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DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING
PROFESSIONAL STUDIES 4: CRITICAL ISSUES IN

EDUCATION
YEAR 3
R-PFS 324
LEVEL 6
CREDIT 14
CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE
Copyright ¤ SANTS Private Higher Education Institution Pty. Ltd.

PO Box 72328, Lynnwood Ridge, 0040
2020
¤ All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of research, criticism
or review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying and recording, without permission in writing from SANTS.
PROFESSIONAL STUDIES 4: CRITICAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE
2020 Edition
Programme coordinator Prof Ina Joubert

SANTS Private Higher Education Institution
Discipline coordinator Mr Hendri Kruger

Author Prof Marike de Witt

University of South Africa
Reviewer Prof Marike de Witt

University of South Africa
Dr Carin Stoltz-Urban
VORTEX Education Solutions
Language editor Tumisang Shongwe

Language editor
Technical editor Ms Bonita Duursema

Mrs Judith Brown

Graphic artist N/A
Printing BusinessPrint
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING i

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING PROGRAMME

1. WELCOME TO THE MODULE
Dear SANTS student,
We welcome you to the Professional Studies 4: Critical Issues in Education (R-PFS

324) module that forms part of the Diploma in Grade R Teaching programme and wish
you success in your studies.
The purpose of the Diploma in the Grade R Teaching programme is to offer a

curriculum that develops teachers who can acquire and eventually articulate focused
knowledge, skills and general principles appropriate for Grade R teaching, as
specified in the Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education
Qualifications (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015).
The diploma qualification requires that teachers develop a depth of specialised

knowledge, practical competencies (skills) and experience in a Grade R context. As
part of the diploma qualification, you will need to gain experience in applying what you
are learning during a period of Workplace Integrated Learning (WIL). This means you
will spend some time teaching Grade R learners in an authentic (real) context.
The Diploma in Grade R Teaching qualification programme is aligned with the Revised
Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications, in
particular Appendix C of the policy that outlines the Basic Competencies of a Beginner
Teacher (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015, Government Gazette,
No. 38487, p. 62).
2. OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAMME

At the end of the three-year Diploma in Grade R Teaching programme, you must
demonstrate the following competencies related to your own academic growth and
potential to work with Grade R learners:
x Read, write and speak the language in ways that facilitate your own academic
learning.
x Read, write, and speak the language/s of instruction related to Grade R in ways
that facilitate teaching and learning during play or instruction in the classroom.
x Demonstrate competence in communicating effectively, in general and in
relation to Grade R specialised knowledge in order to mediate and facilitate
learning.
x Interpret and use basic mathematics and elementary statistics to facilitate your
own academic learning.
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING ii
x Use information and communications technology (ICT) in daily life and when
teaching Grade R.
x Explain the contents and purpose of the national curriculum with particular
reference to Grade R.
x Demonstrate skill in planning, designing, and implementing learning
programmes that are developmentally appropriate and culturally responsive to
the Grade R context.
x Demonstrate competence in identifying and accommodating diversity in the
Grade R classroom, and in early identification of learning and social problems.
This includes planning, designing and implementing learning programmes to
accommodate diversity.
x Demonstrate competence in observing, assessing and recording learner
progress regularly.
x Reflect upon and use assessment results to solve problems and to improve
teaching and learning.
x Conduct yourself responsibly, professionally and ethically in the classroom, the
school and the broader community in which the school is located.
x Display a positive work ethic that benefits, enhances and develops the status
of the teaching profession and of early childhood education more broadly.
3. PROGRAMME STRUCTURE
The diploma is presented on the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) exit level 6
with a minimum total credit of 364, earned over the three years. The table below shows
the curriculum implementation plan of the diploma you are studying. It also tells you
how many credits each module carries. You will also see at which NQF level the study
material has been prepared and which modules you need to pass each year. This
three-year programme has been planned to strengthen the competencies you will
need as a beginner teacher.
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING iii

Outline of modules of the Diploma in Grade R Teaching programme

Module name Code NQF L Credits Module name Code NQF L Credits
YEAR 1
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
Introduction to the Language and
Academic Literacy R-ALI 110 5 14 R-LLL 120 5 12
Literacy Landscape in Grade R
Introduction to Mathematics
Fundamental Mathematics R-FMA 110 5 14 R-MAT 120 5 12
Learning in Grade R
Introduction to Life Skills in Grade
Computer Literacy R-CLI 110 5 14 R-LSK 120 5 12
R
Education Studies 1:
Education Studies 2: Theories of
Theories of Child R-EDS 111 5 12 R-EDS 122 5 12
Teaching and Learning in Context
Development in Context
C-LCX 120
Language of Conversational
C-LCZ 120
Competence: isiXhosa / isiZulu / 5 10
C-LCS 120
Sepedi / Setswana
C-LCT 120
54 48-58
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 1 R-WIL 101 5 16
Sub-total credits for Year 1: 118 -128
YEAR 2
R-FLA 221
English Home and First First Additional Language and
R-FLX 221
Additional Language and Literacy Learning in Grade R 1:
R-EHF 211 6 19 R-FLZ 221 5 12
Literacy Learning in Grade R Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu /
R-FLS 221
1 Sepedi / Setswana
R-FLT 221
R-HLA 211
Home Language and Literacy
R-HLX 211 English First Additional Language
Learning in Grade R 1:
R-HLZ 211 6 16 and Literacy Learning in Grade R R-FLE 221 5 12
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu /
R-HLS 211 1
Sepedi / Setswana
R-HLT 211
Professional Studies 1: The
Professional Studies 2: Grade R
Teacher and the Child R-PFS 211 5 12 R-PFS 222 6 14
Curriculum in Practice
Friendly Environment
Mathematics Learning in Education Studies 3: Curriculum,
R-MAT 211 6 16 R-EDS 223 6 14
Grade R 1 Pedagogy and Assessment
Life Skills in Grade R 1 R-LSK 211 6 16
60-79 28-40
Sub-total credits for Year 2: 120 - 127
YEAR 3
R-FLA 322
English Home and First First Additional Language and
R-FLX 322
Additional Language and Literacy Learning in Grade R 2:
R-EHF 312 6 19 R-FLZ 322 6 14
Literacy Learning in Grade R Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu /
R-FLS 322
2 Sepedi / Setswana
R-FLT 322
R-HLA 312
Home Language and Literacy
R-HLX 312 English First Additional Language
Learning in Grade R 2:
R-HLZ 312 6 16 and Literacy Learning in Grade R R-FLE 322 6 14
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu /
R-HLS 312 2
Sepedi / Setswana
R-HLT 312
Mathematics Learning in Education Studies 4: Education
R-MAT 312 6 16 R-EDS 324 6 14
Grade R 2 Policy and Practice
Professional Studies 3: Early
Professional Studies 4: Critical
Years Teacher Identity and R-PFS 313 6 14 Issues in Education
R-PFS 324 6 14
the Profession
Life Skills in Grade R 2 R-LSK 312 6 16
62-81 28-42
Sub-total credits for Year 3: 126 - 131
Total credits for programme 364 - 386
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING iv

Language competencies will be assessed during the course of your programme.
The modules in the programme can be divided into five broad types of learning
(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015, pp. 9–11). Each type of learning
develops a combination or mix of specific knowledge, values and attitudes,
competencies and skills to achieve the overall exit level outcomes of the programme.
The different types of learning are:
Fundamental learning, which includes student personal and academic

development
x This type of learning involves academic literacy, critical literacies for teachers,
fundamental mathematics, computer literacy, digital pedagogies for teachers
and the ability to converse competently in a second official language.
Disciplinary learning
x Disciplinary learning refers to disciplinary or subject matter knowledge and

includes the study of education and its foundations as well as the study of
specific specialised (phase specific) subject matter.
Situational learning
x Situational learning refers to knowledge of the varied learning situations of

learners and specifically learning about the context and environments of the
learner and related educational policies.
Pedagogical learning
x This learning incorporates general pedagogical knowledge referring to the study

of principles, practices and methods of teaching; as well as specialised
pedagogical content or subject knowledge which includes how to present
concepts, methods, strategies, approaches and rules of a specific discipline
when teaching.
x It also includes tools for implementing teaching and learning and assessment
in context.
Practical learning
x This learning involves learning from practice, which includes the study of
practice by analysing different practices across contexts e.g. drawing from case
studies, observation of lessons and videos; and learning in practice in authentic
and simulated classroom environments.
x Workplace Integrated Learning takes place in the workplace and can include
aspects of learning from practice and learning in practice.
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING v
Depending on the purpose of a qualification, particular mixes of the five types of

learning are made. These mixes are called the knowledge mix of a module
(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015, p. 11) and are related to the NQF
level and credit value of a module. The NQF level of knowledge for this module is set
at level 6 and it carries 14 credits. For every credit, you should spend approximately
10 hours mastering the content. You will thus have to spend at least 140 hours
studying the R-PFS 324 material and doing the assignments and other assessments.
The knowledge mix of this level 6 module with the related credits is as follows:
x Disciplinary learning (11 credit);

x Pedagogical learning (2 credits); and
x Situational learning (1 credit).
Most modules display an integration of the above-mentioned types of learning. Apart

from the knowledge mix, the programme structure is also based on three broad
organising principles. The modules in this programme have been grouped according
to these principles as illustrated in the following table.
Organising principles of the programme structure of the Diploma in Grade R

Teaching programme
Organising principles Modules in programme

Personal and Academic Literacy
academic Fundamental Mathematics
development Computer Literacy
(Fundamental Language of Conversational Competence
modules)
Theoretical and Education Studies 1: Theories of Child Development in
Conceptual Context
Content Education Studies 2: Theories of Teaching and
Knowledge Learning in Context
(Core modules) Education Studies 3: Curriculum, Pedagogy and
Assessment
Education Studies 4: Education Policy and Practice
Professional Studies 1: The Teacher and the Child
Friendly Environment
Professional Studies 2: Grade R Curriculum in Practice
Professional Studies 3: Early Years Teacher Identity
and the Profession
Professional Studies 4: Critical Issues in Education
Pedagogical Content Introduction to the Language and Literacy Landscape in
Knowledge Grade R
Introduction to Mathematics Learning in Grade R
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING vi

Organising principles Modules in programme

Mathematics Learning in Grade R 1 and 2
Introduction to Life Skills in Grade R
Life Skills in Grade R 1 and 2
Languages:
Six language options:
English Home and First Additional Language and

Literacy Learning in Grade R 1 and 2
Choose another (additional) language at Home
Language level OR First Additional Language level:
Afrikaans, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana
Only if Afrikaans is chosen as another language:
choose between isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana as
Language of Conversational Competence (LoCC)
Afrikaans Home Language and Literacy Learning in

Grade R 1 and 2
English First Additional Language 1 and 2
Choose between isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana
as Language of Conversational Competence (LoCC)
isiXhosa Home Language and Literacy Learning in

Grade R 1 and 2
isiZulu Home Language and Literacy Learning in

Grade R 1 and 2
Sepedi Home Language and Literacy Learning in

Grade R 1 and 2
Setswana Home Language and Literacy Learning in

Grade R 1 and 2
Students draw on what they have learnt in the respective (all) modules to learn in and
through practice during Workplace Integrated Learning.
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING vii

4. PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE

Purpose
This module aims to provide students with conceptual tools to understand, analyse,
and respond to contemporary and critical issues in education from a social justice
perspective.
Learning outcomes
At the end of this module students should be able to:
x Understand perspectives on social justice in education.

x Understand critical issues in South Africa that shape learners and their
experience of school.
x Understand critical issues in South Africa that shape learning and teaching.
x Critically analyse factors shaping school and classroom practices in a localised
context.
x Design and implement responses to localised school and classroom issues and
challenges.
x Reflect on teacher’s role as an agent of change.
Content
Using social justice theoretical and conceptual foundations, this module addresses
issues of poverty and disease, language, and economic injustice and analyses how
these shape the world of education in general and the lives of teachers and learners
in particular. Students will not only gain insight into ways in which these social issues
manifest and impact teaching and learning and the outcomes of education, but also
their role as change agents who can address these issues in schools and classrooms.
The content comprises:
x Perspectives on social justice in education.

x Critical issues in South Africa that shape learners and their experience of
school.
x Critical issues in South Africa that shape learning and teaching.
x Factors shaping school and classroom practices in a localised context.
x Responding to localised school and classroom issues and challenges.
x Teachers as agents of change.
Competencies
x Developed professional sensitivity and awareness of social issues and

challenges as they affect teaching and learning.
x Research into social issues influencing schools and classrooms.
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING viii
x Addressing social injustices through responsive praxis.
5. WORKING THROUGH THE CURRICULUM AND

LEARNING GUIDE
We developed the CLG to help you master the content through a distance education
mode. You will not have full time tutoring or support but the Student Orientation
Booklet, accessible at MySANTS, offers guidelines for distance learning. Aspects
such as plagiarism are also explained in this booklet. Make use of MySANTS as a
support system for any academic queries.
These guidelines will help you:
x Work consistently throughout the semester;

x Manage your time efficiently;
x Complete assignments on time; and
x Prepare for tests and examinations.
As you read the CLG, draw on your own experiences and the knowledge you already
have. The core text (CLG) and recommended reading texts included in the CLG will
also help you to deepen your understanding of the content and concepts you are
working through.
In the CLG, you will find a glossary (wordlist). The word list will help you understand
difficult concepts by providing the definitions (meaning) of such words.
You will also find icons (small pictures). The icons indicate the type of activity you
must do. If you do each activity as suggested, you ought to advance and consolidate
your understanding of the core concepts in the module. You will find a list of the icons
used in this CLG on the next page.
Reading and writing activities have been designed to help you make connections
with what you already know, master the content and reflect on what you have learnt.
Scenarios (situations resembling an authentic (real-life) context) and dialogues
provide background to what you are learning. The review/self-assessment questions
are based on the learning outcomes.
Doing each activity will help you understand the content. Get a book or file in which
you complete all your activities. Write full sentences and always use your own words
to show your understanding. Working systematically through each activity, according
to the estimated time for each activity as provided, will also help prepare you for
assessments (assignments and the examination).
Try to find other students to work with. It is easier to share ideas and complete
activities when working in a study group. Doing so, may help you to master the
content more easily.
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING ix

Commentaries appear at the bottom of some activities. Commentaries are not

answers but rather a reflection to guide your understanding of the activity and to assist
you in knowing whether your own answer is appropriate or not. These commentaries
alert you to aspects you need to consider when doing the activity.
WRITING ACTIVITY
An activity is designed to help you assess your progress
and manage your learning. Sometimes you will have to
define, explain, and/or interpret a concept. Scenarios and
dialogues are often used to contextualise an activity. They
will also help you bridge theory and practice by linking the
concept and real-life situations. When responding to the
activities, use your own words to show your
understanding. Do not copy directly from the text of the
CLG. At the end of most activities, you will find
commentary that aims to guide your thinking and assess
how well you have understood the concepts. The activities
are numbered for easy reference.
READING ACTIVITY
Reading activities may require you to read additional
material not printed in the Curriculum and Learning Guide.
These readings will be either the full text or part of a core
or recommended journal article. Journal articles will give
you an expanded or alternative view on a concept. You
might be required to explain the concept from a different
perspective or compare what has been stated in the CLG
with what you read in the journal article.
STUDY GROUP DISCUSSION
All study group discussion or peer activities require
preparation BEFORE the discussion. Preparation includes
reading and completing activities in writing. Study group
discussions are an opportunity for reflection and for you to
apply what you have learnt. Sharing your learning
experiences may help you to learn with and from each
other. Study group discussions can be done in your own
study group or with a peer.
REFLECTION
Reflection means to think deeply or carefully about
something. Reflection activities require you to review
critically what you have learnt and link this with your
personal experiences or what you have observed during
Workplace Integrated Learning (WIL).
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING x

REVIEW / SELF-ASSESSMENT
Often questions are provided at the end of each unit to
assist self-assessment. These questions are similar to the
type of questions that you may be asked in assignments
or examinations.
6. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING
As a distance education student, it is your responsibility to engage with the content
and to direct your own learning by managing your time efficiently and effectively. We
designed the following self-directed learning programme template so that you can plan
your time carefully and manage your independent learning. The template will also help
you to keep to due dates and thus complete the assignments on time. Careful time
management and breaking the work up into manageable chunks will help you work
through the content without feeling too stressed. Once you have worked through the
activities you should be able to contribute to discussions in your study group and during
the non-compulsory student academic support sessions with peers and academic
tutors.
When completing the template, consider the following:
x This module is offered in the second semester of your third year of study.
x The semester is 15 - 20 weeks long.
x The module carries 14 credits and has been developed for NQF level 6. It
should take you about 140 hours to work through this module.
x The 140 hours will be spent reading, studying, and completing the activities in
this CLG, as well as the assignments. You will also spend time preparing and
writing the examination.
x The estimated time to read for and complete each activity has been suggested.
x You will need 5 to 10 hours to complete each assignment. This means you will
need to budget about 20 hours in total.
x You should plan to spend about 10 to 20 hours preparing for the examination
in order to be successful.
Plan your studies and keep pace of your progress by completing the template below.
It is not divided into specific weeks, but into the number of units in the CLG. Depending
on the nature of the content, it is possible to complete two or more units in one week.
Sometimes, you may only be able to complete one unit in a week. Use the template
as a guide to help you plan and pace yourself as you work through the content, and
activities in each unit.
Add dates to the template indicating when you plan to start working through a particular
unit. In addition, using a SANTS academic calendar will also assist you to pace your
learning. There is also space to indicate the due dates (deadlines) of the assessments.
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING xi

