A.

THE CONCEPT OF TRANSLATION

The main aim of this book is to introduce the reader to major concepts and
models of translation studies. Because of the rapid growth in the area, particularly
over the last decade, difficult decisions have had to be taken regarding the selection of
material. We have decided, for reasons of space and consistency of approach, to focus
on written translation rather than oral translation (the latter is commonly known as
interpreting or interpretation), although the overlaps make a clear distinction
impossible (cf. Gile 2004).
The term translation itself has several meanings: it can refer to the general
subject field, the product (the text that has been translated) or the process (the act of
producing the translation, otherwise known as translating). The process of
translation between two different written languages involves the translator changing
an original written text (the source text or ST) in the original verbal language (the
source language or SL) into a written text (the target text or TT) in a different
verbal language (the target language or TL). This type corresponds to ‘interlingual
translation’ and is one of the three categories of translation described by the Russo-
American structuralist Roman Jakobson in his seminal paper ‘On linguistic aspects of
translation’ (Jakobson 1959/2004: 139). Jakobson’s categories are as follows:
1) intralingual translation, or ‘rewording’: ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of other signs of the same language’;
2) interlingual translation, or ‘translation proper’: ‘an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of some other language’;
3) intersemiotic translation, or ‘transmutation’: ‘an interpretation of verbal signs
by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems’.
B. WHAT IS TRANSLATION STUDIES?
Throughout history, written and spoken translations have played a crucial role
in interhuman communication, not least in providing access to important texts for
scholarship and religious purposes. Yet the study of translation as an academic subject
has only really begun in the past sixty years. In the English-speaking world, this
discipline is now generally known as ‘translation studies’, thanks to the Dutch-based
US scholar James S. Holmes. In his key defining paper delivered in 1972, but not
widely available until 1988, Holmes describes the then nascent discipline as being
concerned with ‘the complex of problems clustered round the phenomenon of
translating and translations’ (Holmes 1988b/2004: 181). By 1988, Mary Snell-
Hornby, in the first edition of her Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach, was
writing that ‘the demand that translation studies should be viewed as an independent
discipline . . . has come from several quarters in recent years’ (Snell-Hornby 1988,
preface).
By 1995, the time of the second, revised, edition of her work, Snell-Hornby is
able to talk in the preface of ‘the breathtaking development of translation studies as an
independent discipline’ and the ‘prolific international discussion’ on the subject
(Snell-Hornby 1995 preface). Mona Baker, in her introduction to the first edition of
The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation (1998), talked effusively of the richness
of the ‘exciting new discipline, perhaps the discipline of the 1990s’, bringing together
scholars from a wide variety of often more traditional disciplines.
There are two very visible ways in which translation studies has become more
prominent. First, there has been a proliferation of specialized translating and
interpreting courses at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. These courses,
which attract thousands of students, are mainly oriented towards training future
professional commercial translators and interpreters and serve as highly valued entry-
level qualifications for the translating and interpreting professions. Caminade and
Pym (1995) listed at least 250 university-level bodies in over sixty countries offering
four-year undergraduate degrees and/or postgraduate courses in translation. The
number has continued to grow. Take the example of the UK, where the study of
modern languages at university has been in decline but where the story particularly of
postgraduate courses in interpreting and translating, the first of which were set up in
the 1960s, is very different. At the time of the first edition of this book, there were at
least twenty postgraduate translation courses in the UK and several designated
‘Centres for Translation Studies’. By 2007–8, the keyword search ‘translation’
revealed over twenty institutions offering a combined total of 135 MA programmes,
even if translation was not necessarily central to all.1
Other courses, in smaller numbers, focus on the practice of literary translation.
In the UK, these include major courses at Middlesex University and the University of
East Anglia (Norwich), the latter of which also houses the British Centre for Literary
Translation. In Europe, there is now a network of centres where literary translation is
studied, practiced and promoted. Apart from Norwich, these include Amsterdam (the
Netherlands), Arles (France), Bratislava (Slovakia), Monaghan (Ireland), Rhodes
(Greece), Sineffe (Belgium), Strälen (Germany), Tarazona (Spain) and Visby
(Sweden).
The past two decades have also seen a proliferation of conferences, books
and journals on translation in many languages. Longer-standing international
translation studies journals such as Babel (the Netherlands) and Meta (Canada), which
recently celebrated its fiftieth anniversary, were joined by TTR (Canada) in 1988,
Target (the Netherlands) in 1989, and The Translator (UK) in 1995 as well as by
numerous others including Across Languages and Cultures (Hungary), Cadernos de
Tradução (Brazil), Translation and Literature (UK), Perspectives (Denmark), Rivista
Internazionale di Tecnica della Traduzione (Italy), Translation Studies (UK),
Turjuman (Morocco) and the Spanish Hermeneus, Livius and Sendebar. Online
accessibility is increasing the profile of certain publications: thus, the entire contents
of Meta are available online, issues of Babel and Target from 2000 onwards are
viewable by subscription and we now see the appearance of fully online journals such
as The Journal of Specialized Translation and New Voices (see Appendix). In
addition, there is a whole host of other single-language, modern languages, applied
linguistics, comparative literature and other journals whose primary focus may not be
translation but where articles on translation are often published. The new- and
backlists of European publishers such as Continuum, John Benjamins, Multilingual
Matters, Rodopi, Routledge and St Jerome now contain considerable numbers of
books in the field of translation studies, as is attested by the searchable online
bibliographies Translation Studies bibliography (John Benjamins) and Translation
Studies abstracts (St Jerome) (see Appendix). In addition, there are various
professional publications dedicated to the practice of translation. In the UK these
include The Linguist of the Chartered Institute of Linguists, The ITI Bulletin of the
Institute for Translating and Interpreting and In Other Words, the literary-oriented
publication of the Translators Association.
International organizations have also prospered. The Fédération
Internationale des Traducteurs, established in 1953 by the Société française des
traducteurs and its president Pierre-François Caillé, brought together national
associations of translators. In more recent years, translation studies scholars have
banded together nationally and internationally in bodies such as the Canadian
Association for Translation Studies/Association canadienne de traductologie (founded
in Ottawa in 1987), the European Society for Translation Studies (Vienna, 1992), the
 European Association for Studies in Screen Translation (Cardiff, 1995) and the
International Association of Translation and Intercultural Studies (Korea, 2004).
International conferences on a wide variety of themes are held in an increasing
number of countries, and there has been a dramatic increase in activity in China,
India, the Arab world, South Africa, Spain, Greece and Italy, amongst others. From
being a little-established field a relatively short time ago, translation studies has now
become one of the most active and dynamic new areas of research encompassing an
exciting mix of approaches. This chapter sets out to examine what exactly is
understood by this fast-growing field and briefly describes the history and aims of the
discipline.

