A st udy on cost effective hardness tread

compound for Bicycle Tyres

R.M. Prabath Tharuka Rajapaksha

Diploma in Polymer Technology
The Plastics and Rubber Institute of Sri Lanka
Declaration
I declare that this is my own work and this project does not incorporate without
acknowledgement any material previously submitted for a Degree, Diploma or any other
publication and to the best of my knowledge and belief, it does not contain any material
previously published or written by another person except where the acknowledgment is
made in the text.

Also, I hereby grant to The Plastic and Rubber Institute of Sri Lanka the non exclusive
right to reproduce and distribute my project, in whole or in part in print, electronic or
other medium. I retain the right to use this content in whole or part in future work,
including publications.

11/08/2023
Date: ……………. …………………………

Signature of candidate

We endorse the declaration by the candidate.

Mr. Mahinda Wasanthaprema Mr. Janadara Jayawarna

(Senior Design Engineer) ( General Manager)

11/09/2023
Date: ………………. Date:

i
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere thanks to my supervisors, Mr. Mahinda
Wasanthaprema and Mr. Janadhara Jayawarna, who supported me in various ways to
properly. I would also like to express my thanks to Mr. Sumith Wijayamuni, Chief
chemist. Secondly, I would like to express my sincere thanks to all the lectures and
officres including the Director of the The Plastics and Rubber Institute of Sri Laka. Also,
I express my sincere thanks to original owners of the books and research paper that helped
in this study and to all those who helped in this study.

Abbreviation
NR – Natural rubber
ESP – Egg Shell Powder
RHA – Rice Husk Ash
APTES - (3-aminopropyl)-triethoxysilane
BmiCl - 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride
Phr - Parts per Hundred Rubber
St. A – Stearic Acid
ST - Starch

ii
Summary
The investigation examined bio fillers (eggshell powder, rice husk ash, starch, walnut
shells) to enhance rubber properties. Eggshell powder had complex effects on hardness
and tensile strength. Rice husk ash improved stiffness and hardness. Starch slightly
enhanced hardness, coupling agents boosted properties. Walnut shells increased hardness,
showed promise with coupling agents. Bio fillers interacted uniquely, impacting rubber
properties. The study highlights sustainable material development potential, enhancing
rubber performance and waste utilization through tailored bio fillers.

iii
Table of Contents
Declaration ......................................................................................................................... i

Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................ ii

Abbreviation ..................................................................................................................... ii

Summary .......................................................................................................................... iii

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. iv

List of Figures ................................................................................................................... v

List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... v

1. Background study ..................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................ 2

1.2 Problem Identification and Justification ............................................................ 3

1.3 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Literature Review and Industrial Information.................................................... 4

1.4.1 Use of eggshell powder for rubber compounds. ......................................... 4

1.4.2 Use of rice husks ash for rubber compounds. ............................................. 6

1.4.3 Use of starch for rubber compounds. .......................................................... 8

1.4.4 Use of walnut shells for rubber compounds. ............................................ 10

2. Options and Proposals ............................................................................................ 12

2.1 Options ............................................................................................................. 12

2.2 Comparison of options ..................................................................................... 12

2.3 Expected outcomes of each option ................................................................... 13

2.4 Proposal ............................................................................................................ 15

3. Recommendations ................................................................................................... 16

4. References ............................................................................................................... 16

iv
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Eggshell and Eggshell Powder ………………………………………………4
Figure 1.2: Tensile strength of compound samples used ESP ……………………………5
Figure 1.3: Hardness results of compound samples used ESP ……………………….….6
Figure 1.4: Rice husk ash …………………………………………………………….….6
Figure 1.5: Starch Powder ……………………………………………………………….8
Figure 1.6: Walnut shell ………………………………………………………………...10

List of Tables
Table 1.1: Formulation of compound samples using eggshell powder ...............................4

Table 1.2: Properties of compound samples used eggshell powder ...................................5

Table 1.3: Compound samples of used RHA ....................................................................7

Table 1.4: Results of samples used rice husk ash ..............................................................7