DATE
UNIT IN CLG CONCEPTS IN CLG
PLANNED
UNIT 1 Introduction to social justice
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN
BASIC EDUCATION Social justice in basic education
Challenges and constraints in the

South African basic education
UNIT 2
system
CRITICAL ISSUES IN
Responses to challenges and
BASIC EDUCATION
constraints in basic education
IN SOUTH AFRICA
Teachers as agents of change
ASSIGNMENT 1
ASSIGNMENT 2
EXAMINATION
7. CORE READING
Core readings are an important part of your studies as you need to refer to these
text(s) when answering some of the questions in the activities:
Spitzman, E. & Balconi, A. (2019). Social Justice in Action: A Document Analysis

of the Integration of Social Justice Principles into Teaching. Journal of the
Scholarship of Teaching & Learning, 19(5), pp. 1–17. Available at EBSCOhost
permalink:
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=140966665&sit
e=ehost-live
The text for core reading is available on EBSCOhost via the link provided. To access
the core reading text that are available on EBSCOhost use the library tab on
MySANTS and click on the EBSCOhost link.
8. RECOMMENDED READING
As a distance education student, you cannot only rely on your CLG and the reader.
We recommend that you also study the following sources so that you have broader
insight into the study material:
Van der Berg, S., Spaull, N., Wills, G., Gustafsson, M. & Kotzé, J. (2016).
Identifying Binding Constraints in Education, RESEP. Stellenbosch: Department
of Economics, University of Stellenbosch. Available online at:
https://resep.sun.ac.za/index.php/identifying-binding-constraints-in-education/
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING xii
You can access the library tab on MySANTS and then click on the EBSCOhost link.
9. ASSESSMENT OF THE MODULE

The SANTS assessment policy is included in the Student Orientation Booklet and is
also available on MySANTS. The policy provides information regarding the types of
assessment you will need to do. It includes information about progression rules,
perusal of marks, or requests for remarking assessments.
In this module, both formative and summative assessment are done over a period of
time (continuous assessment). The activities in the Curriculum and Learning Guide
(CLG) are varied and are aimed at assisting you with self-directed learning. Reflecting
on what you are learning and discussing it in a study group is always helpful. The
personal reflection is aimed at revision, reinforcement, and self-assessment while
informal peer assessment takes place during the group discussions. The following
table provides a summary of the assessment for this module:
9.1 Summary of assessment

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT FORM OF ASSESSMENT WEIGHTING
Formative assessment 2 Assignments (100 marks each) 60%
Summative Examination (50 marks) 40%
TOTAL 100%
The following conditions are applicable:
9.2 Self-assessment
An activity aimed at self-assessment is included at the end of each unit. Before you
complete the self-assessment activity, reflect on what you have learnt in the unit.
Revise the main concepts and if there is any topic or concept, of which you are unsure,
go back to the relevant unit and revise it.
9.3 Assignments
To support you in your self-directed learning and to keep track of your own progress,
we will provide guidelines or the memoranda on MySANTS after the assignments have
been marked and returned.
In order to demonstrate that you have gained the knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes described in the learning outcomes of the module, you need to do the
following:
x Complete and submit each assignment (100 marks) before the due date.
x Submit both assignments that constitute 60% of your final promotion mark to
qualify for admission to the examination.
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING xiii
The task brief (specific information regarding what to do and how to prepare for each
assignment) will be explained in the assignment itself. These assignments are
provided at the beginning of the first semester together with your CLG for this module.
The assignments are also available on MySANTS.
9.4 Semester examination

At the end of the semester, you have the opportunity to sit for a formal summative
assessment. This includes the following:
x Write a formal examination, out of 50 marks that will constitute 40% of your
final promotion mark. Please read the SANTS Assessment Policy that deals
with all aspects of the general assessment and the examination policy.
x A minimum of 40% in the examination is required to qualify for a
supplementary examination.
x To qualify for examination admission, both assignments must be submitted on
the respective due dates.
10. PLAGIARISM WARNING FOR STUDENTS

Plagiarism is a form of academic misconduct that can lead to educational or
disciplinary action and has severe consequences - in some cases civil or criminal
prosecution.
You are guilty of plagiarism if you copy from another person’s work (e.g. a book, an
article, a website or even another student’s assignment) without acknowledging the
source and thereby pretending it is your own work. You would not steal someone’s
purse so why steal his/her work or ideas. Submitting any work that you have written
but have already used elsewhere (thus not “original”), is also a form of plagiarism
(auto-plagiarism). An example is when you submit the same assignment or a part of it
for two different modules.
Avoiding plagiarism by being academically honest is not difficult. Here is what you
should do:
x Submit only your own and original work.

x When using another person’s actual words, sentences or paragraphs, Indicate
exactly which parts are not your own (even if presented in the CLG). You must
do this by referencing in accordance with the APA style - a recognised system
specified by SANTS, and you must use quotation marks (“...”).
x You must also reference precisely when using another person’s ideas, opinions
or theory. You must do so even if you have paraphrased using your own words.
x You must acknowledge any information or images that you have downloaded
from the Internet by providing the URL link (web address) and the date on which
the item was accessed (downloaded).
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING xiv

x Never allow any student to use or copy any work from you and then to present
it as their own.
x Never copy what other students have done to present as your own.
x Prepare original assignments for each module and do not submit the same work
for another module.
x Always list any student who contributed to a group assignment. Never submit
the work as if only you worked on the assignment.
The Examination Regulations and Procedures policy contains the following in

Section 7.10:
“Students may not act in a dishonest way with regard to any test or examination
assessment, as well as with regard to the completion and/or submission of any
other academic task or assignment. Dishonest conduct includes, among other
things, plagiarism, as well as the submission of work by a student for the
purpose of assessment, when the work in question is, with the exception of
group work as decided by the Academic Committee, the work of somebody
else either in full or in part, or where the work is the result of collusion between
the student and another person or persons.”
All cases of suspected plagiarism will be investigated and if you are found guilty, there
are serious consequences. Disciplinary action that may result includes:
x You may lose marks for the assignment/activity. Your marks may be reduced
by as much as 50%. You may even be given zero.
x The module may be cancelled and you will have to enrol again. This is a great
waste of time and money.
x Your registration for that entire year may be cancelled. That means all the marks
you achieved in all the modules you enrolled for will count anything.
x In some cases, prosecutions in courts of law may be instituted.
Plagiarism is considered such a serious academic crime that you are required to sign
the standard document (Declaration of Original Work) to every assignment that you
submit by either using the assignment booklet or electronic submission. The
Declaration of Original Work is printed on the cover of the assignment booklets.
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING xv

CONTENT
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING PROGRAMME ................................................ ii
1. WELCOME TO THE MODULE........................................................................ ii
2. OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAMME ............................................................. ii
3. PROGRAMME STRUCTURE......................................................................... iii
4. PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE...................................................................... viii
5. WORKING THROUGH THE CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE .......... ix
6. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING ........................................................................ xi
7. CORE READING ........................................................................................... xii
8. RECOMMENDED READING ........................................................................ xii
9. ASSESSMENT OF THE MODULE................................................................ xiii
9.1 Summary of assessment ....................................................................... xiii
9.2 Self-assessment .................................................................................... xiii
9.3 Assignments .......................................................................................... xiii
9.4 Semester examination .......................................................................... xiv
10. PLAGIARISM WARNING FOR STUDENTS..................................................xiv
PROFESSIONAL STUDIES 4: CRITICAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION ........................ 1
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
2. STRUCTURE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE ..................................... 1
3. GLOSSARY ..................................................................................................... 2
UNIT 1: SOCIAL JUSTICE IN BASIC EDUCATION ................................................. 3
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 3
2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 1 ............................... 4
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL JUSTICE .............................................. 4
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 4
2. DEFINING SOCIAL JUSTICE ......................................................................... 5
3. THEORIES OF SOCIAL JUSTICE .................................................................. 6
3.1 Utilitarianism ............................................................................................ 7
3.2 Self-perfectionism .................................................................................... 7
3.3 Marxism ................................................................................................... 7
3.4 Existentialism .......................................................................................... 8
3.5 Rawls’ theory ........................................................................................... 8
3.6 Libertarianism .......................................................................................... 8
3.7 Ambedkarism .......................................................................................... 9
SECTION 2: SOCIAL JUSTICE IN BASIC EDUCATION.......................................... 9
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 9
2. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN EDUCATION ............................................................... 10
3. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC EDUCATION
SYSTEM ........................................................................................................ 13
4. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN PRACTICE IN THE CLASSROOM ............................. 15
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING xvi

UNIT 2: CRITICAL ISSUES IN BASIC EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA ............. 21

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 21
2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 2 ............................. 22
SECTION 1: CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN
BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM ................................................................................ 23
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 23
2. ACHIEVEMENTS IN BASIC EDUCATION SINCE 1994 ............................... 23
2.1 Amenities and resources ....................................................................... 23
2.2 Class size and teacher qualifications..................................................... 24
2.3 Compulsory schooling ........................................................................... 24
3. KEY CHALLENGES IN BASIC EDUCATION ................................................ 26
3.1 Literacy .................................................................................................. 26
3.2 Numeracy .............................................................................................. 26
3.3 Quality of NSC results ........................................................................... 27
3.4 Higher education ................................................................................... 27
4. CONSTRAINTS IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM. 28
4.1 Legotlo’s categories of constraints ........................................................ 28
4.1.1 Learner related issues ................................................................ 29
4.1.2 Teacher related issues ............................................................... 30
4.1.3 Administrative/policy related issues ............................................ 31
4.2 Binding constraints in basic education................................................... 33
4.2.1 Binding constraint 1: Management and administration ............... 34
4.2.2 Binding constraint 2: Teacher unions’ undue influence on the
provincial education departments ............................................... 40
4.2.3 Binding constraint 3: Weak teacher content knowledge and weak
pedagogical skills ........................................................................ 43
4.2.4 Binding constraint 4: Wasted learning time and not enough
opportunities to learn .................................................................. 45
4.2.5 Constructing a model of the inter-relationships between
constraints .................................................................................. 49
4.2.6 Recapping binding constraints .................................................... 49
5. EXTERNAL FACTORS IMPACTING THE BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM ... 54
5.1 Socio-economic factors affecting education .......................................... 54
5.2 Financial factors affecting education (government spending) ................ 54
5.3 Government policies .............................................................................. 55
5.3.1 Language of learning and teaching (LoLT) ................................. 55
5.3.2 Efforts to achieve equality in education by increasing funding to
poorer schools ............................................................................ 58
6. THE IMPACT OF CONSTRAINTS ON LEARNING ....................................... 58
7. SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 60
SECTION 2: RESPONSES TO CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS IN BASIC
EDUCATION ............................................................................................................ 61
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 61
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING xvii

2. DIFFERENCES IN EDUCATION BETWEEN MORE DEVELOPED

COUNTRIES AND LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES .................................. 61
3. SOLUTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF QUALITY IN LESS
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES........................................................................... 62
3.1 Addressing the time spent on teaching and learning ............................. 64
3.2 Addressing the quality of teaching and learning .................................... 67
3.2.1 Essential requirements for effective learning .............................. 68
3.2.2 The importance of early childhood development ........................ 68
3.2.3 Teaching disadvantaged children ............................................... 68
3.2.4 Curriculum design for disadvantaged learners............................ 70
3.2.5 The value of textbooks ................................................................ 70
3.2.6 How to motivate teachers ........................................................... 72
3.3 South African case study ....................................................................... 74
4. CONCLUSION............................................................................................... 78
SECTION 3: TEACHERS AS AGENTS OF CHANGE ............................................ 78
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 78
2. TEACHERS AS CHANGE AGENTS ............................................................. 79
3. SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 82
4. CONCLUSION............................................................................................... 84
REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 86
ACTIVITIES 1 TO 37
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Overcrowded classes.................................................................... 24

Figure 2: Binding Constraints are inter-linked .............................................. 51
Figure 3: Constraints on learning ................................................................. 59
Figure 4: Seven pillars for achieving basic skills for all ................................ 63
Figure 5: Instructional time calculation ......................................................... 64
Figure 6: Intervention results ....................................................................... 77
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING xviii

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES 4: CRITICAL ISSUES IN

EDUCATION
1. INTRODUCTION
Professional Studies 4: Critical Issues in Education (R-PFS 324) is the fourth module
in the series and builds on the first three modules i.e. Professional Studies 1: The
Teacher and the Child Friendly Environment (R-PFS 211); Professional Studies 2:
Grade R Curriculum in Practice (R-PFS 222) and Professional Studies 3: Early Years
Teacher Identity and the Profession (R-PFS 313).
The term social justice is used often in our everyday language, especially by
government officials and politicians. It is therefore easy to make the mistake of thinking
that we all understand exactly what is meant by the term, and how it is relevant to
education.
This curriculum and learning guide (CLG) will explore the meaning of the term social
justice, and also how it relates to education; in particular the school environment and
the work of a professional teacher.
2. STRUCTURE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE

In this module, we will explore the concept of social justice as well as critical issues
regarding social justice in the South African basic education system. We will also look
at the role that the professional teacher must play in striving towards social justice in
the school and in their own classroom context. Special emphasis is placed in this
module on the role of the Grade R teacher regarding the realisation of social justice
and current issues in education and their effect on Grade R teaching.
This module consists of the following two units, their outcomes and their associated
learning outcomes:
DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING 1

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES 4:
CRITICAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION
UNIT 1 UNIT 2
Social justice in basic education Critical issues in basic education
in South Africa
Outcomes: At the end of this unit,
you should be able to: Outcomes: At the end of this unit,
x Define the concept ‘social justice’. you should be able to:
x Explain some of the main theories x Identify and describe critical
of social justice. issues in South Africa that shape
x Understand and discuss social learners and their experience of
justice in an education context. school.
x Explain the relevance of social x Discuss possible solutions to
justice to the South African basic challenges faced in the South
education system. African schooling system.
x Describe ways in which x Describe the role of teachers as
professional teachers can change agents, in overcoming
promote social justice in their challenges with special reference
school and classroom context to Grade R.
with the emphasis on Grade R
teaching.
3. GLOSSARY
Understanding these terms will assist you when working through this module.
Accountability - The obligation to account for one’s actions and accept

responsibility for them.
Amenities - Something that contributes to physical or material comfort.
Basic education - Compulsory fundamental education that all children must

receive (school).
Binding - Most important constraints holding us back. Only if they are

constraints removed, can one move forward.
Constraints - Limits or restrictions.
Discourse - Written or spoken communication or debate.

Higher - Tertiary education at a university or college.

education
Justice - Fairness or reasonable measures.
Literacy - The ability to read and write in at least one language.
Numeracy - Numeracy is the ability to use numbers, to reason, and to

apply simple numerical concepts.
Quality (in - Pedagogically and developmentally sound. Educating

education) learners to become productive members of society.
Social - Affecting the community or society.
Social justice - All people in a society are treated fairly and with dignity,
their rights are respected, and they have equal access to
resources.
Society - All the people living together in a community.
Socio-economic - Relating to or concerned with the interaction of social and

economic factors.
Theory - A set of assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts

regarding a specific issue or phenomenon.
UNIT 1: SOCIAL JUSTICE IN BASIC EDUCATION
1. INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will explore the concept of social justice and what this looks like in the
school, and particularly in the Grade R classroom context.

2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 1

Unit 1 consists of the following two sections and learning outcomes.
UNIT 1
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN BASIC EDUCATION
SECTION 1 SECTION 2
Introduction to social justice Social justice in basic education
Learning outcomes: At the end of Learning outcomes: At the end of

this section, you should be able to: this section, you should be able to:
x Define the concept ‘social justice’. x Explain the relevance of social
x Identify and explain some of the justice in an education context.
main theories of social justice. x Explain the relevance of social
justice in the South African basic
education system.
x Describe ways in which
professional teachers can
promote social justice in their
school and classroom context.
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL JUSTICE
1. INTRODUCTION
In this section, we aim to define the concept of social justice and unpack some of the
theories of social justice, so that we can build an understanding of the relevance of
this concept to the professional teacher and their work with special reference to Grade
R teaching.

