BIO 101 LECTURE NOTE

Topic: General Characteristics of Microorganisms

Microbiology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of the structure and function of
microorganisms. Microorganisms (microbes) are small living creatures that cannot be seen with
naked eye but with the aid of microscope. Examples of the different groups of microbes are
bacteria, fungi, micro-algae, viruses, mycoplasma, protozoa, rickettsia and helminth (Figure 1).

Microbiology encompasses different areas of specialization, this include: Bacteriology (study of

bacteria); Mycology (study of fungi); Algology also known as Phycology (study of algae);
Virology (study of viruses), and many more.

Figure 1: Microbial Cell Structures

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 Classification of Microorganisms

Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere (ubiquitous) on Earth. They live in almost every
habitat from the poles to the equator, desert, geysers, rocks and the deep sea. Some are adapted
to extreme environments such as very hot or very cold conditions, others to high pressure and a
few, such as Deinococcus radiodurans to high radiation environments.

In biological taxonomy, a domain is the highest taxonomic rank of organisms.

Carl Woese, an American microbiologist and biophysicist, classified all living organisms into
three domain of life, namely: (i) Archaea (a term which Woese created), (ii) Bacteria, and (iii)
Eukarya (Figure 2).

The first two (Archaea and Bacteria) are prokaryotic microorganisms, or single celled organisms
whose cells have no definite nucleus but nuclear materials. All life that has a definite nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles, be it unicellular or multicellular organisms, are included in the
eukarya. Simple multicellular organisms such as algae and fungi are microscopic with definite
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, hence, microorganisms encompass all the three
domains of life (Figure 2).

Algae groups include: Chlorophyceae (Green), Rhodophyceae (Red), Phaeophyceae (Brown),

Chrysophyceae (Golden), Cyanophyceae (Blue-green) and Xanthophyceae (Yellow-green), etc,
whereas the major phyla of fungi, according to their mode of reproduction and or molecular data
are: Ascomycota (The Sac Fungi), Basidiomycota (The Club Fungi), Chytridiomycota (The
Chytrids), Deuteromycota (The Imperfect Fungi), Glomeromycota (Arbuscular Mycorrhizae)
and Zygomycota (The Conjugated Fungi).

Figure 2: Phylogenetic Tree of Life

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Major characteristics of microorganisms

1. Morphological characteristics: Microbes may be single celled or simple multicellular

organisms with submicroscopic size. They are very minute, requiring high power microscope
lens (1000X) and their size is usually expressed in micrometres.
2. Chemicals characteristics: Microbes have characteristics chemical composition which vary
qualitatively among various species e.g.
a) All bacteria have varying degree of peptidoglycan in their cell walls.
b) The occurrence of lipopolysaccharide in cell walls of Gram-negative bacteria but not
in Gram-positive bacteria.
c) Presence of teichoic acids in cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria but not in Gram
negative bacteria.
d) Fungal and algal cell walls different in chemical composition from that of bacteria,
majorly made up of chitin and cellulose respectively.
e) An important distinction among viruses is on the basis of the kind of nucleic acid
each possesses, namely ribonucleic acid (RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) but
never both.
3. Cultural characteristics: Microorganisms are ubiquitous in the biosphere and have rapid
growth rate; every natural habitat contains an extremely diverse microbial population. These
organisms live in soil, water, food, animal intestines and other different environments.
However, each kind of microbes has definite growth requirements i.e.
a) Many can be grown in or on a culture media;
b) Few can grow in a medium containing only inorganic compound;
c) May require a medium containing organic compounds (amino acid, sugars, purines or
pyrimidines, vitamins, or coenzymes)
d) Some require complex natural substances (peptone, yeast autolysate, blood cells, or
blood serum);
e) Some cannot as yet be cultured in an artificial laboratory medium and can be
propagated only in a living host or living cells e.g. rickettsias;
f) In addition to specific nutrients, all microbes also require specific physical conditions
for growth e.g. pH, temperature, etc.
g) On solid media, microbes grow as colonies: distinct, compact masses of cells that are
macroscopically visible. But viruses appear as plaques on these solid media (agar).
h) When microbes grow in liquid media, the media becomes turbid and growth may
either occur only as sediment at the bottom or only as a thin film or pellicle at the top.
4. Metabolic characteristics: the life processes of the microbial cells are a complex integrated
series of chemical reactions collectively referred to as metabolism. The variety of these
reactions affords many opportunities to characterize and differentiate various groups of
microorganisms. For instance, some microbes may gain energy by

