their respective commutation voltage zero-crossing.
•The delays are produced by independent delay circuits and
controlled by a common control voltage VCC derived from the
current controllers.
Phase shifter

VCC

37
(b) Inverse Cosine control
• six timing signals (i.e. Commutation voltages) are derived
as in the case of Constant -  control
• phase shifted by 900 (this changes a sine wave into cosine wave)
• These phase shifted commutating voltages are separately added with
a common control voltage Vcc (derived from current controllers)
•Then the firing pulses are generated at the zero-crossing of this
resulting signal
Mathematically, 
2Vac sin t  
2   Vcc  0 (1)

900 phase shifted commutation voltage

t    cos1(
Vcc (2)
or, )
2Vac

- Firing angle  is proportional to the inverse cosine of the control voltage (Vcc).
- Also depends upon the AC system voltage (Vac) magnitude and shape. 38
 We have Vd  Vd 0cos  RC I d
3 3 3
 Em cos   X c Id
 
3 2 3
 Vac cos   X c I d
 
3 3
 Vcc  X c I d (3)
 
Thus, the advantage is
“The direct voltage Vd varies linearly with the control voltage VCC”
By varying Vcc (from +Vcc to -Vcc), we can
have  varying from  min to  =1800
900 phase shifted commutating voltage 2Vac cos t
1 VCCmax
0.8

i.e. enabling smooth transition from 0.6

Commutating voltage 2Vac sin t
VCC
rectifier operation to inverter operation. 0.4

0.2

Note: To ensure minimum , Vcc is not -0.2


 min
-0.4

allowed to go beyond VCCmax. It is -0.6

achieved by putting a limiter to Vcc. -0.8

-1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
39
CEA Control with IPC

 Predictive type of CEA Control

 prediction of firing angle  is based on the desired extinction angle  min
and the direct current I d (in other words on overlap angle u)

For inverter, I d  I s 2[cos  min  cos  ]

Unknown ?
Desired value Desired value
of direct current of 
It can be written as
2Vac
2Vac 
Id  [cos  min  cos  ] as 2Xc
2Xc
or  2Vac cos  min  2Vac cos   2 X c I d  0
t
   min
2Vac sin t.d (t )  2 X c I d  0 (A)

commutation voltage of
a particular valve

Eq. (A) is to be solved for each valve individually to determine the firing
Instant. 40
 Let I d  0, (i.e. no overlapping)
t
 
  min
2Vac sin t.d (t )  0 (B)

i.e. zero-crossing of integrated commutation

voltage gives the firing instant which ensures  2Vac sin t

 min. [Fig. 1]
Fig.(1) Clamped integrator output wavefo

But with overlapping (i.e. I d  0 ), Eq. (A)

will give the firing instant. Therefore, for I d  0
the waveform of integrated commutation voltage
 2Vac sin t is lifted upward by a dc offset
= 2XcId which results in advancing of the
zero-crossing of the integrated commutation
voltage. [Fig. 2]
 2Vac sin t  2 X c I d

Fig.(2) CEA output waveform

41
 Since the inverter is also equipped with a
current controller, eq. (A) is augmented
with a control signal Vcc of the current
controller
t
 
  min
2Vac sin t.d (t )  2 X c I d  Vcc  0

So it further lifts upward the waveform of  2Vac sin t

the integrated commutation voltage, thus

further advancing . [Fig. 3]. Fig.(3) Combined CEA and CC output waveform

If Vcc goes higher & higher,  goes towards

00 i.e. inverter operation transforms into
rectifier operation unnoticed.
To restrict this,
a limiter is put on Vcc which will not allow  2Vac sin t