2. DEFINING SOCIAL JUSTICE

Although the concept of social justice is quite old and Social justice is a state of affairs
(either actual or ideal) in which (a)
has been contemplated by ancient philosophers like benefits and burdens in society
Cicero and Plato, the term ‘social justice’ was first used are dispersed in accordance with
some allocation principle (or set of
in 1840 by a Sicilian priest, Luigi Taparelli d’Azeglio principles); (b) procedures,
norms, and rules that govern
(Novak, 2000). It has its origins in philosophy but is also political and other forms of decision
making preserve the basic rights,
widely used in ordinary language and in the social liberties, and entitlements of
sciences (Jost & Kay, 2010). individuals and groups; and (c)
human beings (and perhaps
other species) are treated with
dignity and respect not only by
Jost and Kay (2010) provide a complex definition of authorities but also by other
relevant social actors, including
social justice (see text box) that comprises the following fellow citizens (Jost & Kay, 2010).
main elements: benefits and burdens are distributed
according to specific rules and norms to protect the basic rights, liberties, and
entitlements of human beings, and to ensure that they are treated with dignity and
respect.
Let us unpack the term in a different way. We will consider the word ‘social’ first, and
then consider the word ‘justice’.
The word ‘social’ in this context refers to two social elements of justice. The first
relates to the skills required to inspire, work with, and organise others to
collectively accomplish a work of justice. These are the elementary skills of civil
society, through which free citizens exercise self-government by doing for themselves
(that is, without turning to government) what needs to be done. The second social
aspect of this type of justice relates to the fact that it aims at the good of the city, not
at the good of one agent only (the term city in this context does not mean a specific
city, but a collection of citizens). Citizens may band together, as in Pioneer Days, to
build a school or clean up the streets. In other words, citizens working together for the
greater good of society (Novak, 2000).
Now look at the word ‘justice’. Jost and Kay’s (2010) definition of social justice
touches on three types of justice, namely distributive, procedural, and interactional
justice. A theory of social justice should contain at least one of these three:
x Distributive justice refers to the fair distribution of things that are distributed.
It is about the decision around who gets what, and how fair that is.
x Procedural justice deals with the process of policy and decision making. It is
not so much about the decision, as it is about the process followed to reach
that decision.

x Interactional justice relates to the respect and dignity with which people
affected by decisions are treated (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 1995; Moloi,
2019, p. 117).
1 180 minutes
1. Explain why social justice is important in education and particularly to the

Foundation Phase teacher.
2. Consider the history of South Africa, and the fact that South Africa still has a very
unequal basic education system. What are the main elements of social justice
that require attention in our society? Why do you say so?
3. Why do you think a professional teacher has to understand and implement social
justice?
4. Name the three types of justice that form part of our understanding of social
justice.
Commentary:
The above questions provide a good opportunity for you to revisit what you have
just read to make sure that you understand it, but it also allows you to think about
the context of basic education in South Africa. It is important for teachers and
learners, to keep the context in mind.
We will now consider some of the theories of social justice.
3. THEORIES OF SOCIAL JUSTICE

There are several theories of social justice. We will A theory is a set of assumptions,
propositions, or accepted facts that
consider the following seven key theories very briefly: attempts to provide a plausible or
rational explanation of cause-and-
effect (causal) relationships among a
x Utilitarianism, group of observed phenomena.
x Self-Perfectionism,
x Marxism,
x Existentialism,
x Rawls’ Theory,
x Libertarianism, and
x Ambedkarism.
Note that this is not an exhaustive list but that we are trying to expose you to at least
some of the main theories. We will now unpack these theories in a bit more detail.

3.1 Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a theory that developed from the work of Benthem, Mill, Austin, and
Mill (son of the first Mill), in the late 1700s and early 1800s.
It basically considers practicality and utility (usefulness) as the measures of virtue

and justice - in other words, the value of justice is related to how many people benefit
from it, and to which extent it is useful in terms of the common interest. If it is not useful
in serving the common interest of society, it is not considered ethical or justifiable.
In other words, in terms of this theory, the maximum good of the greatest number
of individuals, is regarded as the basis of justice. It believes that justice must be
demonstrated, and the welfare of the needy and the oppressed must be protected.
Hence whatever is useless, painful, evil, and unjust, must be reformed or changed in
the interest of the greatest number of individuals (Jatava, 1998).
3.2 Self-perfectionism
The theory of Self-perfectionism proposes that, if every member of society performs

the duties of his or her station (place assigned to him or her as a teacher, worker,
lawyer, etc.), it would make the establishment of a just and good society easier.
This theory considers that different individuals may have different abilities and
capacities as well as different places in society, and therefore they would have
different duties.
3.3 Marxism
The Marxist view of social justice believes that economic structure plays a decisive
role in establishing and maintaining social justice.
Marxism considers the struggle between the haves and the have nots in society, and
proposes that social justice can only be achieved in a society that is communist
in nature, and therefore free from all traces of social and economic distinction
(Rosenthal & Yudin, 1967).
Marxism proposes that true justice is not possible in a social system based on
dominance of private property in which one is owner and other is labourer. True
equality is only possible if capitalism is overthrown and everyone is completely equal
(no social classes).

3.4 Existentialism
The existentialists believe that humans are fundamentally free and create their
own ideals to bring about a particular social system in future.
The basis of this theory is that, with great freedom, comes great responsibility. As
humans we are responsible for all our ideals, which we choose as free beings, whether
these ideals are related to justice, morality, democracy, or economic welfare. Our just
ideals or unjust systems inspire us accordingly to pursue our own course of action.
Sartre believed that the individual is responsible for himself and for others and by that
creating an image of mankind (Sartre, 1948).
3.5 Rawls’ theory
According to Rawls (1972), inequalities in the allocation of goods are permissible if,
and only if, they work to the benefit of the least well-off members of society.
According to him, everyone should have equal rights to all the basic liberties, and
social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they give the greatest
benefits to the least advantaged.
3.6 Libertarianism
Some authors, including Hayek (1976) and Nozick (1974), rejected the idea of social
justice altogether, and argue instead for a return to the traditional
understanding of justice as respect for law and established rights. They base their
argument on the following three claims:
x First, the notion of social justice assumes that there is some agency
responsible for the distribution of benefits in society, whereas, in fact, this
distribution arises through the uncoordinated activity of many agents, non-
aiming at overall results.
x Second, the quest for social justice involves replacing the market economy
with a stultifying bureaucracy that tries to exercise complete control over the
flow of resources to individuals.
x Third, this quest also involves fundamental interference with personal
freedom, in that people must be prevented from doing as they please with the
resources they are allocated if the preferred distributive pattern is to be
maintained.
This school of thought sees justice as a process, rather than an outcome. It sees
justice being served if resources are allocated according to the agreed process.

3.7 Ambedkarism
This approach views justice as equity. Equity in this sense means equality in terms
of rules and regulations, right and righteousness. If all men are equal, all men are
entitled to the same. Therefore justice, means liberty, equality, and fraternity
(brotherhood) implying that social justice is dependent on a system of social
democracy.
2 120 minutes
Discuss the following in your own study group or with a peer. Remember to make
notes you can use for examination preparation or further reference.
1. Talk about social justice and your understanding of the concept in an attempt to
get consensus in the group on what social justice implies.
2. Ask each of the group members to study one of the theories in detail, and to
‘present’ it to the group. This may mean that the group member will have to do
additional research on the theory, to explain it well to the rest of the group.
Commentary:
Groupwork is beneficial as it helps us to test our own ideas and to compare it against
other people’s understanding. We often learn better when we learn together, as we
stimulate each other’s thinking.
The above theories are aimed at helping you to understand the concept of social
justice a bit better. We will now consider social justice and its relevance to education.
SECTION 2: SOCIAL JUSTICE IN BASIC

EDUCATION
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of education in a democratic society should be the development of
critical, democratic citizens who can make a meaningful contribution to society.
Education should therefore be aimed at developing people who are open-minded,

tolerant of diversity, and capable of rational understanding, respect for truth, and
critical judgment (Macpherson, Robertson, & Walford, 2014).

Moolman, Essop, Makoae, Swartz, and Solomon (2020, p. 2) identify a number of

characteristics as important to enhance better education, including: student
interpersonal relations, student-teacher relations, school leadership, order and
discipline, school-community relations, achievement motivation, and school buildings.
This can only be achieved in an education system that respects diversity and
encourages critical thinking – in other words, an education system that is actively
promoting social justice.
2. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN EDUCATION

In education, we associate social justice with the idea that all individuals and groups
should be treated with fairness and respect and that all are entitled to the
resources and benefits that the school has to offer (Shriberg, Bonner, Sarr,
Walker, Hyland & Chester, 2008; Prins, Joubert, Ferreira-Prevost, & Moen, 2019).
According to Nieto and Bode (2018), social justice in education is characterised by

respectful communication and inclusive approaches to teaching and learning that
can lead to more equitable educational outcomes.
In this discussion, we briefly consider the work of Dewey (1937), Fraser (1995, 2009),
Gerwitz and Cribb (2002), Young (2000, 2006) and Bell (1997) as they have relevance
to the education context.
Dewey (1950) proposed that the purpose of education should be the development of
critical democratic citizens and that all institutions should strive towards contributing
to the full personal development of learners. Education should, therefore, be aimed
at developing people who are open-minded, tolerant of diversity, and capable
of rational understanding, respect for truth, and critical judgment (MacPherson,
Robertson & Walford, 2014).
3 90 minutes
Just look at these words again: “… aimed at developing people who are open-
minded, tolerant of diversity, and capable of rational understanding, respect for truth,
and critical judgment.”
Some people may find it hard to see the connection between these ideals and your
Grade R classroom. Think about it carefully, though.
1. How can you help develop Grade R learners who are ‘tolerant of diversity’?
2. How can you stimulate a ‘respect for truth’ in the children that you teach?
3. What kind of activities could you use to stimulate open-mindedness that is

appropriate in the age-group of the children that you teach?
Commentary:
Write down your thoughts so that you can be sure to remember them and provide
practical examples of the activities you are going to implement.
Because this (fairness, respect, and equal resources and benefits) is not the case
in the current schooling system, in South Africa or anywhere in the world, it is the
responsibility of every professional teacher to actively strive towards achieving social
justice in education.
For Fraser (1995, 2009) the ability to participate equitably as full partners in
interaction with others, and full members of society (participatory parity), is the ultimate
goal of social justice. She identified three dimensions of social justice, namely
distribution, recognition, and representation:
1. Distribution refers to the fair distribution of material resources to all.

2. Recognition speaks to the recognition of status (culture) of all – in other words,
respect for the culture and identity of all.
3. Representation refers to inclusion as members of a community, and the right
of everyone to be represented.
Gerwitz & Cribb (2002) see social justice consisting of a variety of facets that entail
the equal redistribution of socio-economic amenities, as well as the recognition
and promotion of difference and cultural diversity (Gerwitz & Gribb, 2002; Taylor,
2011; Prins et al., 2019).
The understanding of justice has been known to overlook institutional contexts and
social constructs that have a profound influence on distributive arrangements. It is
argued that it is in the interest of social justice to affirm, rather than suppress, the
differences between social groups.
According to Bell (1997), social justice in education is a goal, as well as a process.

The goal of social justice in education is “full and equal participation of all groups in a
society that is mutually shaped to meet their needs” (Bell, 1997, p. 3) while, “the
process for reaching that goal, should be democratic and participatory, inclusive and
affirming of human agency and human capacities for working collaboratively to create
change” (Bell, 1997, p. 4).
Hackman (2005) summarises Bell’s goals of social justice education to include the
following elements:
1. Learner empowerment;
2. The equitable distribution of resources; and
3. Social responsibility.
Hackman also summarised Bell’s process as follows:
1. Democracy;
2. A student-centred focus;
3. Dialogue; and
4. An analysis of power.
The South African basic education system requires equity and redress, to address the
wrongs of the past. The elements of inclusive education, reflexive praxis, critical
pedagogy, communitarian liberalism, democratic and compassionate
citizenship, and collective agency, are the most important aspects of social justice
that require attention in our education system (Pillay & Tjabane, 2011).
We will now unpack each of these concepts, briefly:
x Inclusive education – refers to the inclusion of all learners regardless of their

challenges or special needs, in schools close to them, to receive high-quality
instruction, interventions, and the support that they may require to be
successful (Alquraini & Gut, 2012).
x Reflexive praxis – praxis means theory plus action – reflexive praxis therefore
means to critically reflect on our own practice and to continuously improve it
(Hara, 2020).
x Critical pedagogy – teaching learners to be independently minded, in other
words, to think critically, ask questions, and form their own opinions (Farrow,
2017).
x Communitarian liberalism – emphasises the connection between the
community and the individual. Communitarians believe that a person's social
identity and personality are largely shaped by community relationships.
Liberalism on the other hand believes in the protection of the rights of the
individual. The concept of communitarian liberalism is therefore about
balancing the rights of the individual, versus the greater good of the group or
community.
x Democratic and compassionate citizenship – citizenship is the status of a
citizen (member of a community) with its attendant duties, rights, and privileges.
This concept therefore refers to the way the community practices citizenship –
in a democratic and compassionate manner.
x Collective agency – collective means together as a group, while agency is the
power to act or make decisions (being in control). Collective agency is therefore
when the group decides and works together towards an agreed goal (Hewson,
2010).

4 120 minutes
Let’s stop and reflect on what you have learnt so far. Answer the following questions
in your learning journal:
1. Name and explain the 7 elements of social justice that require attention in the
South African education system.
2. How does inclusive education relate to your Grade R classroom? Is it relevant?
If yes, how?
3. How would you accommodate a child with special needs in the Grade R class?
4. Explain the concept of reflexive praxis. Why is it important for the professional
teacher to reflect? What do you think is the best way of practicing your reflective
skills?
Commentary:
This activity should help you to test your own understanding but is also aimed at
helping you summarise what you have learnt. Remember to keep your notes as this
may help you in your exam preparation.
We will now look at the current reality in the South African basic education system, as
it pertains to social justice with specific emphasis on the implication for Grade R.
3. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC

EDUCATION SYSTEM
South Africa as a whole, and the education system of the country, were profoundly
shaped by the apartheid government’s racial ideology. Education was used as a tool
to differentiate between the races, with the white population receiving more resources
and a higher quality of education in general (Chisholm, 2015).
When the first democratic government came into power in 1994, it inherited a “deeply
divided education system” that had to “wrestle with the shadows of apartheid”
(Lolwana, 2015, p. 253). The newly elected democratic government immediately
introduced a range of initiatives aimed at improving access, equity, and quality.
Allocation of government funds became oriented to the achievement of equity and
ceased to be determined on a racial basis.
It is also of importance to note that Grade R was not part of the system and therefore
not provided as part of schooling.
The South African Schools Act (1996 as in Chisholm, 2015) introduced school
governing bodies to democratise control over schools. A teacher redistribution and
deployment project in 1996 and the introduction of Curriculum 2005 in 1997 aimed to
improve quality of education (Chisholm, 2015).
It is clear from the following words of Education White Paper 3 (1997) that the new,
democratically elected government intended to deal with racial discrimination, which
had been the most obvious, visible form of inequality in education, and to “provide a
full spectrum of advanced educational opportunities for an expanding range of the
population irrespective of race, gender, age, creed or class or other forms of
discrimination” (Badat & Sayed, 2014, p. 132).
Despite the best efforts of government to develop and implement policies of redress,
access, equity and equality, it is a sad reality that equality has not yet been attained
and that poorer, and in particular rural schools, are still struggling to provide quality
education to learners. Hence it is incumbent upon every teacher to strive towards
achieving social justice in the school and in their own classroom environment.
Moloi (2019) proclaims that the biggest reason why most interventions and redressing
of poverty were not successful was because it was state-centred and top-down, and
did not bring the promised constitutional rights to the poorest and most marginalised
within South Africa.
The establishment of Grade R as part of the General Education and Training Band
was formulised in White Paper 5 (National Department of Education, 2001a). It is,
however, a fact that not all 5-year-old children in the country have access to a Grade
R class. Neither are the salaries of Grade R teachers equal to that of their counterparts
in the system. Nicholson, Kuhl, Maniates, Lin, and Bonetti (2020, p. 96), in their
research emphasise the inequalities of poor working conditions and the lack of
compensation associated with working in early childhood settings.
5 90 minutes
Think about Grade R as the foundation of children’s school career.
1. Why do you think a good quality Grade R education is important to promote

social justice?
2. How can you promote social justice and in particular equality in education, even
if you are teaching at a poorer, rural school?
Commentary:
The professional teacher has a duty, not only to teach knowledge, but also to
promote social justice and to light a flame of hope in learners’ hearts. This activity
is aimed at reminding you of that responsibility.
You have learnt about social justice theory and about social justice and its application
in the context of education. We will now have a look at social justice in practice in the
classroom.
4. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN PRACTICE IN THE CLASSROOM

Social justice can only be achieved in a classroom context where learners feel safe
and where they are encouraged to speak openly about their experiences and beliefs
(Blake, 2020).
Blake (2020) believes that the first way to promote social justice in the classroom is to
create a “community of conscience”, where learners’ voices, opinions and ideas are
valued and respected by their teacher and classmates. The teacher can create this
community by setting rules that teach fairness in classroom discussions and
behaviour.
6 120 minutes
Look again at these words of Blake (2020) who believes that the first way to promote
social justice in the classroom is to create a ‘community of conscience’, where
learners’ voices, opinions and ideas are valued and respected by their teacher and
classmates.
1. How can you create a ‘community of conscience’ even amongst the young
learners in your Grade R class?
2. How will you make sure that learners feel safe in your classroom?
3. How can you encourage learners to speak openly about their experiences and
beliefs?
Commentary:
The learners in your Grade R classroom are still very young, and you may feel that
they are not ready to speak about their ‘experiences and beliefs’, but remember that
you are laying a foundation for the rest of their school career. What you do in the
Grade R classroom may have long lasting effects as you teach them to think about
themselves and their own feelings and thoughts in a particular way.
Hackman (2005) proposes that teachers focus their teaching and efforts at working
towards social justice in their classrooms, on the following five essential components:
1. Content mastery.
2. Tools for critical analysis.
3. Tools for social change.