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 a) Absorbing light, hence they are called autotrophs e.g. Cyanobacteria.
b) Oxidizing various organic or inorganic compounds, hence heterotrophs.
c) Redistributing the atoms within certain molecules so that the molecules become less
stable and reactive.
They, therefore, play vital roles in biogeochemical cycling of elements and nutrients
in nature. They also directly or indirectly participate in biotransformation of
materials.
5. Antigenic characteristics: Some chemical compounds of microbial cells are called antigens.
Antigenic ability of a microorganism has great practical importance. If infected, the animal
respond to their antigens by forming specific blood serum protein called antibodies, which
binds to the antigens. Antibodies are highly used as tools for the rapid identification of
particular kind of microorganisms.
6. Genetic characteristics: the chromosomal DNA of every microbe has certain features that are
constant and characteristic for that organism and useful for its classification. In addition,
extra chromosomal DNA such as plasmid DNA may be present in microbial cells. Plasmids
are circular extra chromosomal DNA molecules that are capable of autonomous replication
within bacterial cells, and their activity can confer special characteristics on the cells that
contain them, such as ability to:
a) Make toxins (toxigenicity),
b) Become resistant to various antibiotics,
c) Use unusual chemical compound as nutrients, or
d) Be transfer to another bacterial cell by conjugation.
7. Pathogenicity characteristics: The tendency to cause disease, or pathogeniciy, of some
microorganisms, is surely a dramatic nature and it stimulated much interest of the early work
with microbes. Relatively few microbial species cause diseases in animals and plants, while
some of them are pathogenic to other microorganisms. For examples, Bdellovibrio are
predatory bacteria that infect other bacteria while bacteroiophages (simply called phages) are
virus that infect bacteria.

The knowledge of existence of microorganisms would not have been possible except with the
invention of microscope.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek is considered the father of microbiology because in 1673 he was the
pioneer scientist\ bacteriologist to discover, observe and describe a micro organism using single
lens microscope which he designed on his own.
Robert Hooke also used microscope to observe microbial life in the form of fruiting body.
In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the
theory of spontaneous generation.
In the 1880s, Robert Koch established that specific microorganism is responsible for specific
disease (germ theory of disease). He discovered that Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Vibrio cholerae,

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Corynebacterium diphtheria, and Bacillus anthracis were causative agents of tuberculosis,
cholera, diphtheria and anthrax respectively.
In 1928, Scottish scientist named Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered penicillin as the
natural product of Penicillium rubens with some antibacterial properties.

There are many other renowned scientists/ microbiologists that have contributed and still
contributing till date milestone knowledge to the development of existence of living organisms.

Topic: The Cell Cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis

Actively dividing cells pass through a series of stages in which genetic materials are duplicated and
partitioned to produce two daughter cells with the same genetic component as the parent cell. This is
collectively known as the Cell Cycle. Typically, a prokaryotic cell (usually microorganism\ bacterium)
divides by binary fission, splitting into two nearly equal halves: the main circular DNA molecule of the
cell is replicated. Replication begins at a replication origin and proceeds in both directions resulting into
two complete, identical circles; each attached to the plasma membrane. New plasma membrane and cell
wall materials lay down between the two DNA circles, eventually separate the two daughter cells. One
cell divides into two, two to four, four to eight, and so on. Prokaryotic cells can have a generation time
(the period from the start of one cell division to the start of the next cell division) as short as 20 minutes.
However, eukaryotic DNA molecules are organized in chromosomes. Each chromosome is made of
chromatin, a long DNA molecule containing hundreds to thousands of genes with associated proteins.
The eukaryotic cell cycle describes the status of cells in relationship to growth and division. Normally,
cell divide to replace dead or missing cells and or for multiplication (replication). When cells reach a
certain size, growth either stops or the cell must divide in a highly regulated process. The generation time
for eukaryotic cells varies widely, but is usually 8-20 hours. The cell cycle has two main phases –
interphase and cell division (mitosis + cytokinesis). The interphase is divided into three phases, namely:
G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase. The period before the S phase is a “gap” phase, termed G1 phase.
Most cellular growth occurs in this phase and it is usually the most variable with respect to time, and
typically longest. The DNA is completely replicated (genetic information duplicated) during the synthesis
phase or S phase. G2 phase is the period between the S phase and cell division. It is usually short. Cells
in this phase are committed to and preparing for cell division.