it to go beyond Vccmax.
Generally a pulse of duration  min is attached
to ensure  min operation. [Fig. 4].
42
Fig.(4) Modified output voltage waveform for CEA control
• Advantages of IPC:
1. Smooth transition from
rectification to inversion
2. Since firing instant of each
valve is synchronized with
the zero-crossing of its own
commutation voltage, it
provides highest direct
voltage even under
asymmetrical or distorted ac
supply waveforms.
 Harmonic instability can be overcome by
 adding filters on ac sides and in control circuits.
 using firing control scheme which is independent of zero-crossing of commutating
voltages. [EPC]
• Drawbacks of IPC:
1. Harmonic Instability
Any deviation in ideal ac voltage
waveforms will disturb 1200
symmetry of dc current waveforms,
thus introducing uncharacteristic
harmonics (≠ 6k ±1, for 6-pulse
convertor) in ac system, thus further
disturbing ac system voltages which
in turn further disturbs 1200
symmetry of dc current waveforms.
2. Not suitable for modern HVDC
systems as AC networks are often
weak (i.e. have low SCR < 4).
43
Characteristic and Non-characteristic harmonics
B. Equidistant Pulse Control (EPC)
• Unlike IPC, no direct synchronization of firing instant to the ac voltage.
• Firing pulses of valves are generated at equal time intervals
• Almost free from harmonic instability.
• Uses a phase-locked oscillator to generate the firing pulses.
• The firing angles of all valves are retarded or advanced equally to obtain the
desired control mode.
 Voltage Control Oscillator (VCO)
• delivers pulses at a frequency directly
proportional to the input control voltage.
• The train of pulses are fed to ring counter.
 Ring Counter
• six stages
• Only one stage ON at any time.
VCC
VC

• ORing to get 1200 pulse

45
 • Pulse train output of VCO
changes the ON stage of the
VCC VC
ring counter in cyclic order.

• As each stage turns ON, it

produces a short output
pulse once per cycle.

• Over one full cycle, a

complete set of 6 output
pulses is produced by the
ring counter at equal
intervals.

• These pulse are passed on to

the firing pulse generator of
the appropriate valves of the
converter bridge. 46
1. Pulse Frequency Control (PFC)
 The voltage T/6 functions as a bias
by J. Ainsworth for VCO.
Vcc
The change in angle is determined
T/6 by the additional voltage-time area
so that these control methods have
integrating properties.

 After returning to the original

voltage the total increase i.e.
increase obtained last (i.e. 3Δα)
is retained.

2. Pulse Period Control (PPC) Here ramp voltage is compared with a fixed
voltage signal V3 and the frequency of
Ramp slope = K1(V1±Vcc) VCO is controlled by changing the slope of
V3 the ramp through Controller output VCC
V1 – bias (or constant) voltage
Vcc – Controller output voltage
0 t V3 – voltage proportional to system
period (T/6) 47
3. Pulse Phase Control (PPC)
by Rumph & Ranade

Vc

 The ramp starts from a fixed level below the control signal Vc and goes to
the same level above it.
 At this instant pulse is produced.
 These pulses are equally spaced for a constant control signal.
 However for a step jump in the control signal, the spacing of only one pulse is
changed.
 Thus, this scheme causes a shift of phase only. 48
 Advantages/Drawbacks of EPC
 The scheme provides equal pulse spacing in the steady
state.
 Low non-characteristic harmonics when used with weak
ac systems.
 However during unbalanced ac voltages, it results in a
lower DC voltage and power than IPC.

49
Converter Firing Control (CFC) Schemes
The CFC system establishes the firing instant for the convertor valves
so that the convertor operates in the required mode of controls
- Constant Ignition Angle (CIA) Control
- Constant Current (CC) Control
- Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) Control
☞At a time, converter station would work under any one of the above controls.

•Functional requirements of CFC

 Should ensure Symmetrical firing of valves under steady state

conditions

 Should be insensitive to normal variations in (commutation) voltage

and frequency of the ac supply networks.

50
A. Individual Phase Control (IPC)
The main features of this scheme are –

1. The phase position of the firing pulse is determined separately for

each valve and hence, is independent of each other.

2. Firing pulse of each individual valve (or phase) is directly synchronized

with the zero-crossing instant of its commutation voltage.

(a) Constant-α control

(b) Inverse Cosine control
- Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) Control with IPC

B. Equidistant Pulse Control (EPC)

1. Pulse Frequency Control (PFC)
2. Pulse Phase Control (PPC)
3. Pulse Period Control
- Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) Control with EPC 51
A. Individual Phase Control (IPC)
(a) Constant-α control
• six timing signals (i.e. commutation voltages) are derived from
main ac system using PTs.
•Then six pulses are generated with the identical time delay to
their respective commutation voltage zero-crossing.
•The delays are produced by independent delay circuits and
controlled by a common control voltage VCC derived from the
current controllers. Zero
crossing
Phase shifter detector

VCC

Current Controller
52
(b) Inverse Cosine control
• six timing signals (i.e. Commutation voltages) are derived
as in the case of Constant -  control
• phase shifted by 900 (this changes a sine wave into cosine wave)
• These phase shifted commutating voltages are separately added with
a common control voltage Vcc (derived from current controllers)
•Then the firing pulses are generated at the zero-crossing of this
resulting signal
Mathematically, 
2Vac sin t  
2   Vcc  0 (1)