4. Tools for personal reflection.
5. An awareness of multicultural group dynamics.
Blake (2020) believes that this can, in part, be achieved through enabling
conversations during which learners are encouraged to question unjust situations in
their own lives, or in the lives of those around them. These conversations can be
stimulated by questions such as: Who makes decisions and who is left out; who
benefits and who suffers; is this fair or unfair; what alternatives can we imagine; what
is required to create change. These questions can be applied to specific scenarios in
stories or the learners’ own lives and will teach them to look critically at social issues.
7 120 minutes
Read the following core reading carefully:
Spitzman, E. & Balconi, A. (2019) Social justice in action: A document analysis

of the integration of social justice principles into teaching. Journal of the
Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 19(5), pp. 1–17.
https://doi.org/10.14434/josotl.v19i5.25071
Commentary:
Read the article carefully and make notes of the rubric that Spitzman and Balconi
(2019) developed, as this will inform your next group activity.
You may also need these notes for examination purposes.
Spitzman and Balconi (2019) developed a useful nine-question rubric rooted in the
Teaching Tolerance Framework, which can be used as a guideline to assess the
extent to which social justice is being pursued in the classroom environment. They
ask the following questions about classroom practice, that highlights certain aspects
of social justice:
1. Are multiple perspectives welcomed and respected? (Diversity; identity)

2. Is curiosity about diversity encouraged? (Diversity)
3. Are self-reflection practices integrated into the lesson? (Identity)
4. Is story sharing included in the lesson? (Identity; action)
5. Is dialogue part of the instruction? Are students taught explicitly how to engage
in an empathetic, open-minded dialogue? (Diversity; action)
6. Is there any indication of insensitivity to diversity or hidden stereotypes/biases
in the lesson? (Justice)

7. Are students’ (learners’) prior learning experiences and background knowledge

integrated? (Identity; diversity). Is there an in-depth exploration of background
knowledge/culture? (Avoiding oversimplification)
8. Are form-focused instruction and learning strategies included into the lesson to
provide access to academic learning communities and foster positive identity
development? (Identity; justice)
9. Does the lesson promote action against injustice?
8 240 minutes
Each of the members of the group should bring a lesson plan that you have
developed in one of your other modules. In your group, discuss your lesson plan
and assess them against these questions. Group members should give each other
advice on how to include these issues in the lessons. Are multiple perspectives
welcomed and respected in your grade R class? (Diversity; identity)
Discuss the following:
1. Is curiosity about diversity encouraged and how? (Diversity)

2. Are self-reflection practices integrated into the lesson? Give examples. (Identity)
3. Is story sharing included in the lesson – during which activities? (Identity; action)
4. Is dialogue part of the instruction? Are learners taught explicitly how to engage
in an empathetic, open-minded dialogue? Once again indicate the activities.
(Diversity; action)
5. Is there any indication of insensitivity to diversity or hidden stereotypes/biases
in the lesson? (Justice)
6. Are learners’ prior learning experiences and background knowledge integrated
– how are you going to provide for this? (Identity; diversity). Is there an in-depth
exploration of background knowledge/culture? (Avoiding oversimplification)
7. Are form-focused instruction and learning strategies included in the lesson to
provide access to academic learning communities and foster positive identity
development? (Identity; justice)
8. Does the lesson promote action against injustice?
Commentary:
Though these may sound very complicated, all of it applies to Grade R learning and
teaching, although there might be grades of complexity.
Remember to make notes of your answers.

Multi-cultural competence is the ability to cope well in a multi-cultural context. Mio,

Barker-Hackett and Tumambing (2012) explain that multi-cultural competence
consists of mastering three key skills, namely:
x Developing an awareness of one’s own cultural values and biases;

x Learning to value others’ worldviews; and
x Developing a set of culturally appropriate interpersonal skills.
9 90 minutes
Make notes that you can use for the development of a lesson in which you want to
achieve the following goals:
x Developing an awareness of one’s own cultural values and biases;

x Learning to value others’ worldviews; and
x Developing a set of culturally appropriate interpersonal skills.
Commentary:
This does not have to be a complete lesson plan. Just think of the three topics and
how you could introduce them to Grade R learners in a fun and creative way. Make
notes in your learning journal about the activities and what you may need
(resources) for the lesson
It is clear that the concepts of cultural diversity, multi-cultural competence, and social
justice are directly linked (Shriberg, Bonner, Sarr, Walker, Hyland, & Chester, 2008)
and that social justice cannot be achieved without due consideration of, and careful
attention to, how we deal with cultural diversity in the education context.
In the end, social justice is not something that can just be taught. The teacher must
constantly integrate this as a value in their teaching and classroom practice.
10 120 minutes
You have been asked to address your fellow students on the relevance of social
justice in the South African basic education system.
Write a speech in which you explain the concept of social justice in plain language,
and explain why it is important in South Africa in particular. Include the current state
of the South African education system, and what you think should change.

Commentary:
Do not just copy from the curriculum and learning guide but take trouble to explain
the concepts in your own words, as this will help you understand and remember
them better. You may want to do additional research on the current state of the
South African education system and include recent statistics.
11 180 minutes
Read the following quotation from Du Preez, Joubert, and Middeljans (2019):
…“The teacher and the child are continually reciprocating acts of social justice,
democracy and citizenship during events such as: establishment of class rules;
participation in class activities; fair and respectful conducting of meetings;
assuming responsibility for own and classmates’ learning; initiation of community
projects; and the playing of games on the school grounds during breaks. As per
example, a civics knowledge system should not be merely transmitted or
transferred from the teacher to a child (Du Preez et al 2019, p. 108)”.
Develop activities through which you could endorse a culture of social justice that
will include each of the following:
1. Class rules;
2. Participation in class activities;
3. Fair and respectful conducting of meetings;
4. Assuming responsibility for self and classmates;
5. Learning; initiation of community projects; and
6. Playing of games.
Commentary:
Remember these activities must be appropriate for Grade R learners.
You came to the end of Unit 1. Complete the self-assessment activity.

12 90 minutes
Self-assessment activity: Unit 1
If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the criteria, go back to the relevant

section to study it again.
Now that I have worked through this unit, I can: YES UNSURE NO
Define the concept ‘social justice’.
Identify and explain some of the main theories of social

justice.
Explain the relevance of social justice in an education

context.
Explain the relevance of social justice in the South African

basic education system.
Describe ways in which professional teachers can

promote social justice in their school and classroom
context.
You have completed Unit 1 where we discussed social justice and the seven key
theories it is based on. In Unit 2, we will explore critical issues that impact basic
education in South Africa.

UNIT 2: CRITICAL ISSUES IN BASIC EDUCATION

IN SOUTH AFRICA
1. INTRODUCTION
As stated in the previous unit, the South African basic education system faces many
challenges.
Despite the best efforts of government to develop and implement policies of redress,
access, equity and equality, it is a sad reality that equality has not yet been attained,
and that poorer, and in particular rural schools, are still struggling to provide quality
education to learners.
While it is important for teaching students to be familiar with the challenges, it is also
important that we do not lose hope, and that we commit to addressing these
challenges, in the interest of social justice.
In Section 1 of this unit, we will explore the current state of the system, including the
progress made in the system since the dawn of democracy in 1994. We will also
consider an overview of the challenges and constraints faced in the system.
In Section 2 of this unit, we will then move on to specific, major challenges faced in
the system, and consider specific actions that could be taken to address those
challenges.
In Section 3 we will investigate the role of teachers as change agents.

2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 2

Unit 2 consists of the following three sections and learning outcomes.
UNIT 2
CRITICAL ISSUES IN BASIC EDUCATION
IN SOUTH AFRICA
SECTION 1 SECTION 2
Challenges and constraints in the Responses to challenges and
South African basic education constraints in basic education
system
Learning outcomes: At the end of
Learning outcomes: At the end of this section, you should be able to
this section, you should be able to critically understand and discuss:
critically understand and reflect on: x The research on overcoming
x Achievements in basic education challenges in education.
since 1994. x Practical solutions that can be
x Challenges in basic education. implemented in the South
x Constraints in basic education in African system.
SA.
x External factors impacting basic
education.
SECTION 3
Teachers as agents of change
Learning outcomes: At the end of this section, you should be able to:
x Understand and explain the role of the professional teacher as change
agent.
x Identify and apply the values and pedagogy needed to become an agent of
change.

SECTION 1: CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS

IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC EDUCATION
SYSTEM
1. INTRODUCTION
If we want to understand the current state of basic education in South Africa, we first
have to understand the historical challenges faced by the system (before democracy)
and, the progress that has been made to date in the transformation of the system.
2. ACHIEVEMENTS IN BASIC EDUCATION SINCE 1994

The first democratic government elected in 1994 had the huge task of transforming
apartheid South Africa into a united democratic South Africa, which includes a
dramatic transformation of the country’s education system.
In 1996, the newly elected democratic government published a White Paper on the
Organisation and Funding of Schools, aimed at the democratic management of
schools, including the introduction of school governing bodies. A new, inclusive
national curriculum had to be developed.
By 1998, South Africa had a new constitution, a new parliament, and nine new
provinces. Education had to be restructured to conform to this new administrative
structure. This, too, was soon accomplished, and by the year 2000 education in South
Africa seemed well on its way to being transformed.
Some of the achievements in basic education, since the dawn of democracy in 1994,
are listed below.
2.1 Amenities and resources
Since 1994 there have been significant improvements in education in several areas.
Over the past two decades, many black, rural, and township schools that had few or
no amenities (facilities/conveniences) or resources, now have running water,
electricity, telephones, printing facilities, computers, and functioning toilets. There are
still far too many schools which do not have these, but improvements have been
made.

2.2 Class size and teacher qualifications
Class sizes have, in general, been reduced, but classes remain too large in many
black primary schools. The problem of under-qualified and un-qualified teachers is
also being addressed. It is now a requirement that all teachers entering the system
have a university degree.
It is however important to note that for the Grade R classes very few qualified teachers
were available and, in many posts, unqualified or under-qualified teachers were
appointed. Since the introduction of Grade R as part of the formal system many
universities and training institutions started with Grade R Teaching Certificates,
Diplomas or Degrees. It is just realistic to expect that it will take some years before
enough teachers will be fully qualified for teaching in Grade R.
Figure 1: Overcrowded classes
(Original photo: De Witt, 2020)
2.3 Compulsory schooling
The problem of children of school-going age not attending school is also being dealt
with. Education is now compulsory for all children in South Africa until the end of
Grade 9, when the General Education and Training band ends. Ninety percent of all
children who should be at school are now at school.

Unfortunately, there is a significant drop-out rate after the end of compulsory

schooling. Only about 50% of those children who start school in Grade 1 carry on
writing the National Senior Certificate (NSC) examination at the end of Grade 12.
Greater numbers of learners are writing the NSC examinations, and the pass rate and
results have improved. In 1994 about 496 000 learners wrote the Senior Certificate
examinations; 58% passed and 18% achieved a university entrance pass. In 2015,
just under 800 000 wrote the NSC examinations. Of these, 71% passed and 30%
obtained a Bachelor’s (university entrance) pass. In 2019, an all-time record of an 80%
pass rate was achieved.
Along with these developments, government spending on education has been

increased, which is now the biggest item by far on the national budget. In 1994 the
budget allocation for education was R32 billion; by 2016 this was increased to R297,5
billion. Of this amount, basic education received R205,8 billion and the universities
received R28 billion; R813 million was allocated to Early Childhood Development
(ECD) Centres and R14,3 billion went to the National Student Financial Aid Scheme
(NSFAS).
However, the transformation of education, despite some improvements, has not been
as successful as everyone had hoped.
13 120 minutes
Just take some time to reflect on the following issues at the school where you are
doing your WIL:
1. What is the situation at the school regarding amenities and resources? Is there
running water, proper ablution facilities and provisioning of meals for all children
available?
2. What are the class sizes like and if overcrowded what solutions does the school
provide to address the problem?
3. What are the qualifications of the teachers teaching Grade R?
4. Do you know about children who should attend the Grade R classes that are not
in school?
5. How can you as a teacher at the school make a difference to the conditions
under which you have to teach and learn at the school?
Commentary:
Write down your findings and perhaps suggest solutions to the problems.

3. KEY CHALLENGES IN BASIC EDUCATION

Despite the enormous amount of money being spent on education, there are still
significant areas where the system is not delivering the quality of education that is
expected.
In this section, we unpack the fact that our education system is not operating as well
as it should be, and we note the major development areas (gaps) in basic education.
The two fundamental aspects of education are literacy as related to language, and
numeracy as related to mathematics, yet it is here that the key problem in the system
lies. Linked closely to that is the quality of the National Senior Certificate (matric)
results, and the readiness of learners to enter higher education. We will consider each
of these aspects briefly.
3.1 Literacy
Grade R is the year of preparing learners for emergent literacy as well as numeracy.
Early or emergent literacy refers to the knowledge of relations between language,
phonological, and phonemic awareness. Also important is knowledge of the alphabet
and an understanding of print and how it relates to reading and writing. These skills
must be developed before the learners enter formal school (Education and Training
2019).
In the programme for Grade R learners, perception skills and concept formation must
be included as it is prerequisites for the understanding of text and an indispensable
facet of the mastery of reading (Lessing & De Witt 2017, 461). Being ready for the
formal learning structures is the basis for mastering later learning structures.
It is therefore crucial that Grade R learners should, in the initial (foundation) phase of
their education, learn to read properly so that they may go on to benefit from more
advanced levels of education. However, it has been determined that 60% of all
learners at the end of Grade 3 cannot read for meaning: In other words, while some
of them may be able to sound out the words, they are not grasping the content
adequately. This means that, although by the end of Grade 3 they cannot read
properly in their home language (mother-tongue), in Grade 4 they are expected to
continue their education in English, a language which many of them cannot read or
even speak. It is clear that this is a huge obstacle to further educational progress.
3.2 Numeracy
Young learners’ early development in mathematics remains an often overlooked, yet

crucial, facet of the broader picture of mathematics education. One could probably

safely say that it is essential for learners to acquire a sound background in

mathematics from an early age in order to stand a chance of achieving satisfactory
results in mathematics in later years (Botha, Maree & De Witt (2005).
The country is in serious need of professionals who are proficient in mathematics, yet
here too, the foundations are not being properly laid. Research has shown that 80%
of Grade 6 mathematics teachers do not understand mathematics well enough to
teach it properly at Grade 6 level. The same is applicable to Foundation Phase
teachers whose own mathematical knowledge does not meet the required standards.
This will be discussed further in the next Unit.
3.3 Quality of NSC results
These short-comings of the system in the Foundation Phase have negative

consequences for the end-product of education. One of these is that the quality of the
NSC results has been questioned. While an 80% pass rate is reasonably satisfactory,
many learners pass at exceptionally low levels and very few learners pass
mathematics and physical science – subjects which are necessary for a wide range
of professional and technical careers.
3.4 Higher education
The shortcomings in basic education also have a negative impact on higher education.
Many learners, particularly from disadvantaged backgrounds, are not properly
prepared for university. The universities therefore must provide bridging courses for
many students to help them acquire the basic skills needed for tertiary education.
Nonetheless, the failure rate at universities is unacceptably high, as many students
have not been adequately prepared for higher learning and cannot cope at university.
This section is aimed at providing you with an overview of the challenges experienced
within basic education. Naturally, these challenges do not exist in isolation, but are
also affected by the macro environment and the challenges that we face as a nation.
We will now consider the financial and socio-economic factors affecting education in
South Africa.

