Compaction is the densification of soils by the expulsion of air.

Soil compaction is the densification—reduction in void ratio—of a soil through the expulsion of air. This
is normally achieved by using mechanical compactors, rollers, and rammers with the addition of water.

Maximum dry unit weight (ƴd (max)) is the maximum unit weight that a soil can attain using a specified
means of compaction.

Optimum water content (wopt) is the water content required to allow a soil to attain its maximum dry
unit weight following a specified means of compaction.

What is soil compaction?

Compaction & Density

Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by packing the particles closer together with
a reduction in the volume of air. Note that there is no significant change in the volume of water in the
soil. In general, the higher the degree of compaction the higher will be the shear strength and the lower
will be the compressibility of the soil. It is a very economical way of improving the bearing capacity of
site soils.
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The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of dry density – the mass of solids per unit
volume of a soil.

The dry density after compaction depends on the water content and the compactive effort supplied. For
a particular compactive effort there is a particular value of water content (optimum moisture content)
at which a maximum value of dry density is obtained.

At low water contents most soils are stiff and difficult to compact; As water content is increased the soil
becomes more workable, facilitating compaction and resulting in higher dry densities; At high water
contents however, the dry density decreases with increasing water content.

A laboratory test that is commonly used to determine the maximum dry unit weight and optimum
water content is briefly described.

PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST

A laboratory test called the standard Proctor test was developed to deliver a standard amount of
mechanical energy (compactive effort) to determine the maximum dry unit weight of a soil. In the
standard Proctor test, a dry soil specimen is mixed with water and compacted in a cylindrical mold of
volume 9.44 x 10-4 m3 (standard Proctor mold) by repeated blows from the mass of a hammer, 2.5 kg,
falling freely from a height of 305 mm. The soil is compacted in three layers, each of which is subjected
to 25 blows.
For most projects, the standard Proctor test is satisfactory. For projects involving heavy loads, such as
runways to support heavy aircraft loads, a modified Proctor test was developed. In this test, the hammer
has a mass 4.54 kg and falls freely from a height of 457 mm. The soil is compacted in five layers with 25
blows per layer in the standard Proctor mold. The compaction energy of the modified Proctor test
compaction test is 2695 kJ/m3, about 4.5 times the energy of the standard Proctor test.

Four or more tests are conducted on the soil using different water contents. The last test is identified
when additional water causes the bulk unit weight of the soil to decrease. The results are plotted as dry
unit weight (ordinate) versus water content (abscissa).

The water content at which the maximum dry unit weight, (ƴd)max, is achieved is called the optimum
water content (wopt). At water contents below optimum (dry of optimum), air is expelled and water
facilitates the rearrangement of soil grains into a denser configuration—the number of soil grains per
unit volume of soil increases. At water contents just above optimum (wet of optimum), the compactive
effort cannot expel more air and additional water displaces soil grains, thus decreasing the number of
soil grains per unit volume of soil. Consequently, the dry unit weight decreases. The soil is invariably
unsaturated at the maximum dry unit weight, that is, S < 1.

Knowledge of the optimum water content and the maximum dry unit weight of soils are very important
for construction specifications of soil improvement by compaction. Specifications for earth structures
(embankments, footings, etc.) usually call for a minimum of 95% of Proctor maximum dry unit weight.
This level of compaction can be attained at two water contents—one before the attainment of the
maximum dry unit weight, or dry of optimum, the other after attainment of the maximum dry unit
weight, or wet of optimum. Normal practice is to compact the soil dry of optimum. Compact the soil
wet of optimum for swelling (expansive) soils, soil liners for solid waste landfills, and projects where soil
volume changes from changes in moisture conditions are intolerable.
BENEFITS OF SOIL COMPACTION

Compaction is the most popular technique for improving soils. The soil fabric is forced into a dense
configuration by the expulsion of air using mechanical effort with or without the assistance of water.
The benefits of compaction are:

1. Increased soil strength.

2. Increased load-bearing capacity.

3. Reduction in settlement (lower compressibility).

4. Reduction in the flow of water (water seepage).

5. Reduction in soil swelling (expansion) and collapse (soil contraction).

6. Increased soil stability.

7. Reduction in frost damage.

Improper compaction can lead to:

1. Structural distress from excessive total and differential settlements.

2. Cracking of pavements, floors, and basements.

3. Structural damage to buried structures, water and sewer pipes, and utility conduits.

4. Soil erosion.
Field Compaction
In the field chosen compaction equipment must make a minimum number of passes to produce
the required value of dry density (determined in the laboratory). The number of passes depends
on the type and mass of the equipment and on the thickness of the soil layer. In general, the
thicker the soil layer the heavier the equipment required to produce an adequate degree of
compaction.

Smooth Wheel Rollers

These consist of hollow steel drums, the mass of which can be increased by water or sand ballast.
They are suitable for most types of soil except uniform sands and silty sands and provided a
kneading or mixing action is not required. A smooth surface is produced on the compacted
layer, encouraging the run-off of any rainfall but resulting in relatively poor bonding between
successive layers: the fill as a whole will therefore tend to be laminated. They can be self-
propelled or towed.