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 The Cell Cycle

Mitosis
Mitosis is the process that distributes a complete copy of the replicated (duplicated) genetic information
to each daughter cell.
Cytokinesis is the process of dividing the cytoplasm into two separate cells.
Note that the replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic apparatus' that aligns them and
then separates the sister chromatids to produce an even partitioning of the genetic material. This
separation of the genetic material in a mitotic nuclear division termed karyokinesis, is followed by a
separation of the cell cytoplasm (cytokinesis) in a cellular division to produce two daughter cells.
Some cells can have mitosis without cytokinesis (most common in fungi and slime molds).
Mitosis otherwise called mitotic cell division occurs in asexual reproduction, during growth and
development of the somatic cell (body cell). In the adult organism, mitosis plays a role in cell
replacement, wound healing and tumour formation. It is generally divided into 4 stages namely:
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
A. Prophase – chromatin condenses to form chromosomes that are more visible
1. each chromosome (duplicated during S phase) forms a pair of sister chromatids
 sister chromatids are joined at a centromere by protein tethers
 centromeres contain a kinetochore where microtubules will bind
 each sister chromatid has its own kinetochore
2. a system of microtubules, called the mitotic spindle, organizes between the two poles
(opposite ends) of the cell
 each pole has a microtubule organizing center (MTOC)
 in animals and some other eukaryotes, centrioles are found in the MTOC; their exact role,
if any, is unclear
3. at the late prophase:

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  the nuclear membrane has disappeared (actually divided into many small vesicles)
 nucleoli have disintegrated
 the sister chromatids are attached by their kinetochores to microtubules from opposite
poles
4. some call the later part of prophase prometaphase, usually defined to include
vesicularization of the nuclear membrane and attachment of kinetochores to microtubules
5. in some eukaryotes the nuclear membrane never vesicularizes
B. Metaphase – chromosomes line up along the equatorial\ mid plane of the cell (the metaphase
plate)
1. chromosomes are most condensed, most visible, and most distinguishable during metaphase
2. the mitotic spindle, now complete, has two types of microtubules
 kinetochore microtubules extend from a pole to a kinetochore
 polar microtubules extend from a pole to the midplane area, often overlapping with
polar microtubules from the other pole
3. the mitosis checkpoint appears to be here; progress past metaphase is typically prevented
until the kinetochores are all attached to microtubules
C. Anaphase – sister chromatids separate and are moved toward opposite poles
1. the protein tethers at the centromere between the chromatids are broken
2. each former sister chromatid can now be called a chromosome
3. model for the mechanism that moves chromosomes to the poles
 motor proteins move the chromosomes towards the poles along the kinetochores
microtubules
 kinetochore microtubules shorten as behind the moving chromosomes
 polar microtubules lengthen the entire spindle
 motor proteins on the polar microtubules slide them past each other, pushing them
apart (the microtubules may grow a bit, too)
 this pushes the MTOCs away from each other, and thus has the effect of pushing
kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles away from each other
4. overall, this process assures that each daughter cell will receive one of the duplicate sets of
genetic material carried by the chromosomes
D. Telophase – the processes of prophase are reversed
1. the mitotic spindle is disintegrated
2. the chromosomes decondense
3. nuclear membranes reform around the genetic material to form two nuclei, each with an
identical copy of the genetic information
4. nucleoli reappear, and interphase cellular functions resume

Cytokinesis divides the cell into two daughter cells. It usually begins in telophase and ends shortly
thereafter. Cytoplasm (and with it most organelles) is usually distributed randomly but roughly equally
between daughter cells.

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However, meiosis being a reduction process occurs during sexual reproduction: gametes formation in
animals and spore formation in some fungi. In eukaryotic cells, meiosis produces haploid sex cells or
gametes (which contain a single copy of each chromosome) from diploid cells. The process takes the
form of one DNA replication followed by two successive nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and
Meiosis II).
Meiosis I: Separates the pairs of homologous chromosomes reducing the cell from diploid to haploid.

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NB: Meiosis I is a reduction division: the original diploid cell had two copies of each chromosome; the
newly formed haploid cells have one copy of each chromosome.