14 180 minutes
Discuss and compare your understanding in the group of the following:
1. What are the root causes of the challenges faced in basic education as listed in
the previous section (literacy, numeracy, poor NSC results, and lack of readiness
for higher education)?
2. If you were the Minister or the Director General of Basic Education, what would
you do to address these issues?
3. What can your school do to address these issues at school level?
4. What could you personally do to address these issues in your own classroom?
5. How can you be part of the solution and not of the problem?
Commentary:
While some of the challenges faced can only be solved at the most senior level,
many issues can be addressed locally, if individual teachers and schools take action.
4. CONSTRAINTS IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC

EDUCATION SYSTEM
As mentioned before, the South African basic education system faces many
challenges and constraints.
We must guard against becoming overwhelmed by all the problems and issues facing
the system and our schools. We will therefore consider only a few key constraints
(constraints being understood as factors that hold us back from making progress), and
consider ways of addressing these key constraints.
But first, we must get a good overview of the issues. For that purpose, we will consider
the work of Legotlo (2014) and Van der Berg, Spaull, Wills, Gustafsson, and Kotzé
(2016), as these authors provide a good overview of the constraints faced in the basic
education (schooling) system.
Legotlo’s three categories provide a useful frame for us to consider some of the key
challenges in the system but are not exhaustive. We will therefore consider these
categories first and will then look at the so-called binding constraints in the system as
identified by Van der Berg et al. (2016).
4.1 Legotlo’s categories of constraints
You may be a student-teacher for Grade R, but you also need to know about the
development of learners in the Foundation and Intermediate Phase, as you are
preparing them for those phases. Therefore, the inclusion of the following categories
of constraints is to enable you to understand the Education System in its totality.
Legotlo (2014) lists three main categories of constraints, namely:

1. Learner related issues;
2. Teacher related issues; and
3. Policy/administrative issues.
4.1.1 Learner related issues
One of the key learner related issues identified by Legotlo (2014) is the issue of rural
and farm schools. Poverty and school violence are also considered key learner
related issues. Poverty will be discussed together with rural schools as these two
challenges are interlinked.
Rural and farm schools (poverty)
Rural occupation in South Africa is directly linked to apartheid and the colonial policies
of dispossession (Hlalele, 2012). People living in rural areas in South Africa are often
far away from the nearest town, and the condition of roads are often poor, making
travelling even harder. Unemployment levels are high, as are
Illiteracy: not being able to
illiteracy levels, and poverty. There is also often a lack of read or write.
services such as running water, electricity, sanitation, and
health facilities.
Schools in these areas suffer from a lack of infrastructure; the lack of basic services
such as water and electricity. Hlalele (2012) also notes that the rural environment may
struggle to attract well-qualified, motivated teachers.
Research has found that the socio-economic status of learners had a major impact on
the eventual outcome of children’s schooling, with very large differences in
matriculation rates linked to the income measures of poverty of the households
(Timaeus, Simelane & Letsoalo, 2013).
School violence
Violence in South African schools includes threats of violence, psychological abuse,

robbery, physical assaults, gang violence, corporal punishment, sexual violence, and
bullying. Most violent incidents happen in the classroom and have a severe negative
impact on teaching and learning (Burton & Leoschut, 2013).
The Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention (CJCP) conducted a National School
Violence Study (NSVS) in 2008 and again in 2012, with over 12 000 participants
(learners in both primary and secondary schools). Both studies found that around 22%
of all learners and teachers had been victims of violence at school. Most of the school
violence is learner-on-learner violence (Burton & Leoschut, 2013).
The Department of Basic Education introduced the National School Safety

Framework, together with the Regulations for Safety Measures in Public Schools, to
combat this challenge. These regulations require every school to implement the
following policies: A School Safety Policy; a School Safety Plan; a Policy on Non-
Violent Discipline; and a Code of Conduct for Learners. School Safety Interventions
are monitored by the Safe School Committee in every school (CJCP, 2016). It is
important to note that home-based sites must also apply to these regulations.
4.1.2 Teacher related issues
According to Statistics SA’s 2013 general household survey, most households cited
teacher-related issues as the top challenge facing public schools.
Teacher related challenges include a lack of qualified teachers, teacher absenteeism,

lack of time management, teacher morale and motivation, and a lack of teacher
accountability (Legotlo, 2014; Taylor, 2011).
We will now discuss each of the above challenges in a bit more detail.
Lack of qualified teachers
The Southern and Eastern African Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality
(SACMEQ) (2007) found that 60% of mathematics teachers, educating learners from
Grade 1 to Grade 6, failed to pass tests for maths at the grade level.
In 2010 it was proclaimed by Government that “The training and development of well-
qualified and competent teachers for Grades R to 12 forms the basis for all human
resources and skills development at all levels of the National Qualifications Framework
and is high priority for government” (Government Gazette, 2010, p. 4).
Though it is envisaged that all Grade R teachers should have an applicable qualification,
the back log is so big that it will still take some years before it can be realised. Most higher
education institutions had to develop new qualifications for Grade R teachers.
Teacher absenteeism
The SACMEQ III report (2007) also showed that South Africa had the highest rate of
teacher absenteeism, as compared to 14 other countries that participated in this survey.
In addition, even when teachers are present at school, they are not always in class,
teaching, as they should be (Taylor, 2011).

Teaching time management
The National School Effectiveness Study found that in many schools, fewer than half of
the official curriculum was being covered by the end of the year and fewer than half
of the officially scheduled lessons were being taught.
Teacher morale and motivation
Shalem and Hoadley (2009) report that low morale, frustration and anger, and a
growing desire to leave the profession are prevalent amongst South African teachers.
This is ascribed to schools being under resourced, the workload of teachers, and learner
related factors, such as poor discipline, in some schools. This notion might not be the
truth for Grade R teachers but as part of a bigger work force it might influence the Grade
R teacher as well. Overcrowded classes are a reality in Grade R as there is just not
enough space for them in schools while schools must accommodate them.
This lack of motivation is concerning, especially in view of the fact that several studies
have linked the motivation levels of teachers with improved pass- and throughput rates,
and improved educator job satisfaction (Iwu, Gwija, Benedict & Tengeh, 2013).
Teacher accountability
In South Africa, teacher accountability is governed under Resolution 8 of 2003 of the

Education Labour Relations Council.
Teachers’ day-to-day work is regulated through sets of curriculum management

instruments. This includes quarterly work schedules and pace setters, as well as their
preparation file, a record of learners’ assessment, a diagnostic analysis of learners’
performance and remediation programmes. Teachers are required to report to their
heads of department regarding their progress on a regular basis (Shalem & Hoadley,
2009).
4.1.3 Administrative/policy related issues
The lack of proper management and administration at some schools and at provincial
level is a major challenge. Research has shown that stronger administration and
accountability have a direct impact on the success of schools, as evidenced in their
matric results.
Administrative and policy related issues include the lack of resources that schools may
need to function properly, including poor school infrastructure, poor learning
conditions and lack of learning material.

15 180 minutes
Legotlo’s three categories of constraints – learner related issues, teacher related

issues, and administrative/policy related issues – help us to think about the kinds of
problems that originate from different sources that impact education. In this section
we have touched on just a few of the issues in each of these categories.
While you may have limited experience in the education system as teacher, you
have had many years of experience as a learner. For this activity, draw on your
knowledge and insights as a student teacher, as a former learner and as a member
of society who observes how education works within your community. Then ask
other teachers during your WIL or in your community for their perspectives.
Remember the situation in Grade R might be different but if so make notes related
to your findings.
1. Let us look first at learner related issues:

1.1 Learners can encounter many barriers to learning that come from within
themselves (such as a physical, psychological, or cognitive disability) or
from their home environment. The issues of poverty at home and school
violence were raised in this section. What other barriers to learning can
learners experience which come from themselves or their home
environment? What have the other teachers you know observed? Make a
list of these general barriers to learning.
1.2 In the Grade R class, you may even experience different barriers to
learning. Identify these and compile a list of barriers to learning. Pay
specific attention to learners who are not ready for entering formal school
and the reasons for it.
1.3 You are a teacher in the Grade R class and need to know about the
development of learners in this phase. What issues can you think of which
arise from this developmental stage of learners in this Phase which might
become a constraint to teaching and learning? Make a list (refer to what
you learnt from Piaget’s stages of child development from other modules,
e.g. Education Studies 1: Theories of Child Development in Context (R-
EDS 111).
2. Now let us look at teacher-related issues:
In this section we looked at the lack of qualified teachers, absenteeism, time

management, accountability and lack of motivation and morale. What other
teacher-related issues have you observed as a learner or as a student teacher?

What have other teachers you know observed? Ask teachers in your own
community and during WIL. Make a list.
3. Thirdly, let us look at administrative/policy related issues:
In this section the lack of resources and poor learning conditions that many
schools face was raised. What other administrative/policy related issues have
you observed as a learner or as a student teacher? What have the other teachers
you know observed? Make a list.
Commentary:
Divide the issues into two categories: those issues where you have the power to
make a difference, and those that you cannot influence at all. Can you see that in
most cases, there is something that can be done even at school level, and by an
individual teacher like yourself? What is the most burning issue that you would like
to make your own and try to address?
4.2 Binding constraints in basic education
The key term to understand in this section is binding constraints. When something
is bound then it is restricted and held back. Imagine binding someone to a tree with
rope. They would not be able to move very much. A constraint is something that limits
and restricts you. So, a binding constraint is something that limits and restricts you
by tying you up.
We want to identify the ropes that are tying education down. If we can identify these
constraints and break them, then we can release education from its current low
performance and start the process of improvement. In this section we will outline four
binding constraints that are holding back education in South Africa.
16 120 minutes
Now that you have all the constraints in education – write a short essay on how you
think these problems can be addressed.
Commentary:
Thinking about these categories and constraints in the light of your own experience
and the professional experience of other teachers that you know will help you to
make meaningful connections that can help you take effective action in your
teaching practice.

Van der Berg et al. (2016) identify four binding constraints in basic education i.e
factors that hold basic education back.
These four constraints are, according to their research, the ones that should receive
priority as they prevent progress in resolving most of the other issues. In other words,
if these four issues are addressed, they believe that progress in addressing the other
issues, will be made more effectively.
As we look at them, consider how they relate to Legotlo’s categories of restraints that
we looked at in the previous section.
1. The first binding constraint is the lack of proper management and

administration at schools and at provincial level. Research has shown that
stronger administration and accountability have a direct impact on the success
of schools, as evidenced in their matric results.
2. The second binding constraint is that teachers’ unions have undue (too
much or inappropriate) influence in teaching and learning decisions,
including the accountability of teachers.
3. The third binding constraint is that many teachers lack content knowledge
and pedagogical (teaching) skills.
4. The fourth binding constraint is the wasted learning time and insufficient
opportunity to learn. This links to challenges already discussed, such as
teacher absenteeism and poor time management.
We will now consider these four binding constraints in more detail.
4.2.1 Binding constraint 1: Management and administration
According to Van der Berg et al. (2016), one of the constraints holding back real
improvements in education is poor management and administrative support provided
to schools and teachers by some of the provincial departments of education. It is the
responsibility of each department of education to ensure that schools within the
province are functioning as well as possible. This support should take place at district
level. However, research indicates that, in general, schools are poorly supported by
district curriculum advisers. This is particularly the case in primary schools where there
is a serious lack of support.
Some departments of education, such as Gauteng and the Western Cape, perform
very well. Schools within these well-run provincial departments of education tend to
perform better than schools within poorly run departments of education. Research also
showed a direct link between the improved support for schools, and the performance
of those schools (for example when schools were transferred to better-performing
provinces).

We will now explore two case studies that show how important provincial departments
of education are to improving the quality of education in South Africa. Please read the
case studies carefully and answer the questions in the Activity that follows.
The first case study deals with the role of monitoring visits by curriculum advisers to
schools:
Case study 1:
Comparing reading proficiency at the end of the Foundation Phase with
numbers of visits by curriculum advisers
Numerous research studies have shown that reading proficiency in Grades 4 and 5
in South African schools is extremely poor compared with learners in other Southern
African countries and in the wider world. Evidently, South African primary schools
are failing in their main purpose, which is to produce literate and numerate learners.
Research conducted in 2011 revealed that 29% of Grade 4 learners are illiterate in
their home language and 58% cannot read for meaning. The survey further revealed
that only 57% of South African learners had acquired basic reading skills compared
with an international figure of 95%.
When broken down into areas, the statistics showed that 80% of urban learners had
basic reading skills, but only 28% of township learners and 26% of rural black
learners had these. Only 34% of Grade 5 learners in South Africa could understand
what they were reading while internationally 80% of Grade 4 learners tested at the
same level, could understand.
More recent research carried out by the National Education Evaluation and
Development Unit (NEEDU) has shown that 41% of South African Grade 5 learners
are functionally illiterate and 11% could not read a single word in English although
it was their language of learning and teaching. The reading levels of Grade 5
learners in South Africa are at the same level as those of Grade 1 learners in the
state of Florida in the United States of America – a state where there are many
second language learners.
Children who do not learn to read in the first four years of primary school are
seriously handicapped throughout their education and possibly throughout their
lives. The poor reading levels in South Africa are obviously a profoundly serious
educational problem and people who are involved in education in this country know
this. One would therefore expect that the problem would be receiving the urgent
attention of the provincial departments of education. This is not the case, as the
following table illustrates.
What the table shows is a reasonable correlation between two sets of figures: The
provinces where more support is given to teachers by curriculum advisers have
lower rates of illiteracy. It is therefore reasonable to conclude that the education of

many children in South Africa is being severely handicapped by the lack of support
given to primary schools by the district officials in their provincial departments of
education. Though Table 1 reflects the situation in the Foundation Phase it also
applies to grade R.
Table 1 Curriculum adviser visits to Foundation Phase teachers and literacy

levels in seven of the nine provinces
% Foundation Phase
% Grade 4 learners illiterate
Teachers reporting at least
Province in home language
one visit by curriculum
(2011 pre-PIRL survey)
adviser during 2011
Western Cape 83 11
Gauteng 62 21
Free State 60 Not included in survey figures
North West 56 29
Mpumalanga 43 32
Northern Cape 41 Not included
Kwa Zulu Natal 34 26
Eastern Cape 33 32
Limpopo 22 50
National Average 45 29
17 120 minutes
Read the above case study (Case study 1) again very carefully. Consider the facts
presented in the case study.
Write a short essay about the case study and what it proves. What conclusions do
you make based on the case study? Do you agree with the conclusion of the
researchers regarding the importance of curriculum visits? What other factors could
have had an impact on the results?
Commentary:
It is clear that more curriculum visits have an impact on school performance. How
can the school address this without being dependent on the provincial officials to do
curriculum visits? Do you think the various heads of department and the school
principal have a role to play?

The second case study deals with the administration and support given to schools, by
the provincial Department of Education. Read the case study and answer the
questions in the next activity.
Case study 2:
North West province and Gauteng: evidence that a change of provincial

Department of Education can make a difference to the performance of schools
Graeme Bloch in his book The Toxic Mix (2009, p. 111) states:
“The other significant place where government has not performed is at the district
level. The education district provides services to a cluster of schools and is
probably the best place to organize administration, supervision, and curriculum
advice. For a number of reasons, including vacancies, inexperienced staff and
inadequate prioritisation, districts have not functioned well as sources of support
to schools.”
Often, they have been the source of paperwork and compliance control, trying to
assert authority rather than win respect through the useful exercise of genuine
authority in relevant teaching areas.”
In other words, district officials spend too much time making sure that all the correct
forms are filled in, rather than providing real help and support to teachers.
In support of this view we can consider the research described in the RESEP report
(Van der Berg et al., 2016, p. 7) regarding schools which were transferred from
North West Province to Gauteng in 2005:
“Owing to an administrative change in 2005, some schools were re-allocated to

different provinces. Some provincial boundaries were changed in 2005 to ensure
that no municipality was split between two provinces. As a result of the re-
drawing of the provincial boundaries, 158 high schools were effectively placed
under new administrations. For example, 29 schools ‘moved’ from the North
West Province, a traditionally under-performing province, into Gauteng, a
traditionally better- performing province. The researchers found that the schools
that ‘moved’ to a more functional province showed significant improvements in
NSC results within five years. The researchers noted that the improvements
brought about were considerable.”
The researchers who carried out the study concluded that:
“What did seem to matter was more efficient use of non-personnel funds by the
authorities, with a special focus on educational materials, the brokering of pacts
between stakeholders, including teacher unions, schools and communities, and
better monitoring and support by the district office” (Van der Berg et al.,
2016, p. 33).
Possible reasons for the lack of district support

Anecdotal evidence suggests that there are several reasons why district curriculum
advisers are not able to provide the expected support to teachers:
x Lack of planning and coordination between the national Department of Basic