Table 1.5: Compund samples of made using strach ..........................................................8

Table 1.6: Hardness results of samples prepared using starch ..........................................9

Table 1.7: Compound samples of made using walnut shell ..............................................10

Table 1.8: Hardness result of compounds samples of using walnut shell ……………….11

v
1. Background study
Rubber boasts numerous advantages that make it a versatile material for various products
like tires, hoses, seals, and cushions. To optimize rubber performance, reinforcing fillers
are incorporated into rubber compounds. This is especially vital in tire manufacturing,
where reinforcement involves adding finely divided particles to vulcanized rubber to
enhance abrasion, tear, and rupture resistance.

Tires, among the most valuable rubber products, are pivotal due to their significance and
production volume. Carbon black, commonly used in tire production, enhances tire
strength. However, carbon black is petrochemical, non-degradable, and energy-intensive
to produce, leading to environmental concerns like CO2 emissions and dust.

Recent developments in the tire industry focus on green tires, spurring the replacement
of carbon black with silica as a filler. Amorphous precipitated silica combined with a
Silane coupling agent in tread compounds can result in fuel savings of 3% to 4%, reducing
rolling resistance and greenhouse gas emissions. Rice, a significant food crop, also
contains ample silica in its husk, offering an eco-friendly alternative.

Creating a cost-effective high-hardness tread compound for bicycle tires is crucial. Such
compounds are essential to enhance tire durability, grip, and puncture resistance while
remaining affordable. Tire hardness is measured on the Shore durometer scale. However,
decreased hardness due to wear or temperature changes can lead to reduced traction,
shorter lifespan, and compromised handling. This affects safety, fuel efficiency, and
overall performance, necessitating timely tire replacements.

1
1.1 Overview
A cost-effective high hardness tread compound for bicycle tires is a material used in the
production of bicycle tires that offers excellent durability, grip, and puncture resistance
while also being affordable to produce. The hardness of the compound is an essential
factor in providing good performance and durability to the tire.

To achieve a cost-effective high hardness tread compound for bicycle tires, manufacturers
often use a combination of synthetic rubber compounds and reinforcing fillers such as
carbon black or silica. These materials provide the necessary durability and grip while
maintaining a low cost of production.

One challenge in developing a cost-effective high hardness tread compound is finding the
right balance between durability and rolling resistance. Harder compounds tend to be
more durable but also have higher rolling resistance, which can affect the bike's overall
performance. Therefore, manufacturers must carefully balance the hardness of the
compound with other factors such as grip and rolling resistance to produce a high-quality
tire.

Overall, a cost-effective high hardness tread compound for bicycle tires is an essential
component for creating durable, long-lasting, and high-performance bicycle tires that can
withstand the demands of various riding conditions. It is an excellent investment for both
cyclists and manufacturers looking to produce quality bicycle tires at an affordable price
point.

2
1.2 Problem Identification and Justification
The problem is that there is a need for a cost-effective high-hardness tread compound for
bicycle tires. Currently available compounds are either expensive or do not provide the
desired level of hardness required for durability and performance of the tire. Bicycle tires
are subject to wear and tear due to the friction between the tire and the road surface. Tread
compounds with high hardness are essential for improving the durability and longevity of
bicycle tires. A high-hardness tread compound would ensure that the tire can withstand
frequent use and various weather conditions, reducing the need for frequent replacements.
Additionally, a cost-effective solution is necessary to make this technology accessible to
a wider range of cyclists. Many cyclists are looking for affordable and durable tires that
can perform well under different conditions, such as commuting, racing, or touring.
Therefore, developing a cost-effective high-hardness tread compound for bicycle tires
would provide a valuable solution for the cycling community.

1.3 Objectives
Main objectives

• To study the cost-effective hardness tread compound for bicycle tires.

Specific objectives

• To study low-cost bio fillers for making tread compound for bicycle tires.
• To study fillers that can increase hardness.
• To identify the tread compound and its properties.