Prophase I

The homologous chromosomes pair and exchange DNA to form recombinant chromosomes. Prophase I is
divided into five phases:

(i) Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.

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(ii) Zygotene: homologous chromosomes become closely associated (synapsis) to form pairs of
chromosomes (bivalents) consisting of four chromatids (tetrads).

(iii)Pachytene: crossing over between pairs of homologous chromosomes to form chiasmata.

(iv)Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to separate but remain attached by chiasmata.

(v)Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to separate, and chiasmata move to the ends of the
chromosomes.

Metaphase I

Spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes attached to spindle fibres by kinetochores. Homologous
pairs of chromosomes (bivalents) arranged as a double row along the metaphase plate. The arrangement
of the paired chromosomes with respect to the poles of the spindle apparatus is random along the
metaphase plate. (This is a source of genetic variation through random assortment, as the paternal and
maternal chromosomes in a homologous pair are similar but not identical.

Anaphase I

The homologous chromosomes in each bivalent are separated and move to the opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase I
The chromosomes become diffuse and the nuclear membrane reforms.

Cytokinesis
The final cellular division to form two new cells, followed by Meiosis II.

Meiosis II
The events of Meiosis II are analogous to those of a mitotic division, although the number of
chromosomes involved has been halved. Meiosis II separates each chromosome into two chromatids.

Meiosis generates genetic diversity through the:

(a) exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during Meiosis I

(b) random alignment of maternal and paternal chromosomes in Meiosis I

(c) random alignment of the sister chromatids at Meiosis II

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 Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Duplication process Reduction process
One (1) cell division involved Two (2) cell division involved
Two (2) daughter cells formed Four (4) daughter cells formed
Diploid (2N) chromosomes in the Haploid (N) chromosomes in the
daughter cells formed daughter cells formed
Occurs in somatic cells, skin cells, Occurs in reproductive cells/gametes
liver cells, brain cells, bone cells,
blood cells, or body cells.
No Synapsis (i.e. no moving of Synapsis takes place(i.e. chromosomes
homologous pairs together) come together in homologous pairs)

Chromosome Number in Various Organisms

Organism Total Number of Chromosomes
Human (Homo sapiens) 46
Cat 38
Dog 78
Pig 38
Goat 60
Sheep 54
Cattle 60
Horse 64
Donkey 62
Rabbit 44
Chicken 78
Pea Plant (Pisum sativum) ??
Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) 8
Escherichia coli ??
?? ??

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 Topic: INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS/ HEREDITY

Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation and heredity
in organisms. Man’s interest in heredity is as old as his ability to notice differences between
organisms and his awareness that some differences might represent reproductive limits. Though
heredity had been observed for millennia, Johann Gregor Mendel (1822 – 1884), an Austrian
monk, scientist and Augustinian friar working in the 19th century in Brno (now the Czech
Republic), was the first to study genetics scientifically; hence, he is referred to as the ‘‘father of
modern genetics’’.

Genetics as we understand it today is due to the experiments carried out by Mendel between
1856 and 1863 on the garden pea (Pisum sativum). Mendel’s work, however, did not start to
influence man’s thought about the science of heredity until it was independently rediscovered by
three botanists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak in 1900.

The choice of Pisum sativum was as a result of its characteristics such as short life cycle,
bisexuality of flower, easy hybridization, self pollinating, well-defined discrete and contrasting
characters amongst others.

In his experimental work, Mendel studied simple traits (characters) in which offspring of parents
with observable differences fell into distinct, few and easily enumerated classes. He observed
that characters (or traits) are inherited (i.e. passed) from parent to offspring via genes and that the
genes are segregated independently. The choice of the ‘right’ character(s) enabled Mendel to
formulate the fundamental laws of genetics which changed the study of heredity from mere
postulation to a near exact science.

Gregor Mendel developed the model of heredity that now bears his name by experiments on
various traits or characteristics of pea plants. Amongst such characters are: colour, shape, height
and position of plants\ flowers. Each character\ trait is being controlled by a pair of contrasting
genes. For example, colour could either be yellow or green (Y, y); shape could be round or
wrinkled (R, r); height could be tall or dwarf (T, t) while flower position could be axial or
terminal (A, a). The two contrasting characters referred to as Alleles. One of the alleles could be
dominant while the other could be recessive. Usually the dominant allele (gene) is represented
with capital letter and the recessive represented by corresponding small letter: If yellow is
dominant over green, then Y for yellow (dominant) and y for green (recessive), likewise for
height, T for tall (dominant) and t for dwarf (recessive).