Education and the provincial Department of Education disrupts the
programmes of district advisers.
x Lack of planning within provincial Department of Education also disrupts
district advisers’ programmes, as they are often called to attend meetings and
workshops at short notice.
x Lack of proper management at district level to ensure that district advisers
fulfil their main task which is to provide support for teachers.
x Too few curriculum advisers, with vacant posts left unfilled for several years
in some cases.
x Using curriculum advisers to carry out some other tasks which are not related
to their main function, for example: Monitoring school attendance and
functionality at the beginning and end of terms; supervising and invigilating
examinations.
This all points to a lack of effective management in the provincial departments of

education – with the exception of the Western Cape and Gauteng which have taken
steps to ensure that Department of Education officials in these provinces keep their
focus fixed on their main priority, which is the education of the learners. Gauteng,
for example, has moved to a system of employing senior public officials on fixed-
term contracts rather than on permanent appointment.
By 2014, 60% of the top 100 officials in the Gauteng provincial government were
employed on this basis. The aim of this is to improve accountability and flexibility at
the senior management level. Those officials who do not perform satisfactorily do
not have their contracts renewed.
18 120 minutes
Consider the facts presented in the above case study and answer the following
questions.
Imagine the Department of Education representatives are visiting your school and
ask you for advice on addressing this issue (district support):
1. What would you say to them? Make notes so that you will have a well-prepared
answer ready.
2. What kind of support does your school need? Think of schools in general but
also the specific school where you did your WIL.
Commentary:
Make notes outlining your school’s current challenges, and the kind of support that
your school needs from the district and provincial offices. This can include training,
resources, or any other form of support.
Take your responses to the above activity to your own study group meeting or discuss
these with a peer.
19 120 minutes
At your next study group meeting:
1. Discuss your responses with your peers regarding constraints at school level.
2. Share ideas on the following:
x The current challenges at schools.
x The kind of support that your schools need from the district and provincial
offices.
Commentary:
Write down the ideas from others that you have not included in your own response.
Can you see how valuable it is to discuss problems in a group?
Now read the summary below.
Summary of binding constraint 1: Lack of proper management and

administration at schools and at provincial level
x Provincial departments of education are responsible for implementing

education policy and ensuring that public schools function properly.
x The extremely poor reading proficiency of Grade 4 and 5 learners in South
Africa is a serious educational problem. This reflects badly on the teaching of
reading and early literacy in the Foundation Phase and Grade R.
x The levels of support provided by district curriculum advisers to Grade R and
Foundation Phase teachers seems to correlate with the levels of reading
proficiency in the province – i.e. the more support provided, the higher the level
of reading proficiency.
x More efficient provinces have better performing schools.
x Possible reasons why districts are failing to support schools include:
o Lack of coordination between national and provincial education

departments.
o Lack of proper planning by provincial departments of education.
o Lack of proper management at district level.
o Lack of providing support materials for teaching.
4.2.2 Binding constraint 2: Teacher unions’ undue influence on the

provincial education departments
The RESEP report Binding Constraints (Van der Berg et al., 2016), and Graeme
Bloch’s book The Toxic Mix (2009), both mention that interference by teachers’ unions
in the operations of the provincial departments of education is a major problem in
some provinces. They state that the South African Democratic Teacher’s Union
(SADTU) in particular, tries to use its power to influence the departments of education
in ways which are not appropriate. SADTU has, for example, tried to prevent teachers
from being held accountable for their performance.
SADTU’s inappropriate use of its power is obviously a sensitive topic, as SADTU is a

large and powerful organization. It is by far the largest teacher union in the country
and represents most teachers. It is also the largest union within the Congress of South
African Trade Unions (Cosatu). As such, it has close links with the ruling party – the
African National Congress (ANC). It has committed and responsible members and
much of its work is admirable and worthwhile. However, the RESEP Report claims
that there is significant evidence showing that SADTU has gone beyond its role of
representing the interests of its members with regard to conditions of service, and has
used its power to the detriment of education in a number of provinces.
Influences of SADTU on the Education System:
SADTU’s size and strength
It is the largest Union in the public service and gives it enormous influence at the
provincial and national levels of government.
The problem of accountability
The resistance of having inspectors in schools seems to go hand-in-hand with a

general lack of accountability with regard to public service officials at all levels of
government in South Africa:
“This lack of accountability and service-delivery is especially acute in the basic

education sector in South Africa and can be seen all the way from provincial offices
down to schools and classrooms” (Van der Berg et al., 2016, p. 25).

Absenteeism of teachers and resistance against inspectorate to monitor the

performance of teachers and management in schools seems to be major problems in
the quality of teaching.
The weak state of administration in most provincial departments of education
Certain provincial departments of education are weaker than others, and there are
elements of inefficiency and corruption, which makes it difficult to withstand
unreasonable pressure from unions like SADTU.
Let us look at the implications for education in South Africa next.
The implications for education in South Africa
Teacher accountability
Undue union influence affects the provincial departments of education’s ability to hold
teachers accountable. Research shows that most teachers in township and rural
schools teach about 50% of the lessons they are scheduled to teach in a year.
Through SADTU these teachers have been able to escape any consequences.
Minister of Basic Education Angie Motshekga stated (Sunday Times 2019) that “…in
the majority of provinces some unions run, and to a certain extent, appear to control
Government for selfish reasons, which doesn’t benefit learners or the country.” In such
an environment, teacher performance and curriculum coverage cannot be effectively
tracked and managed, as “... any attempts to hold teachers accountable for their
performance, are actively resisted by the majority union”.
20 60 minutes
Before you proceed with the next section, first reflect on the topic of teacher
accountability.
1. What is your own opinion regarding teacher accountability?

2. Would it be necessary for any official to check on your teaching and curriculum
coverage or do you have enough self-respect and self-discipline to be an
accountable and effective teacher?
Commentary:
Write down your thoughts so that you can be sure you remember it.

Employment of teachers
According to the research, weak administration, coupled with the inappropriate

involvement of SADTU, has resulted in more teachers being employed by the
provincial departments of education than the government has approved. Money is
diverted which was allocated for other uses to pay these extra teachers’ salaries,
leaving the provincial departments of education with very little money to spend on the
improvements to schools. In provinces such as the Eastern Cape and Limpopo the
teacher wage-bill has swelled to such an extent that in those provinces the ability to
spend on non-personnel items like text books, infrastructure and teacher-training has
been seriously compromised. The education departments in these provinces are seen
first and foremost, by both teachers and officials, as a source of employment for
teachers (because of undue union influence), to the detriment of students and learning
outcomes (Van der Berg et al., 2016, p. 29).
Summary of binding constraint 2: Teacher unions’ undue influence on the

provincial education departments
SADTU’s harmful involvement in the provincial Departments of Education is a

sensitive topic because it is such a large and powerful organization in South Africa.
The circumstances which have made this possible:
x SADTU’s size and strength.

x The problem of accountability.
x Weak administration in most provincial Departments of Education.
The implications for education in South Africa:
x Provincial Departments of Education cannot hold teachers accountable.

x Too many teachers are hired, leaving little money for improving schools.
21 120 minutes
Once again reflect on this issue of accountability and how it affects Grade R
teaching. Read the above section again and give your opinion on its effect on your
teaching.
Commentary:
Take the following three issues into account:
x The size and strength of the teacher’s union and how it affects the school.
x The problem of accountability.
x Weak administration in the provincial Departments of Education in your

area.
Make proper notes you can use for reference and examination purposes.
You should now be ready to look at the third binding constraint.
4.2.3 Binding constraint 3: Weak teacher content knowledge and weak

pedagogical skills
It is common knowledge that the South African education system is under-performing.

Large numbers of primary school children are not learning to read or understand
mathematics and the system is not producing quality results in the National Senior
Certificate exams. Furthermore, when South Africa is compared to neighbouring
countries in Southern and East Africa it ranks considerably below average, and behind
countries much poorer than South Africa (Moloi, 2019).
One of the huge problems within the system is the very weak subject knowledge of
South African teachers. This poor level of knowledge, combined with their inability to
teach their subjects properly and their limited skills in the classroom, all present a
serious constraint on education in South Africa.
Of course, this is looking at the general situation. There are many good teachers in
South African schools (both well-resourced and poorly resourced), who are performing
at the highest standards. Nonetheless, the fact remains that the average teacher
performance in South Africa is extremely low (Moloi, 2019).
Types of knowledge a teacher should have
“Teachers cannot effectively teach what they do not know” (Van der Berg et al.,
2016, p. 44)
To teach effectively a teacher must have professional knowledge of three different

types:
1. Disciplinary knowledge. This is the content knowledge of the subject

(discipline), for example: history, geography, mathematics, life sciences,
physical science, natural sciences and so on.
2. Subject knowledge for teaching (pedagogical content knowledge). This

includes the theory and methods related to the teaching of a particular subject.
A physical science teacher must know the subject and he/she must also know
how to teach physical science, i.e. the best ways to explain the facts and
concepts to the learners; how to structure a theory lesson or a practical lesson

for physical science; how to set assignments and assessment tasks for physical
science, amongst many other things.
It is important to note that the methodologies used in Grade R are very specific
and must be applicable to teach young children. The emphasis must always be
on play-based teaching and learning.
3. Classroom competence. This is the knowledge and practical ability required

to teach a class under any circumstances, also known as classroom
management skills. This includes how to present a lesson; how to manage the
learners during the lesson; how to assess the effectiveness of the lesson.
These are some of the more significant skills required, but there are others.
In practice, this means that a teacher who does not know much about mathematics
cannot teach it. However, even if a teacher has a good grasp of mathematics (has
disciplinary knowledge), if she lacks the other kinds of knowledge, she will not be able
to teach mathematics as effectively as she should. On the other hand, a teacher with
limited mathematical disciplinary knowledge but with reasonably good teaching
knowledge and skills will also struggle to teach mathematics with a certain amount of
success. Improving teaching is not as simple as only improving content knowledge or
only improving teaching techniques. In South Africa we must ensure that our new
teachers entering the system understand that they have to know the content of their
subject and also how to teach it.
It is once again important for the Grade R teacher to know that the developmental
stage of the learner needs to be considered. The way the teacher is going to present
Language, Mathematics and Life Skills must focus on pre-skills and the development
of concepts as well as the executive functions of the brain (De Witt, 2021).
22 120 minutes
Reading about the type of knowledge teachers should have, you might have thought
that it does not apply to Grade R teachers. Once again read through this passage
and reflect on the three aspects: Disciplinary knowledge, Subject knowledge for
teaching, and Classroom competence.
How does this apply to Grade R teaching?
x Regarding disciplinary knowledge the requirement for Grade R is quite

different – once again consult the CAPS document and make notes on the
kind of knowledge you should have.

x Subject knowledge for teaching – this includes methodologies for teaching

young learners – consult modules R-PFS 211 and R-PFS 212 once again.
x Classroom competence – includes how to present a lesson; how to manage
the learners during the lesson; and how to assess the effectiveness of the
lesson – these skills are very phase-specific.
Commentary:
Remember, the way lessons or activities are presented to Grade R learners should
be play-based.
Summary of binding constraint 3: Weak teacher content knowledge and weak

pedagogical skills
x Teachers cannot teach what they do not know.

x Teachers need three kinds of knowledge:
o Disciplinary knowledge – subject content.
o Pedagogical content knowledge – how to teach a subject.
o Classroom competence – how to manage a classroom competently so that
teaching and learning take place in a meaningful way.
x Most South African teachers have poor content knowledge and poor teaching
knowledge, as shown in the SACMEQ survey 2007 which compares South
African teachers with teachers in other Southern and East African countries.
x Teachers can enrol for ACE/ACT courses in various subjects.
x With no accountability systems for teachers, there is no real incentive to
change.
x From 2016 all teachers are required to undertake CPD (Continuous
Professional Development).
4.2.4 Binding constraint 4: Wasted learning time and not enough

opportunities to learn
Research showing lessons are not taught
Van der Berg et al. (2016) indicate that a number of South African studies have found
that in many schools, less than half of the official curriculum for the year is covered,
and fewer than half of the officially scheduled lessons are actually taught.
This is clearly a profoundly serious problem. Many learners are again being denied
the opportunity to learn in a meaningful way. This problem also highlights the need for
a proper system of ensuring teacher accountability.

Not enough teaching time
It is imperative that teachers should stick to timetables and time allocated for the
different learning programmes. Once again, consult the CAPS document and make
sure that the time allocated for Language, Mathematics and Life Skills are adhered to.
The assessment criteria stipulate what learners should be able to do before they move
on to Grade 1.
23 120 minutes
Reflect on this issue of accountability regarding teaching time and how it affects the
Grade R teaching. Read the above section again and give your opinion on the effect
of it on your teaching.
1. Do you adhere to the prescribed teaching time set for the three subjects:
Language, Mathematics and Life Skills? If so, explain how you do that. If not,
explain why not.
2. In what way do you consult the CAPS document to guide your teaching?
3. Are you aware of the assessment standards to apply before you proceed to new
learning materials? Explain how you ensure this.
Commentary:
Make proper notes you can use for reference and examination purposes.
Teacher absenteeism
A study carried out in 2010 by the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) found
that the average teacher takes 20 to 24 days of sick leave per year. Just over three
quarters of all this leave is taken one or two days at a time which means that the
teacher does not have to present a medical certificate.
It must be pointed out that 20 to 24 days is the equivalent of a full working month. That
amounts to a lot of missed teaching time. It must also be remembered that this is an
average figure. Many teachers are taking more than this. The general indication is that
sick leave is being abused and being taken to supplement ordinary leave.
Not enough opportunities to learn
The RESEP report (Van der Berg et al., 2016) quotes from four important studies
carried out in South African schools on the amount of written work done by primary
school learners in South African schools.

1. National School Effectiveness Study (NSES): Mathematics
This study was carried out in 2007 - 2009. In this study teams of researchers
investigated 15 000 learners in 268 schools across South Africa. The study
started in 2007 when the learners were completing the Foundation Phase
(Grade 3) and followed them through Grades 4 and 5 in the Intermediate
Phase. The researchers found that the learners’ Intermediate Phase teachers
covered less than a quarter of the mathematics topics for the year when the
learners were in Grades 4 and 5. Only 12% of teachers covered more than 35
(39%) of the 89 prescribed topics. Put simply, most of the intermediate phase
teachers did not cover most of the topics.
The foundation for Mathematics is laid in the preschool phase. Learners must
acquire a sound background in early mathematics to stand a chance of
achieving satisfactory results. Early mathematics constitutes a basis for
reasoning and thinking and is crucial for concept formation (Botha et al., 2005).
2. National School Effectiveness Study: Language
This study found that Grade 5 teachers gave their learners written work to do
in their language books only once a week or less. Only 3% of Grade 5 learners
did written work in their language books every day. In addition, half of the
written work given by Grade 4 and 5 teachers involved single word exercises –
there was no sentence construction involved. In fact, nearly half (44%) of all
Grade 4 learners in the study did not write a single paragraph in their books
during the whole year. In the Northern Cape and Northwest provinces this
figure was even higher: nearly two thirds of the Grade 4 learners in the study
did not write a single paragraph during the year. This indicates that
Intermediate Phase teachers included almost no writing in their Grade 4 and 5
language lessons.
For the Grade R teacher it is important to remember that early literacy skills are
not only about the ability to identify letters, numbers and shapes but implies a
set of skills, knowledge and attitudes of which the main components include an
awareness of language, listening, oral communication and writing skills (De
Witt, 2021). Elements such as attention, vocabulary, phonological and
phonemic awareness, knowledge of the alphabet, understanding of common
print concepts, drawing skills, and a number of perceptual competencies go
hand in hand with early literacy and can be seen as prerequisites for the
development thereof (Palaiologou, 2013; De Witt, 2021).
3. School Monitoring Survey: Use of exercise books
In 2011 the DBE surveyed 2000 schools across the country, both primary and
high schools. This survey found that only 53% of learners had covered the bare

minimum of exercises for curriculum coverage. Differences in the provinces

were again found. In Gauteng 85% of learners had done the bare minimum,
76% in the Western Cape, 27% in the Eastern Cape, and 24% in Northwest
Province. It must be noted that the survey refers to the bare minimum of
exercises, not all or most of them.
4. National Education Evaluation and Development Unit (NEEDU): Writing

Activities
In 2011 NEEDU surveyed 218 rural primary schools across South Africa and
did an in-depth study of four schools per province (36 schools). This survey
found that only 24% of the writing activities prescribed by CAPS were
completed in the 36 schools studied, in depth. In five schools no extended
writing was done at all and in another five schools only one or two pieces of
writing had been done. This survey confirms the results of the other research
projects mentioned above. Little or no writing is being done by many primary
school learners in South African schools.
Summary of binding constraint 4: Wasted learning time and not enough

opportunities to learn
x Research shows:
o There is not enough time spent teaching.
o There are high levels of teacher absenteeism.
o Learners are not given enough opportunities to learn:
NSES, mathematics – a very small number of teachers are covering
more than the bare minimum.
NSES, language: Grade 4 and 5 teachers are requiring almost no written
work from learners.
School Monitoring Survey, exercise books: Apart from Gauteng and
Western Cape, very little work is being done in exercise books.
NEEDU, writing activities: Very little is being done in primary schools
regarding writing activities.
x Possible reasons and solutions:

o Lack of teaching activity even when teachers are present.
o Lack of teacher knowledge, skills, and confidence.
o Lack of teacher accountability.
o Responsibility falls on principals.
o It is difficult to change the culture of a school.
o Workbooks for mathematics and languages could make a difference – but
only if teachers use them properly. Most teachers are not doing so.