3
1.4 Literature Review and Industrial Information

1.4.1 Use of eggshell powder for rubber compounds.

A number of researchers have been conducted to improve rubber compounds using egg
shell, a cheap and readily available bio-waste.
Eggshell contains 94% calcium carbonate, 1%
magnesium carbonate, 1% calcium phosphate and
4% organic matter, so it is important to consider it
as a bio filler. A test done using eggshell powder is
as follows.

Figure 1.1: Eggshell and Eggshell Powder

(Source - https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ruralsprout.com%2Feggshell-
uses%2F&psig=AOvVaw0F_UMm0HzII4vTUu8hq1PS&ust=1691754937207000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89

978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCIClurWE0oADFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE)

Eggshell were collected and cleaned, dried and ground at 850C and mixed with reclaim
rubber at a temperature of 400C in a rotating mixing machine at 40 rpm and 10 compound
sample were made as shown in the table (Table 1.1) below. The sample were then
vulcanized in a hydraulic press under a pressure of 180 kg/cm2 at 1400C for 20 minutes.

Table 1.1: Formulation of compound samples used eggshell powder

Ingredients (phr) ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP
0 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 10

Reclaim Rubber 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Eggshell Powder 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10

Zinc Oxide 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2..5

Stearic acid 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

MBT 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

Sulphur 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

DPG 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

According to table 1.2, the results of the tests conducted using eggshell powder can be
seen. In term of tensile strength, the sample without ESP has higher tensile value. As the

4
 amount of ESP is increased, a decrease in tensile strength can be seen and sometimes
increased. A fluctuation in value may be observed. It can be seen in the Figure 1.2.

Table 1.2: Results of compound samples used eggshell powder

Samples ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP
0 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 10

Test

Optimum cure time (tc 90)/ min. 15.48 15.44 15.42 15.45 14.8 14.9 14.18 14.96 14.23 14.32

Scorch time (ts 2) min 3.39 3.45 3.78 3.78 3.45 3.12 3.4 3.5 3.7 3.37

Min. torque 0.85 0.88 0.85 0.75 0.8 0.77 1.06 1.15 1.12 0.9

Max. torque 10.36 10.32 11.12 10.45 10.47 10.89 9.51 9.85 9.89 9.65

Tensile strength (MPa) 74 75 66 72 67 63 60 60 61

% Elongation break 250 260 260 256 260 250 240 230 240 230

Hardness (Shore A) 62 64 64 62 66 65 63 61 62 63

Tensile strength

90

80
Tensile Strength (MPa)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
ESP 0 ESP 01 ESP 02 ESP 03 ESP 04 ESP 05 ESP 06 ESP 07 ESP 08 ESP 10

Compound Samples

Figure 1.2: Tensile strength of compound samples used ESP

5
 Hardness Results
67
66
Hardness Results (Shore A)

65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
ESP 0 ESP 01 ESP 02 ESP 03 ESP 04 ESP 05 ESP 06 ESP 07 ESP 08 ESP 10
Compound Samples

Figure 1.3: Hardness results of compound samples used ESP

That hardness results of that research can be graphed as above. According to the above
graph, it can be seen that the hardness of the ESP 04 sample is higher. There is no clear
pattern when testing the hardness of these samples.

1.4.2 Use of rice husks ash for rubber compounds.

Rise husks are widely disposed of as an
agricultural waste, so their use as fillers in rubber
compounds is important. The use of rice husks to
improve the mechanical properties of rubber
compounds should be explored due to their
inherent silica content.

Figure 1.4: Rice husk ash

(Source - https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ricehuskashmalaysia.com%2Frice-husk-
ash-
malaysia%2F&psig=AOvVaw0CIWUq7FIotz4wrVUtyN9y&ust=1691754628458000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi
=89978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCNCPtaKD0oADFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE)

But research has found that using rice husks in it’s original form is not successful.
Therefore, it is used to refer to chemical changes. Mercerzation, Permanganate, Acid
leaching are some of them.

6
In the test we are considering, rice husks were treated in different media and baked for 6
hours at 6000C and 6 rubber compound samples were made as shown in the table below.