Definition of Terms

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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): The life instructions of the cell. The complete DNA sequence for
an organism is the genome, containing the complete set of instructions for that organism.

Gene: This is the functional unit of inheritance or heredity specifically located on a section of
DNA and code for specific protein. Typically, a gene contains the instructions to make a protein or
RNA molecule.

Locus: Specific location of a gene\ DNA sequence on a chromosome

Allele: This is a pair of genes that code for contrasting characters.

DNA, Chromosome, Genes and Alleles Interrelation

The DNA molecule of organisms is made up of base pairs of: Adenine – Thymine (A-T), and
Guanine – Cytosine (G-C).

Homozygous: An organism with two identical alleles of a gene.

Heterozygous: An organism with two different alleles of a gene.

Dominant Allele: The allele that is being expressed in its heterozygous state. Dominant allele
marks the expression of another on the same locus. It is usually represented by capital letters.

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Recessive Allele: The allele that can only be expressed in its homozygous state. It is the the
allele being masks by its dominant pair on the same locus in heterozygous state. Usually
represented by small letters.

Genotype: The sum total of the set of genes present in cell of organism, that is, the genetic
make-up of an organism.

Phenotype: An observable\ physical characteristics or traits of organism.

Hybrid: Organism or Offspring of cross breeding having two different alleles; one dominant and
one recessive. It is also the offspring of cross breeding between two plants or animals of different
subspecies, breeds, varieties, species, or genera. Examples\ types include: Monohybrid, Dihybrid
and Trihybrid.

Pure Breeds: These are organisms that have two of the same alleles; either two dominant or two
recessive.

Back cross: This is the crossing between F1 hybrid and any one of its parents or genetically
similar to its parent.

Test cross: This is the crossing between F1 hybrid and the recessive parent.

When an organism of dominant phenotype but unknown genotype is crossed with a homozygous
recessive individual, such cross is called test cross.

Differences between test cross and back cross are highlighted in the table below:

Test cross Back cross

The cross between F1 hybrid (dominant) and The cross between F1 hybrid (dominant) and
its recessive parent any one of its parent
A test cross is always a back cross i.e. all test A back cross is not always a test cross i.e. all
crosses are back crosses back crosses are not test crosses
Test cross identifies the zygosity of the Back cross recovers the elite genotype
dominant phenotype
Test cross produce both dominant and Back cross with dominant parent produce all
recessive character in equal proportion dominant character
It is used to understand law of segregation or It helps to verify law of inheritance
purity of gamete
Test cross determines the genetic constitution Back cross helps in obtaining and improving
of an organism desirable characters
Punnett Square: This is a geometrical device that helps to find out all the possible combinations
of male and female gametes in a given \ particular cross.

MENDELIAN LAWS

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Generally, there are two main laws put forward by Gregor Mendel based on his experimental
work on Pisum sativum. These are: First and Second Mendelian Laws of Genetics.

The First Mendelian Law of Genetics also known as Law of Segregation of genes (or Law of
purity of gamates), was formulated based on Mendel’s work on pure monohybrid cross.

It states that during gametes formation, each allele (a pair of factors called genes) of one
parent separates randomly and is pass to its offspring/daughter, such that the
offspring/daughter receives one allele from each parent. OR It states that hereditary
characters are controlled by a pair of factors called genes which separate randomly during
gamates formation such that only one is transmitted by a particular gamete.

Second Mendelian Law of Genetics: Also known as Law of Independent Assortment of Genes
formulated based on dihybrid inheritance is concerned with simultaneous behaviour of gene
pairs.

It states that members of one allelic pairs segregate (or assort) independently of the either
pairs and combine randomly to produce different gametes.

In practice, the manifestation of Mendel’s laws is seen by the phenotypic classes of F2

generation characteristic ratios as 3:1 (for monohybrid cross) and 9:3:3:1 (for dihybrid cross).

Example of dihybrid inheritance is the inheritance of pea colour and texture of seed of Pisum
sativum.

The Mendelian basic principle is premised on the simple assumption that one allele is dominant
to the other allele, hence, the third Mendelian law of genetics refers to as Law of Dominance.
The Third Mendelian Law of Genetics (also known as Law of Dominance): states that one of the
factors for a pair of inherited traits will be dominant and the other recessive, unless both factors
are recessive.