24 120 minutes
The above discussions gave a bleak picture of Education in general. Now from your
own experience write a short paper regarding the following:
1. Why do you think is it so difficult to change the culture of a school?

2. What would you do differently if you were appointed as the principal of your
school today?
Commentary:
Do you know what the culture of your own school (or the one where you are doing
your WIL) is? Think about the following: are teachers in class on time, teaching? Is
quality important in your school? Do teachers stay away from work without good
reason? Is the school’s principal respected? The answers to these questions should
help you to think about your school’s culture.
4.2.5 Constructing a model of the inter-relationships between

constraints
Many different projects implemented over the years have tried to bring about changes
and improve the general level of education in South Africa. Some projects have been
initiated by national education departments, some by provincial education
departments and some by non-government organizations (NGOs).
Unfortunately, it seems that none of them have made any lasting difference. The
RESEP report, on which this unit has been based, is an attempt to understand why
this is the case and what needs to be done to bring about meaningful changes in
education in South Africa. Pay careful attention to how the model makes not learning
to read for meaning by the end of Grade 3, the core problem that must be dealt with
for meaningful reform to happen. Also carefully look out for how this problem, of not
being able to read properly by the end of Grade 3, is inter-linked with other constraints,
forming a web of problems that need to be solved together and not separately.
4.2.6 Recapping binding constraints
The RESEP report (Van der Berg et al., 2016) identifies four constraints as binding
constraints. In other words, four major problems which must be dealt with before any
real progress can be made in improving the overall quality of education in South Africa.
These four binding constraints have all been discussed in this unit, along with two
others. These four are:
1. The lack of proper management and administration at schools and at

provincial level. Research has shown that stronger administration and
accountability have a direct impact on the success of schools, as evidenced in

their matric results.
2. The teachers’ unions undue (too much or inappropriate) influence in
teaching and learning decisions, including the accountability of teachers.
3. The lack of content knowledge and pedagogical (teaching) skills.
4. The wasted learning time and insufficient opportunity to learn. This links
to challenges already discussed, such as teacher absenteeism and poor time
management.
The RESEP report sets out to show how these four binding constraints are all linked
and how they affect the most important objectives of primary education, which is to
produce literate and numerate learners who are properly prepared to move on to high
school.
Diagram illustrating how the binding constraints are inter-linked
The diagram below, reproduced from the RESEP report, shows how the binding
constraints work together to constrain or hold back education in South Africa (Van der
Berg et al., 2016).

Figure 2: Binding Constraints are inter-linked

(Van der Berg et al., 2016)
Explanation of the diagram
1. The central problem is the fact that most learners do not learn to read for
meaning by the end of Grade 3. Notice that this problem is located at the centre
of the diagram.
2. Not learning to read for meaning has two basic direct causes:
x Weak teacher content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge (Binding
Constraint 3)

x Wasted learning time (Binding Constraint 4)
Notice that these two constraints also have arrows between them, showing how
weak teacher content knowledge is related to wasted learning time. If you think
about it, this link is obvious. Teachers who cannot teach properly are going to
waste learning time in their classrooms.
3. Little can be done to improve poor teacher knowledge because of the weak
support provided by the provincial education departments (Binding Constraint
1). If you think about this, it also makes sense. To improve weak teacher
knowledge, you need a strong provincial department that helps put conditions
in place for teachers to improve. If the department is weak then it is hard to
change the schools the department is in control of.
4. Very little can be done to reduce wasted learning time because of the lack of
teacher accountability which is reinforced by undue union influence (Binding
Constraint 1). Do you see how all these reasons connect with each other? If
you have a teachers’ union that is taking up learning time through strikes and
meetings and protecting its members from being disciplined for not teaching
properly, then it is going to be very hard to reduce wasted learning time.
5. Weak provincial departments of education open the way to undue union
influence which in turn makes the departments of education weaker.
6. Weak teacher knowledge leads to more wasted learning time. Spend some
time following the arrows around the diagram and think about how all these
factors combine to constrain and limit attempts to reform and improve
education in South Africa.
7. The diagram is further divided into four quarters:
x The top half relates to administrative matters – i.e. the departments of
education and the unions.
x The bottom half relates to instructional matters – i.e. teachers and teaching.
x The left side relates to capacity – i.e. matters relating to the ability of teachers
to teach.
x The right side relates to accountability – i.e. matters which relate to holding
teachers accountable for their performance in the classroom.
By following the arrows and reading the information in the blocks, it is possible to see
how the central problem of learners, not learning to read, is the result of an inter-
related network of causes and problems.
The diagram helps us to understand that tackling South Africa’s education problems
in a piecemeal fashion – that is, doing little bits here and little bits there – it is not going
to achieve any significant change.
The task of solving South Africa’s education problems needs to be handled in a highly
organized way. The constraints need to be dealt with in a systematic way that focusses
on core issues.

25 240 minutes
1. Study the diagram in Figure 2 very carefully again and read the notes which
explain the diagram.
2. This diagram is very important. Make sure you understand the relationship
between the various parts of the diagram (you must explain each of the
concepts and the links between them, clearly in your own words):
2.1 The central problem – what is the central problem according to the
diagram?
2.2 The four binding constraints.
2.3 The administrative issues.
2.4 The instructional (teaching) issues.
2.5 The capacity (ability to teach) issues.
2.6 The accountability issues.
3. What is the link between the undue union influence, and the weak provincial
departments?
4. What is the link between undue union influence, and the lack of teacher
accountability?
5. What is the link between teacher knowledge and skills, and them not being in
class teaching?
6. Think about the four binding constraints. Put them in what you think is their rank
order, from the most important problem which needs to be tackled first, down to
the one which can be tackled last. Problems: Think of possible problems which
can be dealt with at the same time (simultaneously). You will need this
information to do the activity at the end of the next section.
The above listed issues – learner issues, teacher issues, and administrative issues,
are all internal issues that contribute to what is called the national reading crisis, which
refers to the lack of adequate levels of literacy (language) and numeracy
(mathematics), and to poor matric results and the lack of readiness of learners for
higher education.
120 minutes
26
Have a look at the following quote from above “… the lack of adequate levels of
literacy (language) and numeracy (mathematics), and to poor matric results and the
lack of readiness of learners for higher education”.

The Grade R teacher plays a fatal role in emergent numeracy and literacy. Learners
who are not ready for learning when they start Grade 1 will experience learning
difficulties as they need to develop these before they can start with any formal
learning structures.
Write an essay on the importance of school readiness and the role of the pre-
school teacher.
Important: Highlight the key points and prepare this as an examination question.
We will now consider the external factors that impact the functioning of the basic
education system in South Africa.
5. EXTERNAL FACTORS IMPACTING THE BASIC

EDUCATION SYSTEM
We have noted before that an education system always reflects the type of society in
which it exists. Two decades after the collapse of apartheid this situation has only
changed slightly. With the removal of racial barriers in employment, housing and
education, more people have moved up the socio-economic ladder and have become
middle-class. Despite the good intentions and efforts of the post-apartheid
government, many schools are still run-down, poorly equipped, and poorly resourced.
5.1 Socio-economic factors affecting education
Education is seen as the key to change in South Africa. Many believe that education
can provide a way to raise the standard of living. However, the government finds itself
in a difficult situation. We have already noted, in Section 1, the huge amount of money
which the government spends annually on education. Yet, despite this expenditure,
many lack the facilities needed for quality education.
5.2 Financial factors affecting education (government spending)
Public government schools in South Africa vary enormously in terms of their facilities
and resources, but the government does not have the financial resources needed to
bring all schools up to the same level in terms of facilities and resources.
There are many other demands on government finances which are also a high priority,
such as health services, social welfare, roads, and law-enforcement, to name a few.
Consequently, the government cannot afford to provide all schools with the resources
and facilities everyone wants to have, such as libraries, laboratories, computer rooms,
sports fields, and swimming pools. In fact, as noted previously, many still lack basic
amenities such as electricity, running water and proper toilets.

5.3 Government policies
Many policies of the South African government are designed to address past injustices
and promote equal access to resources and services. Some of these do not target
education directly but still impact education. The Department of Basic Education has
developed many policies to address the ways in which socioeconomic inequality
continues to affect education. We will look briefly at two of these: the choice of
language used for learning and teaching, and the increase of funding to poorer
schools.
5.3.1 Language of learning and teaching (LoLT)
The Republic of South Africa’s language-in-education policy since 1997 is that of

additive bilingualism. In spite of the Constitution, not much happens at grassroots level
to enforce indigenous language use in South Africa and children become aware of
subtle social cues and see the power in language from their parents, and are aware
of dominant and non-dominant languages. The reality is that the child may have
acquired basic interpersonal communication skills in the second or additional
language but finds difficulty with cognitive academic language proficiency. This is the
dilemma of the young second or additional language learner (Saneka, & De Witt,
2019).
The policy of the Department of Basic Education in South Africa is that children should
learn in their home language during pre-school and Foundation Phase to build a solid
foundation of language skills. They can then, in theory, build content knowledge on
this foundation through Intermediate Phase, even if they are taught this knowledge in
another language – which is usually English.
The implication of the above policy is that learners in Grade R will be taught in their
mother tongue but reality is that the teacher does not necessarily speak the language
of the learners in the group, or there are more than one language groups in the class.
Spaull (2017) explains that children in the Foundation Phase (Grades 1 to 3) are
‘learning to read’ because, from Grade 4 onwards, they are meant to be ‘reading to
learn’. This means they will be using the skill of reading to acquire new information.
The Grade R teacher must be aware of her responsibility to focus on emergent

numeracy and literacy skills to enable children to be ready for ‘learning to read’ in the
Foundation Phase.
Many schools thus use an African language as their language of learning and teaching
(LoLT) in Foundation Phase. However, this does not mean that all children are in fact
learning in their home language, because in many schools and classrooms many
different home languages are represented. Thus, many learners are seriously
disadvantaged during the first years of school when they should be building a strong
base of language skills in their home language which they can then use to bridge
across to another LoLT in Intermediate Phase. Due to the many constraints we have
considered, even those learners who are learning in their home language are not
developing their language skills adequately during Foundation Phase.
In Intermediate Phase, most schools switch to English as the LoLT. Data from 2013
showed that while about 70% of learners were learning in an African language during
Foundation Phase, about 90% of learners were learning in English in Intermediate
Phase (Spaull, 2016). This means that learners who were already struggling to learn
in their home language or an African language were now required to start learning a
wide range of content in a second or third language.
The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) is a reading

assessment that is conducted across several different countries every 5 five years.
Data from the PIRLS assessment in 2011 revealed that 29% of Grade 4 learners in
South Africa could not read at all in any language and 58% could read the words but
could not understand what the text meant (Spaull, 2016). This showed that the
education system had failed to teach language skills adequately in Foundation Phase.
The assessment also tested Grade 5 learners at schools where the LoLT was English
or Afrikaans.
While the learners were in Grade 5, the test was given at a Grade 4 level. This
assessment found that only 57% of South African learners had acquired basic Grade
4 reading skills in their new LoLT by Grade 5. In contrast, 95% of Grade 4 learners
internationally had acquired basic reading skills by Grade 4. Only 34% of Grade 5
learners in South Africa could understand what they were reading while internationally
80% of Grade 4 learners tested at the same level could do so. When broken down
into areas, the statistics showed that 80% of urban learners had basic reading skills,
but only 28% of township learners and 26% of rural black learners had these.
More recent research carried out by NEEDU has shown that 41% of South African
Grade 5 learners are functionally illiterate and Functional illiteracy: not having
11% could not read a single word in English although adequate reading and writing skills to be
able to manage daily living or working
it was their language of learning and teaching. The tasks.
reading levels of Grade 5 learners in South Africa
are at the same level as those of Grade 1 learners in the state of Florida in the United
States of America – a state where there are many second language learners.
This means that teachers in the Intermediate Phase face the double challenge of
teaching many learners who have not developed basic language skills in their home
language, and trying to introduce these ill-prepared learners to a wide range of new
subjects in a new language of learning and teaching.

27 180 minutes
You should do all the following questions on your own. However, these questions
could lead to an effective group discussion in your study group.
1. Reflect on your own experience as a learner and write a paragraph in response

to each of the following questions:
1.1 Did you do your Foundation Phase schooling in your home language? If
not, how do you think this impacted your learning and your experience of
school in the Foundation Phase?
1.2 If so, can you think of learners who were in your class who had a different
home language from the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) or from
most of the learners in the class? How do you think this impacted their
learning? How were they perceived by you and others who were learning
in their home language?
1.3 If you can recall any negative aspects of your experience, how could you,
as a teacher, manage this issue to minimize any negative experience for
any of your learners?
1.4 Did your teacher speak the same language as you? If not, how do you think
this impacted your learning?
1.5 When you started Intermediate Phase, did you change to a new LoLT?
1.5.1 If so, how did you experience this? How do you think it impacted your
mastery of your subjects compared to other learners who spoke the
new LoLT at home (for example, learners from English speaking
homes who continued their schooling in English in both Foundation
and Intermediate Phases)? How has this impacted how comfortable
you are reading and writing in your home language and the LoLT
today, as an adult?
1.5.2 If not, ask a friend the question above and write down his/her
answer.
2. Discuss the following questions with teachers at your WIL school and write a
paragraph summarising their responses to each question:
2.1 What challenges do they face regarding the language backgrounds of
learners?
2.2 Which learners experience the greatest barriers to learning due to home
language?
2.3 How do they address these challenges on the classroom level?
2.4 What strategies or policies do they think would help to resolve these
challenges at the school or departmental level?
3. Write a paragraph discussing each of the following questions:

3.1 What is your opinion of the Department of Basic Education’s language

policy?
3.2 Do you think it is the most just, or fair, way to handle the language issue?
3.3 Are there any learners who are advantaged or disadvantaged by this
policy?
3.4 If you were in a position of authority in the Department of Basic Education,
what recommendations would you make to try to ensure that learners from
all language backgrounds are given an equal opportunity to learn?
5.3.2 Efforts to achieve equality in education by increasing funding to

poorer schools
In 1998, to provide equitable education for all learners, the education authorities
grouped schools into quintiles according to the income levels of the communities in
which they are situated. A quintile means a fifth, and the schools were divided into five
equal groups – quintiles. The poorest 20% of schools were designated as Quintile 1.
The wealthiest 20% of schools were designated as Quintile 5. The government
subsidy given to Quintile 1 schools is about six times the amount per learner than the
amount given to Quintile 5 schools. For example, Quintile 1 schools might receive R1
080 per learner per year, but Quintile 5 schools might only receive R180 per learner
per year. Quintiles 2, 3, and 4 are subsidized on a sliding scale in between the Quintile
1 and 5 schools.
Initially, the lower quintile schools tried to charge school-fees, but many learners’
families could not afford them no matter how low they were. As a result, in 2011 the
government declared the Quintile 1, 2 and 3 schools to be no-fee schools: These
schools are not allowed to charge school fees.
Despite these considerable differences in state funding, the gulf between the
suburban schools and the poorest township and rural schools remains very wide. This
is due to the richer schools being able to charge high school fees that enable them to
provide higher quality education. That unfortunately means that the children of parents
who can afford to send them to better schools, generally will receive a better education
than those in a no-fee school.
6. THE IMPACT OF CONSTRAINTS ON LEARNING

We have explored several different binding constraints and external factors which
impact the effectiveness of basic education in achieving its primary aim: learning. We
can model this in a simple diagram, as follows, where the dark grey circles represent
external factors, and the light grey circles represent internal constraints:

Financial
factors
Socio-
Government
economic
policy
factors
LEARNING
is compromised
Weak Weak
management teacher
and admin expertise
Excessive
influence of Wasted
teachers' learning time
unions
Figure 3: Constraints on learning
(De Witt, 2020)
Each of these factors and constraints has a negative impact on learning. These factors
often have a direct impact on each other as well.
28 180 minutes
With your WIL school in mind, let us explore how these factors impact on Grade R
teaching:
1. Does the same policy for the school apply to the Grade R section? Explain your
answer.
2. Does the Grade R teacher receive learning resources from the school budget?
If so, explain why this is required. If not, explain why not.
3. Does the Grade R teacher receive a salary equivalent to that of the other
teachers? Do you agree with this? Substantiate your answer.