Table 1.3: Compound samples of used RHA

Ingredients (phr) RHA 01 RHS 02 RHS 03 RHS 04 RHS 05 RHS 06

Natural Rubber 100 100 100 100 100 100

Zinc oxide 2 2 2 2 2 2
Stearic Acid 3 3 3 3 3 3
TMQ 2 2 2 2 2 2
MBTS 3 3 3 3 3 3

RHA 30 34 38 42 46 50
Sulphur 5 5 5 5 5 5
Processing Oil 10 10 10 10 10 10

Then this compound samples were pressed in a hydraulic press at 1300C for 20 minutes
under a pressure of 2.5 MPa. The results are shown in the table below.

Table 1.4: Results of samples used RHA

Samples RHA 01 RHA 02 RHA 03 RHA 04 RHA 05 RHA 06
Test

Tensile Test 13.5 15.2 17.7 18.5 14.9 14.7

(MPa)
Modules 4.55 5.4 7.2 7.8 6.9 7.2
(MPa)
Hardness 40.7 42.2 45 45.3 47 47.8
(Shore A)

Considering the hardness results in the table above, it is clear that the hardness of the
sample that has more rice husks ash in higher. It is clear that rice husks ash increases the
hardness.

7
1.4.3 Use of starch for rubber compounds.
Starch is common in nature and can be obtained from cereals (wheat, corn and rice), roots
or tubers (potatoes and cassava) and sugar, fruits and vegetables.

Figure 1.5: Starch Powder

(Source-https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fsciencing.com%2Fmake-corn-starch-water-
vinegar-7806673.html&psig=AOvVaw0aMo0xz8Prn1qrB-
c0DC1s&ust=1691755031173000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCPCGneOE0o
ADFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE)

The starch produced by plant cells is defined as a semicrystalline biopolymer with a

general formula (C6H10O5)n. It has a granular form and consists mainly of two types of
polysaccharides, Amylopectin and Amylose, with different structures and functions.
There are also limited amounts of lipids proteins and minerals. Starch is an important
substance for developing sustainable materials due to its low cost, biodegradable
properties and renewability. But, direct incorporation of hydrophilic starch into natural
rubber (NR) matrix results in deterioration of the mechanical properties of NR
composites. Here we consider a test conducted using BmiCl and APTES.

Table 1.5: Formulation of compound samples used starch

Ingredient ST 0 ST 01 ST 02 ST 03 ST 04
Phr
NR 100 100 100 100 100
Sulphur 2 2 2 2 2
ZnO 5 5 5 5 5
MBT 2 2 2 2 2
St.A. 1 1 1 1 1
Starch 0 10 20 20 20
BmiCl 0 0 0 2 0
APTES 0 0 0 0 2

8
NR compounds were prepared according to the general formulations presented in Table
5, using laboratory two-roll mill. The average temperature of the rolls during rubber
preparation was approximately 300C. Bio fillers were mixed with APTES and BmiCl,
respectively, before being incorporated into the rubber compounds. The vulcanization of
NR compounds was carried out using a hydraulic press with electrical heating. It was
carried out at a temperature of 1600C and a pressure of 15 MPa.

The table (Table 6) below shows the hardness results of those samples. Considering the
examined samples, the type of bio filler slightly affected their hardness. As expected, the
unfilled benchmark exhibited the lowest hardness of 31 Shore A.

Table 1.6: Results of compound samples used starch

Samples ST 0 ST 01 ST 02 ST 03 ST 04

Hardness 31 33 33 35 38
(Shore A)

Tensile 10.4 12 11.7 11 11.5

strength
(MPa)

Introduction of starch slightly enhanced the hardness of NR sample compared to the

unfilled sample. Addition of APTES and BmiCl caused a further increase in the hardness
of NR samples filled with starch, which was due to the higher crosslink density of those
samples as compared to sample without these additives.

Taking into account the effect of starch on the hardness of NR samples, this bio filler can
be classified as inactive filler, which can be used alternatively to commercial inactive
filler, e.g., chalk and talc.