Examples\ Worked Questions

1. (a) A pea plant having pure dominant green (GG) colour was grafted with pure recessive
yellow (gg). What would be the genotype and phenotype of the hybrid (F1 generation)
produced?

Solution: Pure dominant green (GG) X Pure recessive yellow (gg)

GG X gg

G g

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 F1 Generation = Gg (Heterozygous Green)

Answer: Genotype = Gg; Phenotype = All Green

NB: This is according to Mendel’s Experiment and Principles

(b) Provided there is self pollination among F1 generation of the pea plants in Mendel’s
experiment for monohybrid character in 1(a). What is the ratio of dominant to recessive traits of
the pea plants in the F2 generation?

Solution: Gg X Gg

G, g G, g

GG Gg Gg gg

F2 Genotype: 1GG, 2 Gg, 1 gg = 1:2:1

Phenotypic ratio: 3 Green : 1 Yellow = 3:1 Answer: Dominant : Recessive = 3:1

2. A homozygote dominant dog with brown fur is crossed with a heterozygote brown fur, what
are the percentages of the possible genotype?

(a) 100% BB (b) 75% BB & 25% Bb (c) 50% BB & 50% Bb (d) 50% BB & 50% bb

Solution: BB X Bb

B B, b

F1 Generation: BB Bb Genotype: 1BB : 1Bb Phenotype: Both dogs with brown fur

Answer: (c) 50% BB & 50% Bb (Percentage of the possible genotype)

3. If ‘R’ is for a round trait dominant over wrinkle ‘r’, which of the following crosses will result
in 1:1 of round to wrinkle F1 generation?

(a) RR X rr (b) Rr X Rr (c) Rr X rr (d) rr X rr

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Solution: Rr X rr

R, r r

F 1 Generation: Rr rr 1Rr : 1rr (i.e. 1 Round : 1 Wrinkle)

Answer: Rr X rr

4. Use the Punnett square to predict the genotypic and phenotypic percentages in the self
pollination of the heterozygote green pods, provided green (G) is dominant over yellow (g).

Solution:

X G g
G GG Gg
g Gg gg
Genotype: 1GG, 2Gg, and 1gg

Phenotype: 3 Green, and 1 Yellow

% GG = 25 %, % Gg = 50 %, % gg = 25 %

% Green = 75 %, % Yellow = 25 %

5. A cross between a true-breeding sharp-spined cactus and a spineless cactus was experimental
in a university garden. Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of F1 and F2 progenies for a: (a)
test cross; (b) self pollination of F1.

Let the true-breeding sharp-spined cactus be represented by CC, and the true-breeding spineless
cactus be represented by cc. Then, CC X cc

C c

F1 Progeny: Cc

Genotype = Cc, Phenotype = All Sharp-Spined Progeny

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(a) For a Test Cross: F1 X Homozygous Recessive Parent

Cc X cc

C, c X c

F2 Progeny: Cc cc

Genotype = 1Cc, 1cc; Phenotype = 1 Sharp-Spined, 1 Spineless

(b) For Self Pollination of F1: F1 X F1

Cc X Cc

F2 Progeny: CC, Cc, Cc, cc

Genotype = 1CC, 2Cc, 1cc; Phenotype = 3 Sharp-Spined, 1 Spineless

6. In certain plants, tall is dominant to dwarf. If homozygous tall plant is crossed with a
heterozygous (tall) plant, what is the probability that the offspring will be: (a) tall ? (b) dwarf ?
Solution: TT X Tt

T T, t

F1 Offspring: TT Tt All Offspring Tall, hence, the probability that the Offspring will be tall = 1

(b) The probability that the Offspring will be dwarf = 0

7. Imagine that you are performing a cross involving seed texture in garden pea plants. You cross
true-breeding round and wrinkled parents to obtain F1 offspring. Which of the following
experimental results in terms of numbers of plants are closest to what you expect in the F2
progeny? (a) 810 round seeds (b) 810 wrinkled seeds (c) 405:395 round seeds:wrinkled seeds
(d) 570:190 round seeds:wrinkled seeds

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Answer: (d) 570:190 round seeds:wrinkled seeds