Pneumatic-tyred Rollers
This equipment is suitable for a wide range of coarse and fine soil but not uniformly graded
material. Wheels are mounted close together on two axles, the rear set overlapping the lines of
the front set to ensure complete coverage of the soil surface. The tyres are relatively wide with a
flat tread so that the soil is not displaced laterally. This type of roller is also available with a
special axle which allows the wheels to wobble, thus preventing the bridging over low spots.
Pneumatic-tyred rollers impart a kneading action to the soil. The finished surface is relatively
smooth resulting in a low degree of bonding between layers. If good bonding is essential, the
compacted surface must be scarified between layers. Increased compactive effort can be
obtained by increasing the tyre inflation pressure or, less effectively, by adding kentledge to the
body of the roller.
Sheepfoot Roller
This type of roller consists of hollow steel drums with numerous tapered or club-shaped feet
projecting from their surfaces. The mass of the drums can be increased by ballasting. The
arrangement of the feet can vary but they are usually from 200 to 250 mm in length with an end
area of 40-65 cm2. The feet thus impart a relatively high pressure over a small area. Initially,
when the layer of soil is loose, the drums are in contact with the soil surface. Subsequently, as
the projecting feet compact below the surface and the soil becomes sufficiently dense to support
the high contact pressure, the drums rise above the soil. Sheepfoot rollers are most suitable for
fine soils, both plastic and non-plastic, especially at water contents dry of optimum. They are
also suitable for coarse soils with more than 20% of fines. The action of the feet causes
significant mixing of the soil, improving its degree of homogeneity, and will break up lumps of
stiff material. Due to the penetration of the feet, excellent bonding is produced between
successive soil layers, an important requirement for water-retaining earthworks. Tamping rollers
are similar to sheepfoot rollers but the feet have a larger end area, usually over 100 cm2, and the
total area of the feet exceeds 15% of the surface area of the drums.

Grid Rollers
These rollers have a surface consisting of a network of steel bars forming a grid with square
holes. Kentledge can be added to the body of the roller. Grid rollers provide high contact
pressure but little kneading action and are suitable for most coarse soils.
Vibratory Rollers
These are smooth wheeled rollers fitted with a power-driven vibration mechanism. They are
used for most soil types and are more efficient if the water content of the soil is slightly wet of
optimum. They are particularly effective for coarse soils with little or no fines. The mass of the
roller and the frequency of vibration must be matched to the soil type and layer thickness. The
lower the speed of the roller the fewer the number of passes required.

Vibrating Plates
This equipment, which is suitable for most soil types, consists of a steel plate with upturned
edges, or a curved plate, on which a vibrator is mounted. The unit, under manual guidance,
propels itself slowly over the surface of the soil.

Power Rammers
Manually controlled power rammers, generally petrol driven, are used for the compaction of
small areas where access is difficult or where the use of larger equipment would not be justified.
They are also used extensively for the compaction of backfill in trenches. They do not operate
effectively on uniformly graded soils.
Comparison of Field Compactors for Various Soil Types

Compaction type
Static Dynamic
Pressure Kneading Vibration Impact
with with
kneading pressure
Material Lift Static Scraper; Vibrating Vibrating Compactability
thickness sheepsfoot rubber- plate sheepsfoot
(mm) grid roller; tired roller; compactor; rammer
scraper loader; grid vibrating
roller roller;
vibrating
sheepsfoot
roller
Gravel 300+ Not Very good Good Poor Very easy
applicable
Sand 250± Not Good Excellent Poor Easy
applicable
Silt 150± Good Excellent Poor Good Difficult
Clay 150± Very good Good No Excellent Very difficult

Various types of equipment are available to check the amount of compaction achieved in the field.
Three popular pieces of equipment are (1) the sand cone, (2) the balloon, and (3) nuclear density
meters.
Comparison among the Three Popular Compaction Quality Control Tests

Material Sand cone Balloon meter Nuclear density

Advantages  Low cost • Low to moderate cost • Quick
• Accurate • Fewer computational • Direct measurement
• Large sample steps compared to sand of unit weight and
cone water content
• Large sample
Disadvantages • Slow; many steps • Slow • High cost
required • Extra care needed to • Radiation certification
• Standard sand in hole prevent damage to required for operation
has to be retrieved balloon, especially in • Water content error
• Unit weight has to be gravelly materials can be significant
computed • Unit weight has to be • Surface preparation
• Difficult to control computed needed
density of sand in hole • Difficult to obtain • Radiation
• Possible void space accurate hole size backscatter can be
under plate • Possible void space hazardous
• Hole can reduce in under plate
size through soil • Hole can reduce in
movement size through soil
• Hole can cave in movement
(granular materials) • Hole can cave in
(granular materials)

Factors Affecting Compaction

Apart from moisture (water) content, whose relationship with compaction is seen in the
laboratory compaction/density test, factors such as soil type and compaction effort (force) also
affect the degree to which a soil can be compacted.