Applying starch as inactive bio filler of NR composites seems to be a good way to manage
plant waste from the food industry.

9
1.4.4 Use of walnut shells for rubber compounds.
Walnut shells are one of the agricultural
biomass waste materials sourced from the
walnut dry fruit. Walnuts are widely
planted in the world.

Figure 1.6: Walnut shell

(Source-
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwalnutshellpowder.wordpress.com%2Fpage%2F2%2F&ps
ig=AOvVaw0I_2mDvj3juemLq6-
sTWyQ&ust=1691755138523000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCIDMhJaF0oA
DFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE)

Walnut consists of 60% kernel (the oily material) and 40% of shell (the hard covering of
the walnut). The inner part of walnut has wide applications in many sectors of the
economy. It is mainly used as dry fruit for medicine preparation, cosmetics, and several
other applications. In contrast, the nutshell often remains unused as a waste. Its usage as
a bio filler material would make this waste a valuable by-product.
Here let’s examine a test done using walnut shell for rubber compounds.
Similar to the test conducted using starch above, in this test, these sample were produced
at an average temperature of 3000C in a double roll mill. Bio fillers were mixed with
APTES and BmiCl, respectively, before being incorporated into the rubber compounds.

Table 1.7: Formulation of compound samples used walnut shell

Ingredient Phr WSP 01 WSP 02 WSP 03 WSP 04

NR 100 100 100 100

Sulphur 2 2 2 2
ZnO 5 5 5 5
MBT 2 2 2 2
St.A. 1 1 1 1
Walnut shell 10 20 20 20
BmiCl 0 0 2 0
APTES 0 0 0 2
The samples made according to table 7 were vulcanized in a hydraulic press at a
temperature of 1600C and a pressure of 15 MPa, as well as the test conducted using the
above starch.

10
Then its hardness is tested. APTES and BmiCl did not considerably influence the
hardness of NR vulcanizates filled with walnut shells. Taking into account the effect of
walnut shells on the hardness of NR vulcanizates, this bio filler can be classified as
inactive filler, which can be used alternatively to commercial inactive filler.
Walnut shell waste is sufficient to dry and grind to obtain a powder that can be
incorporated into the rubber compound.
Importantly, during the preparation of the NR compounds, no difficulties were noticed
when incorporating the ground walnut shells into the rubber.

Table 1.8: Results of compound samples used walnut shell

Samples WSP 01 WSP 02 WSP 03 WSP 04

Hardness 34 32 32 34
(Shore A)

Tensile 11.3 10.8 9.8 11.1

strength
(MPa)

APTES and BmiCl did not considerably influence the hardness of NR vulcanizates filled
with walnut shells. Taking into account the effect of walnut shells on the hardness of NR
vulcanizates, this bio filler can be classified as inactive filler, which can be used
alternatively to commercial inactive filler.
Walnut shell waste is sufficient to dry and grind to obtain a powder that can be
incorporated into the rubber compound. Importantly, during the preparation of the NR
compounds, no difficulties were noticed when incorporating the ground walnut shells into
the rubber.

11
2.Options and Proposals
2.1 Options
• Use of Eggshell powder to improve compounds.
• Use of Rice husk ash to improve compounds.
• Use of Starch to improve compounds.
• Use of Walnut shell to improve compounds.

2.2 Comparison of options

The utilization of various bio fillers in rubber compounds has garnered significant
attention as an eco-friendly method to augment material properties and address waste
disposal concerns. Prominent among the investigated bio fillers are eggshell powder, rice
husk ash, starch, and walnut shells, all showing promise in reinforcing rubber composites
and examined for their impact on hardness.

Eggshell powder, sourced from discarded eggshells, holds potential due to its high
calcium carbonate content. Its incorporation in rubber compounds exhibits a nuanced
effect on tensile strength. While generally reducing tensile strength, deviations from this
trend introduce complexity to the interaction between eggshell powder and rubber, as
depicted in Figure 1.2.