EXCEPTIONS TO MENDELIAN PRINCIPLES

Non-Mendelian traits are not determined by dominant or recessive alleles, i.e. they are not
passed down with dominant and recessive alleles from one gene, but rather, they can involve
more than one gene. Over time, we (biologists) have come to learn that there are some
exceptions to the Mendelian principles, these include:

(1) Incomplete Dominance; (2) Co-Dominance (3) Polygenic Traits

(4) Sex-linked Traits (5) Lethal genes (6) Mutation, etc

Incomplete dominance is the blending of alleles, resulting in a phenotype that is in between the
two extremes. The semidominant allele produces its biochemical products in lesser quanity in
comparison to a dominant allele. Thus, the heterozygote is of intermediate intensity. Examples
are found in: Mirabilis jalapa; crossing of red and white flowers to give pink flower; and
breeding\ hybridization of a white-furred rabbit with a black-furred rabbit to produce offspring
with phenotype of gray fur.

Co-dominance: In this case, there is no dominant or recessive allele; both alleles are expressed
completely hence, the individual (organism) will show both phenotypes. Example is the found in
blood group type IAIB: AB blood type having both A and B alleles\ antigens\ markers on their red
blood cells.

Polygenic Traits: These are considered non-Mendelian because their alleles are located on more
than one gene which allows for more alleles and more phenotypes. Examples of polygenic traits
are hair, colour, and height.

Lethal genes: These are alleles/genes that cause the death of the organism that carries them. They
are usually a result of mutations in genes that are essential for growth or development.

Mutations which occur in body cells but do not go on to form gametes can be classified as
Somatic Mutation.
EXERCISES

1. Who is known as the father of genetic?

2. List the three botanists that reaffirmed the Mendelian’s findings on inheritance
3. Mendel discovered factor which remain its identity in a hybrid these factors are ……
4. Which of the following specimen was chosen by Mendel for his experiment?
(a) Drosophila melanogaster (b) Fruit fly (c) Ratus ratus (d) Pisum sativum
5. Highlight the unique characteristics of pea plants as choice for Mendel’s experiment
6. What is an allele? Define the following: Genotype, Phenotype, Dominant, and Backcross
7. (a) Reverse genetics is the evaluation of phenotype by studying the genotype. True or False?
(b) What do you understand by forward genetics?

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8. State the Mendelian Laws of Genetics.
9. Which of the following is NOT Mendel’s law of inheritance?
(a) law of dominance (b) law of segregation (c) law of heterozygous (d) law of independent assort
Which law is also known as the law of purity of gamete?
10. Name the cross by which the law of independent assortment inferred
11. Name the cross by which the law of purity of gametes inferred
12. Which of the following is an example of incomplete dominance?
(a) AB blood group (b) Mirabilis jalapa (c) Shape of crown in poultry (d) Mouse coat colour

13. (a) What are the phenotype characteristics of F1 generation of pea plant involving dominant
homozygote green and recessive homozygote yellow according to Mendel’s experiment?

(A) All Yellow (B) 3 Green, 1 Yellow (C) All Green (D) 3 Yellow, 1 Green

(b) Provided there was self pollination among the 1st generation of the pea plants in Mendel’s
experiment what is the ratio of dominant to recessive traits in the 2nd generation plant?

14. If an organism has a diploid chromosome of eight (i.e. 2n = 8), what will be the number of
chromosome after meiosis II?

15. Imagine that you are performing a cross involving seed color in garden pea plants. What traits would
you expect to observe in the F1 offspring if you cross true-breeding parents with green seeds and yellow
seeds? Assuming the yellow seed color is dominant over the green.

16. (a) Given that husband and wife sex chromosomes are ‘XY’ and ‘XX’ respectively, what is the
probability that the wife if pregnant ,will give birth to a female child?

(b) if the woman has six sons, the chance that her next child will be a daughter is ….?
17. Highlight and discuss the various exceptions to Mendelian principles.

18. Describe the reasons that made the garden pea an excellent choice of model system for studying
inheritance.

19. Define mutation and what is a muton?

Further Recommended Reading Texts

• Microorganisms: Wikipedia

• Roberts, M. B. V., 1986: Biology, a Functional Approach Fourth Edition; Nelson Publishers.

• Toole Gleen and Susan, 1999: New Understanding Biology for Advanced Level. Fouth Edition;
Nelson Thornes Publishers.

• Cell Cycle: Mitosis and Meiosis: Wikipedia

• On line resources

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