C. Definition of Translation

According to Manser (1996:441), translation is the activity of changing

something spoken or written into another language. It means that whatever we are
doing with something (e.g. information, idea), when changed into another language is
called translation.

Catford (1965:1) defines that translation is an operation performed on

languages: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another. The
writer assumes that all of the activities of transferring a text from one language to
another are called translation.

Newmark (1988:28) says that translation is rendering the meaning of a text

into another language in the way that the author intended the text. In short, the
meaning of a text should be the same with the author’s aim when it is translated.

Therefore, Translation is the communication of meaning from one language

(the source) to another language (the target). Translation refers to written information,
whereas interpretation refers to spoken information.

The purpose of translation is to convey the original tone and intent of a

message, taking into account cultural and regional differences between source and
target languages.
 Translation has been used by humans for centuries, beginning after the
appearance of written literature. Modern-day translators use sophisticated tools and
technologies to accomplish their work, and rely heavily on software applications to
simplify and streamline their tasks.

D. Type of Translation Techniques

1) Adaptation
Adaptation is a technique that replaces the SL cultural elements with one
which has the same condition and situation in the TL culture. The translator has to
create or make a new situation that can be considered as being equivalent both in
SL and TL.
2) Amplification (Addition)
Amplification (Addition) is a technique that conveyed details that are not
formulated or stated in SL. It can be either information or paraphrasing explicitly.
It is same with addition or gain. It also can be called grammatical expansion for
clarity of meaning.
3) Borrowing
Borrowing is a technique that takes a word or expression straight from another
language. It can be copied, reproduced, translated/changed in TL exactly as in SL.
When an expression or a word is taken over purely in TL (without change), it is
called pure borrowing. In naturalized borrowing, it can be naturalized to fit the
spelling rules in the TL (with changing).
4) Calque
Calque also called as loan translation. It is a technique translation of the word
or phrase or from the SL into TL which can be lexical or structural system. It also
can be translation word-for-word in a language into another language, for example
translates each word literally.
5) Compensation
Compensation is a technique that introduces SL element of information or
stylistic effect in another place in the TL because it cannot be reflected in the
same place as in the SL.
 6) Discursive Creation
Discursive Creation is a technique that replaces a term or expression with a
description of its form or/and function. This technique is often used in the
translation of the title of film/movie/book to indicate equivalence that can only be
valid in a certain context.
7) Established Equivalence
It is a technique that use term or expression which is recognized (in dictionary
or language in use and everyday use) as an equivalent in the TL. It 9 is used to
refer to cases where language describe the same situation by different stylistic or
structural.
8) Literal Translation
It is a technique that translates a word or an expression in word for word. The
SL is translated literally, and focuses on the form and structure, without any
addition or reduction into TL.
9) Modulation
Modulation is a technique that changes the point of view in the TL in order to
focus or cognitive category in relation to SL. It is a variation of the form of the
message, obtained by a change the point of view. It allows in expressing the same
phenomenon in a different way.
10) Reduction (Omission)
Reduction is a technique that reduces certain elements of the SL. It is also
called elimination, omission or subtraction which suppressing a SL information in
the TL.
11) Transposition (Shift)
Transposition is a technique that changes a grammatical category in relation to
the source language. This technique same with shift (in category, structure and
unit shift, such as changing singular to plural, position of adjective, changing the
word class or part of speech).