Rice husk ash, a by-product of agriculture, boasts silica content and consistently bolsters
tensile strength. Incremental ash content correlates with improved mechanical properties,
as supported by Table 1.4 data and Figure 1.3 hardness graph.

Starch, a common natural substance, initially contributes modestly to hardness. Yet, with
coupling agents like APTES and BmiCl, significant hardness enhancements arise. This
implies that starch, while inert in its natural form, can be activated and optimized via
chemical alterations, showcased in Table 1.6.

Walnut shells, another agricultural byproduct, mirror the starch scenario, where coupling
agents amplify hardness. Table 1.8 affirms this, emphasizing coupling agents' role in
enhancing walnut shell reinforcement.

Comparing these bio fillers in rubber compounds underscores their diverse effects on
material properties. Eggshell powder's intricate interaction, rice husk ash's consistent
reinforcement, and starch and walnut shells' potential via coupling agents collectively
broaden the knowledge of filler interactions and modifications. These insights contribute

12
to sustainable material development, tapping into bio waste's potential for refined rubber
compound properties.

2.3 Expected outcomes of each option

2.3.1 Expected Outcomes of Using Eggshell Powder for Rubber Compounds.
The incorporation of eggshell powder (ESP) into rubber compounds is anticipated to yield
diverse outcomes based on the amount of eggshell powder added.

Tensile Strength: As observed from the test results, the tensile strength of rubber
compounds tends to decrease as the amount of eggshell powder increases. However, there
might be occasional fluctuations in the trend. This implies that higher concentrations of
ESP could result in reduced tensile strength.

Optimum Cure Time (tc 90): The incorporation of eggshell powder may slightly influence
the cure time of rubber compounds. While not a significant factor, higher ESP content
might marginally affect the cure time.

Scorch Time (ts 2): Scorch time, an indicator of premature vulcanization, remains
relatively stable with the addition of eggshell powder. Minimal variations are expected in
scorch time values across different ESP concentrations.

Torque Values: The minimum and maximum torque values generally show moderate
changes with increasing eggshell powder content. These variations suggest subtle
alterations in the curing characteristics of the rubber compounds.

Elongation at Break: The percentage of elongation at break appears to remain relatively

consistent across different ESP concentrations. This indicates that the ductility and
flexibility of the rubber are not significantly affected by the addition of eggshell powder.

Hardness (Shore A): Eggshell powder contributes to a slight reduction in rubber

compound hardness. However, the relationship between ESP concentration and hardness
is not strictly linear, showing some deviations.

2.3.2 Expected Outcomes of Using Rice Husk Ash for Rubber Compounds.
The use of rice husk ash (RHA) as a filler in rubber compounds is expected to lead to the
following outcomes.

13
Tensile Strength: Rubber compounds filled with rice husk ash exhibit improved tensile
strength with increasing RHA content. Higher concentrations of RHA result in higher
tensile strength values, indicating enhanced mechanical properties.

Modules: The addition of rice husk ash contributes to increased modules (stiffness) of
rubber compounds. As RHA content rises, the stiffness of the rubber compounds is
enhanced.

Hardness (Shore A): The hardness of rubber compounds generally increases as the content
of rice husk ash rises. This suggests that RHA has a reinforcing effect on the rubber
matrix, leading to greater hardness.

The use of rice husk ash in rubber compounds results in improvements in tensile strength,
stiffness, and hardness. This makes RHA a potentially valuable bio filler for enhancing
the mechanical properties of rubber products.

2.3.3 Expected Outcomes of Using Starch for Rubber Compounds.

Incorporating starch as a bio filler in rubber compounds is likely to yield the following
outcomes.

Hardness (Shore A): The addition of starch to rubber compounds leads to a slight
enhancement in hardness. The incorporation of APTES and BmiCl further increases
hardness due to heightened crosslink density.

Tensile Strength: Rubber compounds containing starch exhibit slightly improved tensile
strength compared to unfilled samples. The presence of APTES and BmiCl contributes to
a further increase in tensile strength.