900 phase shifted commutation voltage

t    cos1(
Vcc (2)
or, )
2Vac

- Firing angle  is proportional to the inverse cosine of the control voltage (Vcc).
- Also depends upon the AC system voltage (Vac) magnitude and shape. 53
 We have Vd  Vd 0cos  RC I d c

+-
3 3 3
 Em cos   X c Id
 
3 2 3
 Vac cos   X c I d
 
3 3
 Vcc  X c I d (3)
 
Thus, the advantage is
“The direct voltage Vd varies linearly with the control voltage VCC”
By varying Vcc (from +Vcc to -Vcc), we can
have  varying from  min to  =1800
900 phase shifted commutating voltage 2Vac cos t
1 VCCmax
0.8

i.e. enabling smooth transition from 0.6

Commutating voltage 2Vac sin t
VCC
rectifier operation to inverter operation. 0.4

0.2

Note: To ensure minimum , Vcc is not -0.2


 min
-0.4

allowed to go beyond VCCmax. It is -0.6

achieved by putting a limiter to Vcc. -0.8

-1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
54
CEA Control with IPC

 Predictive type of CEA Control

 prediction of firing angle  is based on the desired extinction angle  min
and the direct current I d (in other words on overlap angle u)

For inverter, I d  I s 2[cos  min  cos  ]

Unknown ?
Desired value Desired value
of direct current of 
It can be written as
2Vac
2Vac 
Id  [cos  min  cos  ] as 2Xc
2Xc
or  2Vac cos  min  2Vac cos   2 X c I d  0
t
   min
2Vac sin t.d (t )  2 X c I d  0 (A)

commutation voltage of
a particular valve

Eq. (A) is to be solved for each valve individually to determine the firing
instant. 55
 Let I d  0, (i.e. no overlapping)
t
 
  min
2Vac sin t.d (t )  0 (B)

i.e. zero-crossing of integrated commutation

voltage gives the firing instant which ensures  2Vac sin t

 min. [Fig. 1]
Fig.(1) Clamped integrator output waveform

But with overlapping (i.e. I d  0 ), Eq. (A)

will give the firing instant. Therefore, for I d  0
the waveform of integrated commutation voltage
 2Vac sin t is lifted upward by a dc offset
= 2XcId which results in advancing of the
zero-crossing of the integrated commutation
voltage. [Fig. 2]
 2Vac sin t  2 X c I d

Fig.(2) CEA output waveform

56
 Since the inverter is also equipped with a
current controller, eq. (A) is augmented
with a control signal Vcc of the current
controller
t
 
  min
2Vac sin t.d (t )  2 X c I d  Vcc  0

So it further lifts upward the waveform of  2Vac sin t

the integrated commutation voltage, thus

further advancing . [Fig. 3]. Fig.(3) Combined CEA and CC output waveform

If Vcc goes higher & higher,  goes towards

00 i.e. inverter operation may transform into
rectifier operation unnoticed.
To restrict this,
a limiter is put on Vcc which will not allow  2Vac sin t

it to go beyond Vccmax.
Generally a pulse of duration  min is attached
to ensure  min operation. [Fig. 4].
57
Fig.(4) Modified output voltage waveform for CEA control
• Advantages of IPC:
1. Smooth transition from
rectification to inversion
2. Since firing instant of each
valve is synchronized with
the zero-crossing of its own
commutation voltage, it
provides highest direct
voltage even under
asymmetrical or distorted ac
supply waveforms.
 Harmonic instability can be overcome by
 adding filters on ac sides and in control circuits.
 using firing control scheme which is independent of zero-crossing of commutating
voltages. [EPC]
• Drawbacks of IPC:
1. Harmonic Instability
Any deviation in ideal ac voltage
waveforms will disturb 1200
symmetry of dc current waveforms,
thus introducing uncharacteristic
harmonics (≠ 6k ±1, for 6-pulse
convertor) in ac system, thus further
disturbing ac system voltages which
in turn further disturbs 1200
symmetry of dc current waveforms.
2. Not suitable for modern HVDC
systems as AC networks are often
weak (i.e. have low SCR < 4).
58
Characteristic and Non-characteristic harmonics

* Characteristic harmonics
B. Equidistant Pulse Control (EPC)
• Unlike IPC, no direct synchronization of firing instant to the ac voltage.
• Firing pulses of valves are generated at equal time intervals
• Almost free from harmonic instability.
• Uses a phase-locked oscillator to generate the firing pulses.
• The firing angles of all valves are retarded or advanced equally to obtain the
desired control mode.
 Voltage Control Oscillator (VCO)
• delivers pulses at a frequency directly
proportional to the input control voltage.
• The train of pulses are fed to ring counter.
 Ring Counter
• six stages
• Only one stage ON at any time.
VCC
VC

• ORing to get 1200 pulse

60
 • Pulse train output of VCO
changes the ON stage of the
VCC VC
ring counter in cyclic order.