E. Translation methods
1. Word-for-word translation
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with The TL
immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words
translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words
 are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to
understand the mechanics of the source language or construe a difficult text as a
pre-t ran slat ion process.
2. Literal Translation
The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL
equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a
pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.
3. Faithful translation

A faithful Translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual

meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It
'transfers' cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical
'abnormality' (deviation from SL norms) in the translation. It attempts to be
completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer.
4. Semantic translation
Semantic translation differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it
must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural
sounds of the SL text, compromising on 'meaning' where appropriate so that no
assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may
translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional
terms but not by cultural equivalents - une nonne repassant un corporal may
become 'a nun ironing a corporal cloth' - and it may make other small concessions
to the readership. The distinction between 'faithful' and 'semantic' translation is
that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible,
admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator's
intuitive empathy with the original.
5. Adaptation
This is the 'freest' form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies
and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture
converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten. The deplorable practice of
having a play or poem literally translated and then rewritten by an established
dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations, but other adaptations have
'rescued' period plays.
 6. Free translation

Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content
without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the
original, a so-called 'intralingual translation*, often prolix and pretentious, and not
translation at all.
7. Idiomatic translation
Idiomatic translation reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to
distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these
do not exist in the original- (Authorities as diverse as Seteskovitch and Stuart
Gilbert tend to this form of lively, 'natural' translation.)
8. Communicative translation
Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of
the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable
and comprehensible to the readership.

F. TRANSLATION QUALITY
Nababan, et al (2012) states three aspect of translation quality. They are
accuracy, acceptability, and readability.
1. Accuracy
Preciseness in meaning is necessary because a translator has to correctly
transfer the message delivered by the writer. Thus, the aspect of accuracy has to
be completed.
Accuracy in translation means the preciseness of message transfer of the
translation. The accuracy of the message in the source text has to be the first
aspect that a translator has to convey. Although a translator has right to change the
structure of the sentence, the information found in the product of translation has to
match with its source text. Thus, Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997:3) emphasize
accuracy as a term used in translation evaluation to refer to the extent to which a
translation matches its original.
Furthermore, Kridalaksana (as cited in Nababan, 2004: 19) also includes
language style in accuracy. Other theory also mentions the entanglement of the
equivalence in purpose and response of writing. In short, accuracy results in the
 equivalence of message correctness and language style as well as the purpose and
response intended by the writer.
2. Acceptability
If accuracy deals with meaning, acceptability is closely related to cultural
aspect. With the competencies owned, a translator has to produce natural
translation that is widely known in the readers’ society. Tiina Puurtinen (in
Hornby ,1988: 85) states that “the degree of the linguistic or stylistic acceptability
of a translation depends on the extent to which the translation conforms the norms
and conventions prevailing in the language and style of the target literature.” It
means that the product of translation should also be in accordance with the norms
prevailed in the readers’ culture. In order to fulfill the level of acceptability, the
translator has right to change the grammatical structure or the sentence
arrangements of the source text. Besides, the translator also has rights to
reconstruct, adapt, or rewrite whatever said in the source text.
3. Readability
It cannot be ignored that translation cannot be separated from reading activity.
Besides, one of the criteria of good translation is how a translation can fulfill the
aspect of readability. Thus, readability deals with how easy a translation can be
read and understood by its readers. In addition, readability also deals with the
dictions, the sentences, and the arrangements of ideas. The other important factors
are the content of a text, the appearance of a text, and the ability of both the
translator and the readers (Nababan, 1999: 64-78).