2.3.4 Expected Outcomes of Using Walnut Shells for Rubber Compounds:

The utilization of walnut shells as a bio filler in rubber compounds is anticipated to lead
to the following outcomes.

Hardness (Shore A): The incorporation of walnut shell powder slightly increases the
hardness of rubber compounds. The presence of APTES and BmiCl does not significantly
impact hardness.

14
Tensile Strength: Rubber compounds filled with walnut shells may exhibit slightly higher
tensile strength compared to unfilled samples.

The use of walnut shells as a filler contributes to increased hardness and potential
improvements in tensile strength. The absence of significant changes in hardness with the
addition of APTES and BmiCl suggests that walnut shells could be a suitable alternative
to commercial inactive fillers, offering enhanced mechanical properties to rubber
compounds.

2.4 Proposal
• Development of Environmentally Friendly Bicycle Tire Tread Compounds Using
Rice Husk Ash

Conduct a comprehensive study on the properties of rubber compounds filled with rice
husk ash, including hardness, tensile strength, and other relevant mechanical
properties.Optimize the formulation of bicycle tire tread compounds by varying the
content of rice husk ash and other additives.Investigate the effect of processing
parameters, such as vulcanization temperature and time, on the final properties of the tire
tread compounds.Compare the performance of the developed rice husk ash-filled
compounds with conventional compounds in terms of durability, grip, and rolling
resistance.

• Enhanced Durability and Performance of Bicycle Tires Using Starch-Based

Tread Compounds

Investigate the effect of different starch types and concentrations on the hardness and
mechanical properties of rubber compounds. Incorporate coupling agents to further
enhance the reinforcing effect of starch and improve tire tread performance. Evaluate the
wear resistance, grip, and rolling resistance of starch-based bicycle tire tread compounds
through laboratory testing and real-world cycling trials.

• Innovative Rubber Compound Formulations for Sustainable Bicycle Tires Using

Eggshell Powder

Investigate the potential of eggshell powder as a filler for rubber compounds, focusing on
hardness, tensile strength, and other key properties. Experiment with different processing

15
techniques and additives to optimize the dispersion of eggshell powder and enhance its
reinforcing effect. Assess the environmental and economic benefits of using eggshell
powder in bicycle tire production, including reduced waste and energy consumption.

• Advancing Rubber Compound Technology for Bicycle Tires Using Walnut Shell
Fillers

Study the effect of different forms of walnut shell fillers (powder, granules, etc.) on the
hardness and performance of rubber compounds. Investigate the role of coupling agents
in optimizing the reinforcing effect of walnut shell fillers and improving overall tire tread
performance. Conduct rigorous testing to assess the durability, grip, and rolling resistance
of bicycle tire tread compounds containing walnut shell fillers.

3. Recommendations
• Making rubber compounds using rice husk ash and test all its other properties and
coming to a conclusion through those tests.
• Conducting in depth study and testing of other bio fillers that can be use in rubber
compounds.

4. References
[1] Ubi, P.A. et al. (2022) ‘Rice husk ash reinforced natural rubber composites: Effect
of benzene diazonium salt treatment.’, Nigerian Journal of Technology, 41(5), pp.
879–886. doi:10.4314/njt.v41i5.8.

[2] Sowińska-Baranowska, A., Maciejewska, M. and Duda, P. (2022) ‘The potential

application of starch and walnut shells as biofillers for natural rubber (nr)
composites’, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(14), p. 7968.
doi:10.3390/ijms23147968.

[3] BISHNOI, A. et al. (no date) Effect of bio-filler on mechanical and Cure Properties
of Reclaim Rubber. Available at:
https://www.worldresearchlibrary.org/up_proc/pdf/545-148497970448-52.pdf
(Accessed: 11 July 2023).

[4] Cheryl MagyarCheryl Magyar is a real life homesteader (2021) 15 brilliant uses for
eggshells in the home & garden + how to eat them, Rural Sprout. Available at:
https://www.ruralsprout.com/eggshell-uses/ (Accessed: 27 June 2023).

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