• As each stage turns ON, it

produces a short output
pulse once per cycle.

• Over one full cycle, a

complete set of 6 output
pulses is produced by the
ring counter at equal
intervals.

• These pulses are passed on

to the firing pulse generator
of the appropriate valves of
the converter bridge. 61
1. Pulse Frequency Control (PFC)
by J. Ainsworth
Vcc
2. Pulse Period Control (PPC)
Ramp slope = K1(V1±Vcc)
V3
0 t
 The voltage T/6 functions as a bias
for VCO.
The change in angle is determined
T/6 by the additional voltage-time area
so that these control methods have
integrating properties.
 After returning to the original
voltage the total increase i.e.
increase obtained last (i.e. 3Δα)
is retained.
Here ramp voltage is compared with a fixed
voltage signal V3 and the frequency of
VCO is controlled by changing the slope of
the ramp through controller output VCC
V1 – bias (or constant) voltage
Vcc – Controller output voltage
V3 – voltage proportional to system
period (T/6) 62
3. Pulse Phase Control (PPC)
by Rumph & Ranade

Vc

 The ramp starts from a fixed level below the control signal Vc and goes to
the same level above it.
 At this instant pulse is produced.
 These pulses are equally spaced for a constant control signal.
 For a step jump in the control signal, the spacing of only one pulse is changed.
 Thus, this scheme causes a shift of phase only.
63
 Advantages/Drawbacks of EPC
 The scheme provides equal pulse spacing in the steady
state.
 Low non-characteristic harmonics when used with weak
ac systems.
 However during unbalanced ac voltages, it results in a
lower DC voltage and power than IPC.

64
Parallel operation of AC-DC systems

65
 A. C. Link
V1∠δ1 V2∠δ2

jX

R Receiving
Sending
end
end

In a dc link, D. C. Link

the dc power transmitted depends upon – Vr ,Vi ,  , 

All of which can be controlled independently over a desired range.
Thus when dc link is operated in parallel with ac line, following objectives can be
achieved:
a) Constant current flow
b) Constant power flow – It will not help in stabilization of ac system
c) Constant angle between ac bus voltages - transient stability improvement
V1V2
On ac line, ac power transmitted P  sin  where   1   2  300
X
With DC link in parallel, ac line can be operated with   800 .Under normal conditions,
power flow through dc link is small, so α of the rectifier can be large so that during a
shunt fault, sudden increase in load or when the power transmission through ac line
decreases, power flow through dc link can be opened up very quickly by decreasing 66 α.
Influence of AC system strength on AC/DC system interaction
• The nature of ac/dc interaction is dependent on the strength of ac
system with respect to the capacity of DC link. It is measured with
Fault MVA of AC system
SCR = ---------------------------------
MW rating of the DC link
Eac2
where Fault MVA of AC system =
Z th
• AC system is called ‘weak’ if
- ac system impedance is too high.
- ac system mechanical inertia is too low.
• Basic SCR gives only the inherent strength of the ac system.
From the view point of the HVDC system performance, we have
to consider ESCR (Effective SCR) which includes the effect of
- AC side filters
- reactive power compensation (shunt caps, synch. caps. etc.)
67
AC system strength
• ESCR < 2, :Very Low
• 2 < ESCR < 3 :Low
• ESCR > 3 : High
Reactive Power & AC system strength:
• Stronger AC system : larger the switchable capacitor banks available
• For weak AC system : SVCs or synchronous condensers are required

Problems associated with weak AC system:

Dynamic over-voltages:
No DC power transmission – No reactive power consumption.
With low ESCR, the resulting increase in AC system voltage may be too high
due to shunt capacitors and filters.
Voltage instability:
In weak ac system, ac and dc voltages are very sensitive to load changes.
Increase in DC power - fall in AC voltage.
DC controls at Inverter side may cause voltage collapse.

Harmonic Resonance: Low natural frequency due to add capacitors

68
Voltage Flicker: Due to switching of Shunt Capacitors and filters