G. HOW TO TRANSLATE A BOOK: EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO

KNOW

Whether you’re a small business or self-published author, translating your

book is a great way to increase sales and reach new readers across the globe. But if
you’re not fluent in another language, you might face some challenges when it comes
to translating, localizing, and editing your book for an international audience.
Learn the the best ways to tackle these obstacles and other useful tips in our
comprehensive guide for how to translate a book:
1. Establish your end-goal
Think about why you want to translate your book into another language.
Translating a book requires time, money, and effort. Establish what you want to
achieve from translating your book and why a particular language makes sense
before you get started on the hard work.
Pro tip: If your book was originally published in English, you might want
to consider some untapped foreign markets for publishers like Indonesia, India,
China, Turkey, and South Korea.
2. Determine a target market
Once you’ve worked out which new language you want to target, you’ll
need to do your research, as well as dive into the systems of bureaucracy,
censorship, and other issues you might face publishing your book in those
countries.
Here’s some important questions to ask for market research:
 What genres are popular in the country?
 Who are my competition?
 What other titles are similar to mine?
 Will my book stand out in this market?
 Have I already sold digital or mail order copies of the English version
here?
Getting answers to these questions will go a long way to helping you
understand how your book will sell in a different country.
Pro tip: If you don’t speak your target market’s language, consider using
a professional translator or translation service to assist you.
3. Consider using machine translation
On a tight budget? If your book is non-fiction, perhaps a professional
automated translation service like Microsoft Translator would be an affordable
option to translate common words and phrases.
But while machine translation can take care of a decent amount of your
text, you’ll need a professional translator for the parts it can’t understand. The
final product must also be edited by a professional – or at least a native speaker –
for consistency and accuracy.
Be careful: Machine translation isn’t a good solution for fiction since it
lacks common phrases and sometimes uses invented language.
 Another great tool is Memsource, which integrates with Microsoft
Translator to translate a great deal of text automatically and at a surprisingly high
standard.
4. Edit and proofread
In the same way your book was proofread and edited after you wrote it,
you’ll also need an editor for the translated version of your book. An editor fixes
any spelling, grammar, and mechanical mistakes made by the translator.
Most translation services include proofreading and editing in the price of
their services. If you decide to go with a freelance translator, you’ll need to hire an
editor or second translator to double check the first translator’s work.
Editing and proofreading are additional costs, but it’s worth it to guarantee
your book is translated to a high standard and flows well in the target language.

Exercise 1

Translate the text into indonesia!

The Lion and the Mouse

Once when a lion, the king of the jungle, was asleep, a little mouse began running up and
down on him. This soon awakened the lion, who placed his huge paw on the mouse, and
opened his big jaws to swallow him.
“Pardon, O King!” cried the little Mouse, “Forgive me this time. I shall never repeat it and I
shall never forget your kindness. And who knows, I may be able to do you a good turn one of
these days!”

The Lion was so tickled by the idea of the mouse being able to help him that he lifted his paw
and let him go.

Sometime later, a few hunters captured the lion, and tied him to a tree. After that they went in
search of a wagon, to take him to the zoo.

Just then the little mouse happened to pass by. On seeing the lion’s plight, he ran up to him
and gnawed away the ropes that bound him, the king of the jungle.

“Was I not right?” said the little mouse, very happy to help the lion.

Exercise 2

Read the following text and translate into Indonesia!

Pink Beach

Pink Beach or Pantai Merah Muda is one of the beaches in Komodo Island, East Nusa
Tenggara. The beach is called Pink Beach because the sand beach is pink. The pink color of
its beach is a mixture of white sand beach colors mixed with crushed coral, shells, calcium
carbonate from marine invertebrates that are very small, and also Foraminifera, microscopic
amoeba that has a red body shell.

At Pink Beach, there are so many marine organisms. No fewer than 1,000 species of fish, 260
species of coral, and 70 species of sponge can be found here. Having so much marine life,
this place is a proper spot for snorkeling and diving for sea sports lovers.

Exercise 3

Translate the advertisement into indonesia!

Translate the procedure text into indonesia!

How to make iced tea

Ingredients :
 tea bag or tea leaves
 sugar
 ice cubes
 water
Instructions :
1. Boil the water
2. pour the water into the glass
 3. Steep tea
4. Strain the tea if you used loose leaves, or remove the tea bags.
5. Add sugar
6. add the ice cubes
7. Serve and enjoy.

How To Operate TV

Instructions :
1. plug the cable television into electricity
2. After that, press the power button to turn on the television
3. Wait untill the televison show the picture
4. Choose the channel that you want to watch use the button or the remote.
5. Set the volume use the remote or button volume
6. Last, if you want to turn off the television you can use the power button