4. How do the following aspects impact on the quality of your teaching:

x socio-economic factors,
x financial factors, and
x impact of Government policies?
Commentary:
The situation of the Grade R class can be different form the rest of the school. If it
is a home-based Grade R it is possible that the site is not receiving any money from
government.
You have now spent time thinking about the connections between different factors
and how together they have a negative impact on learning. We have seen that the key
aspect of learning which lays the foundation for all other learning is language skills,
and that the switch from one language of learning and teaching to another language
of teaching and learning in the Intermediate Phase makes this massively more
challenging. You have probably noticed that poor management by the education
department results in weak teacher content knowledge, which in turn results in poor
teaching, which translates to wasted time, and thus ineffective learning in the
classroom.
If you have a teachers’ union that is taking up learning time through strikes and
meetings and protecting its members from being disciplined for not teaching properly,
then it is going to be very hard to reduce wasted learning time. This helps us to see
that solutions are needed on the biggest level – from the top down. This does not
mean, however, that as an individual teaching you cannot bring some positive change
‘from the bottom up’ by having a positive influence in your school and by committing
to meet the needs of its learners whether anyone makes them or not.
7. SUMMARY
In this section we have looked at different categories of constraints – learner-related,
teacher-related, and administrative/policy related – several internal constraints and
some of the external factors that impact basic education.
We have seen how the biggest problem that results from all of these factors is the
failure of the basic education system to develop learners’ language and mathematics
skills by the end of Foundation Phase so that they are ready for the expanding subject
content they encounter in Intermediate Phase. Also, in many schools learners are
expected to transition to a new language of learning and teaching (LoLT) when they
begin Intermediate Phase while their Foundation Phase education failed to equip them
with a firm foundation in their home language which they can build on.
As a Grade R teacher, you will have to start being a change agent. In this capacity
you can play a key role to bring about change. You must address the challenges that
are being experienced by Foundation and Intermediate Phase teachers with deficit in
their learners’ language and mathematics skills. You must not fail your learners in this
phase by adding further constraints through your own action or inaction – such as
absenteeism. However, there are also ways you can have an impact at a wider level
on your school to help to address the constraints that undermine effective learning in
all the phases. We will consider these in the next section as we explore approaches
to address these challenges.
SECTION 2: RESPONSES TO CHALLENGES AND

CONSTRAINTS IN BASIC EDUCATION
1. INTRODUCTION
As discussed in the previous section, the South African basic education system faces
many challenges and constraints. In fact, there is a danger of becoming overwhelmed
by all the problems and issues facing South African education. There are so many
difficulties at so many different levels within education that it could be tempting to give
up on trying to change the system and just accept things the way they are.
The problems in South African education are serious, but there are many people –
researchers, teachers, reformers, concerned citizens – who have spent a lot of time
and money trying to understand and solve the problems discussed in the previous
sections. However, it is important to understand that these problems and ‘binding
constraints’ are common to many developing countries. You must not think that South
Africa is the only country in the world that has these problems. If you travelled through
Africa, South America, and Asia you would find many countries are dealing with the
same issues.
This section will look at research conducted in several developing countries and
possible solutions to the problems in education in South Africa.
First, we must understand the differences between education in developed countries

and less developed countries.
2. DIFFERENCES IN EDUCATION BETWEEN MORE

DEVELOPED COUNTRIES AND LESS DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES
Education in more developed countries deals with different issues and problems to
education in less developed countries. It is important to recognise that the problems
and solutions found in education in developed countries are quite different to the
issues encountered in education in developing countries. More developed countries

tend to have well-funded and functioning education systems that enjoy both qualified
teachers and high levels of participation by the learners.
Many of these more developed countries also invest heavily in resources and help for
disadvantaged children. They provide longer teaching hours, remedial teaching, small
classes, teaching assistants and specialist consultants. The problems that these kinds
of schools have are vastly different to the kinds of problems experienced by schools
in less developed areas. It is dangerous for a less developed country to look towards
the solutions which more developed countries use to solve the problems of improving
the quality of education.
Most developing countries cannot provide the same level of investment or expertise.
Furthermore, developing countries have many more poor families and learners to work
with who need more initial educational investment than wealthier families in developed
countries who have already invested in the education of their children at home. For
example, in more developed countries schools do not have to think about issues such
as children coming to school hungry or not having a place where they can study at
home. So, it is important for schools in less developed countries to look for solutions
that work in their own context, which could be different from those used in developed
countries.
3. SOLUTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF QUALITY IN

LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
Helen Abadzi has researched this topic and tried to answer the question in her book,
Efficient learning for the poor (2006). Her research found that there are seven pillars
which help to achieve basic skills for all in developing countries.
The seven pillars are:
1. Support children’s brain development and health.

2. Use available instructional time effectively.
3. Ensure that all students have textbooks which they can take home.
4. Teach fluent reading and calculation in the early grades.
5. Teach basic skills in home language.
6. Base teacher training on a few simple and effective learning strategies that
work in developing contexts.
7. Ensure effective teacher incentives, goals, and oversight.

29 120 minutes
Look at the seven pillars again before you study this section and decide which of
these impact on Grade R teaching and in which way.
There is a difference between Grade R teaching and the rest of the school system
which may change the pillars. Draw a figure of what you would identify as pillars for
Grade R teaching.
Commentary:
Think out of the box and consult the modules you have already completed, and the
knowledge that you have about the Grade R learner.
Figure 4: Seven pillars for achieving basic skills for all
(Abadzi, 2006)
The pillars identify the basic problems that impact on the functioning of the education
system. If children are hungry and sick it is very difficult for them to focus on learning.
If teachers are not teaching in the classroom, then learning is not happening. If there
are no textbooks for children, then how are they going to learn? If fluent reading and
calculation skills are not taught and mastered in the early grades, then every single
year thereafter is going to be a struggle as they rely on reading and calculation as a
basic skill.
At the heart of these suggestions lie two basic strategies to improve education in
developing countries:
x Improve teaching and learning in the classroom.

x Improve the quality of teachers and their performance in the system.
To improve learning inside the classroom, two key issues must be improved – the
amount of time spent learning; and the quality of this learning.
These two pillars would surely apply to Grade R teaching. Study the next section and
think of creative ways you can improve your teaching.
3.1 Addressing the time spent on teaching and learning

Waste of instructional time is a problem in many less developed countries. The
following diagram illustrates how much time can be lost before the learner learns
something in the classroom. The length of each line represents the time available.
Figure 5: Instructional time calculation
(Abadzi, 2006)

We can see that, of the initial 1 000 hours allocated to teaching, very few hours are
used for, the purpose of teaching.
30 60 minutes
When you look at formal teaching hours, what was your experience at the school
where you did your WIL?
1. Are teachers at this school also guilty of not teaching the required time? Explain
your answer.
2. Did you notice any absenteeism (teachers being absent without good reason)?
Explain your observations.
3. Were teachers often late? Substantiate your answer.
Refer back to the section discussing teaching time and how you would ensure that
you would comply with the requirement even if the rest of the school is not.
Commentary:
Each teacher can make a difference by setting an example and being a positive
influence on those around them.
It is important for those working to solve the problems in South African education to
understand that teacher absenteeism is not just a South African problem.
Chaudhury, Hammer, Kremer, Muralidharan and Rogers, (2006) made unannounced
visits to primary schools in Bangladesh, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Peru, and Uganda.
It was important to do the visits without telling the school so the schools could not fake
teacher attendance. The researchers found that:
x Around 19% of teachers were absent on average. The study also noted
frequent instances where only about half of the teachers present were in their
classrooms.
x Other tendencies noted were that absentee rates increased in poorer regions;
that absence was not limited to a few abusers of the system but was
widespread across teachers at school; and that the higher the rank, the higher
the absenteeism, with principals – especially male principals – being the most
frequently absent.
x The study goes on to observe, “…while official rules provide for the possibility
of punitive action in the case of repeated absence, disciplinary action for
absences is rare. Teachers … are almost never fired” (Chaudhury et al., 2006,
p. 93).

x The rates of absence in developing countries observed were far higher than in
more developed countries, where around 5% was the average. The more
developed the region or province, the better the attendance, the poorer the
region the poorer the attendance.
So, what can be done to solve this issue of absenteeism of teachers?
The following factors were found to reduce absenteeism:
x hiring teachers who live near the school;

x improving school infrastructure;
x increasing monitoring by (and presence of) ministry officials; and
x high literacy rate among parents.
The paper ends with the following observation, “quality starts with attendance”
(Chaudhury et al., 2006, p. 114).
31 180 minutes
1. In your group, discuss how you think the following six pillars of achieving basic
skills for all can be addressed in the Grade R teaching in the South African
context and make notes for future reference:
1.1 Support children’s brain development and health.
1.2 Use available instructional time effectively.
1.3 Teach pre-reading and numeracy skills.
1.4 Teach basic skills in the home language.
1.5 Base teacher training on a few simple and effective learning strategies
that work in developing contexts.
1.6 Ensure effective teacher incentives, goals and oversight specific for
Grade R teachers.
2. A few suggestions were provided to reduce teacher absenteeism. In your group,
discuss more ideas. Add at least two more ideas from the discussion with your
group.
Commentary:
Two of the issues, namely teacher training and effective teacher incentives, do not
fall within your ambit as a teacher. But consider them anyway, and think about how
you would address these issues, if you were a manager in the Department of Basic
Education.

3.2 Addressing the quality of teaching and learning
While the presence of teachers in the classroom is a necessary condition for quality
education, it is not enough. The crucial issue is what happens inside the classroom
when teachers and learners are there. There must be effective teaching within a
developing context. We saw in Unit 1 that it does not work well to force poorly trained
teachers to suddenly, try new, learner-centred types of teaching methods. It is better
to work more carefully with the structured methods that they are used to.
The Education for All Report (UNESCO, 2015, p. 26.) on improving the quality of
education in developing countries puts this as follows:
“On the spectrum running from traditional ‘chalk-and talk’ teaching to ‘open-ended’
instruction, many educators argue for structured teaching – a combination of direct
instruction, guided practice and independent learning. Typically, teachers should
present small amounts of material, then pausing to make sure students understand
and encourage active participation by the learners. Much evidence suggests that
structured teaching works far better than open-ended approaches for children from
disadvantaged backgrounds, those with learning difficulties and those in large
classes.”
Classrooms should be learning-centred rather than learner-centred. In a learning-

centred classroom, the person who knows (the teacher) actively teaches the person
who does not know (the learner) a key area of knowledge, while obtaining feedback
to ensure the learner understands what is being taught. Learning can then proceed in
a structured way to the next area of focus. If we take this as the core sequence of
teaching and learning, indeed several basic elements must be in place.
Firstly, learners must experience a curriculum that demands a lot from them. They
need to be healthy and they need to participate continually, or the demands of the
curriculum will be too much for them.
Secondly, teachers need to know the curriculum and know how to teach it so that
learners move from where they are to where the curriculum demands they should be.
Apart from knowing how to do this, teachers must of course actually do it.
Thirdly, the curriculum must be clearly structured and sequenced to ensure that
maximum gain in knowledge, skill and attitude is achieved.
Fourthly, management structures at school, district, provincial and national levels

should be directed at ensuring that this core activity of teaching and learning happens
effectively in the school, the district, the province, and the country.

3.2.1 Essential requirements for effective learning
No matter what school interventions are attempted, if the learner does not arrive at
school ready to learn, not much can be achieved. Research from cognitive
psychologists on the cognitive damages caused by starvation provides crucial
insight on this. Poor nutrition in the womb and during the first three years of life causes
direct and irreversible damage to cognitive ability and performance. There is no
catching up or miraculous recovery. No teacher, curriculum or school feeding scheme
can reverse the damage inflicted by stunted growth and short-term memory
impairment that comes from starvation as a baby. Education is tied to health by the
umbilical cord.
3.2.2 The importance of early childhood development
Health interventions in the first three years of life show a direct and continuous benefit
in schooling performance (Fleisch, 2008; De Witt, 2021). Early childhood care is a
non-negotiable part of schooling as it ensures that children can perform from their first
day at school, rather than having to repeat Grade 1 because they were not used to
the demands of school. Early childhood care cannot be a form of warehousing where
young children are just left in a room to do what they want.
Early childhood education must stimulate the child. This means getting the child’s
body and mind used to the social world of schooling, while improving confidence, self-
esteem, and the fine motor-skills needed at the school desk. This takes time. The first
day of schooling is not in Grade 1: It begins on the day of conception with the mother’s
own state of health and education.
Ensuring that teachers are in the classroom teaching, and that learners who arrive at
school have not been stunted as babies and have had a worthwhile pre-school
education, provides some very basic conditions for improving the quality of education
in less developed countries. Once these basics have been established, then it is
possible to concentrate on the teaching techniques that work best in less developed
contexts.
3.2.3 Teaching disadvantaged children
Teachers within developing countries need to know and use teaching methods that
work in poorer contexts. Some teaching methods will have a positive effect on learner
performance, and some will have a negative effect. It is important to know which
methods are the most appropriate to use when teaching disadvantaged learners from
poor contexts – which will improve learner performance, or which will damage it.

In the next paragraph, you will learn more about teaching strategies that are suitable
for disadvantaged learners.
Teaching strategies that are suitable for disadvantaged learners
Interventions that are known to have a direct and good impact on improving learner
performance in disadvantaged communities across developing nations, as described
by Abadzi (2006) are:
x using phonics to teach reading;

x spending the maximum class time possible on learning activities;
x withdrawing the use of home language slowly and introducing bilingual
education gradually;
x quiet, attractive classrooms with lots of light and moderate temperatures (not
hot or cold); and
x supportive health programmes.
Teacher training in a developing context should be based on the teaching principles

that have been found to work within such contexts. It should focus on building skills to
teach language and mathematics, developing good, basic content knowledge, and
follow a clear curriculum. Teaching in the home language should be done by teachers
who share that home language.
A clear and structured curriculum is vital to support teachers. It should carefully map
the learning that is planned across the grades and subjects. Each lesson, day, week,
term, and year should be clearly set out so that teachers know exactly what they need
to teach at any given time.
The CAPS curriculum which is currently used in South Africa was very carefully
planned. Across South Africa, learners in the same grade are doing the same lesson
in the same week, because CAPS has specified what needs to be taught week by
week throughout the term and year.
Teaching strategies that are not suitable for teaching disadvantaged children
include:
x Using a foreign language for basic skills of reading and mathematics is not a
good idea. It is vital to use a learner’s home language when teaching basic
skills in the early grades.
x Using discovery learning to teach basic skills (where the learner is given space
and time to explore and discover what needs to be learnt) does not work well.
It is better if the teaching is structured.

x Expecting learners to take notes and find their own sources is unlikely to work
well.
x Teacher training which focusses on advanced degrees (e.g. Masters’ Degrees)
rather than focussing on good basic training for teachers from poor
backgrounds, is not productive (Abadzi, 2006, p. 139).
These kinds of interventions should be actively discouraged within a developing

context. It has been shown that they do not work well or are not the best use of
resources.
3.2.4 Curriculum design for disadvantaged learners
The problem with CAPS is when teachers and learners cannot keep up with the
demands of the curriculum and start to fall behind. By the end of the week the teacher
finds that she has not been able to teach all the lessons and then she has a choice –
either slow down or miss a couple of lessons. Either way, the curriculum does not get
completed. Abadzi, (2006) warned against this. This is how she puts it:
“Curricula often reflect the learning needs and rhythms of the urban middle class.
Thus, they are loaded with myriad activities for the first few years. Predictably, few
schools serving the poor reach the end of the textbook - if they have one” (Abadzi,
2006, pp. 95–96).
When designing the curriculum, or writing a textbook, it is very hard to leave subject
content and activities out, because these seem to be very valuable. So instead of
simplifying the curriculum and text books to make the curriculum more manageable
for learners and teachers from poor contexts, the curriculum planners and text book
writers pack them with content and activities, and then give exact days on which each
must be done. This failure to simplify the curriculum results in teachers falling behind
and becoming frustrated.
This is a complex problem. The need to simplify the curriculum and identify core areas
that must be mastered by all has to be juxtaposed (contrast/compared) with the need
for a curriculum that enables entry into university and is internationally competitive. It
is also politically risky not to have middle class buy-in to the national curriculum. An
over-simplified curriculum could result in the middle-class parents taking their children
out of public schools and putting them into private schools.
3.2.5 The value of textbooks
One strategy is to identify failing schools that are not managing to teach the curriculum
at all and provide them with a stripped-down core curriculum as well as extensive
support and guidance in mastering it.

Using a core curriculum with essential lessons per subject in every grade becomes a
manageable task for a failing school, especially if these lessons are carefully designed
and come with all the necessary support materials, as well as training for the teachers
and external assessment at a specified time.
In this approach, the curriculum is contained in one key document that reaches the
teacher and the learner – a textbook. Here the work of the national department,
curriculum committees and subject specialists can reach into the heart of the teaching
and learning environment.
The textbook is also the learner’s take-home resource that extends learning beyond
the classroom. It supports the teacher who is unsure of a particular section. It
structures the work of the year into a coherent whole that builds on the previous year
and prepares for the next one. Good textbooks for all are one of the cheapest and
most effective ways to get quality into the classroom and the home. Unfortunately,
research into the actual quality of textbooks is scarce, but we do have enough
research to help us identify what a good textbook looks like.
The basic features of good textbook (Abadzi, 2006, p. 91) are as follows:
1. Serious focus on content comes first, with rich and extensive explanation and
elaboration of concepts.
2. Secondly, there should be extensive use of pictures, drawings, diagrams, and
figures that capture the essence of important concepts. These, are not cartoons
or illustrations, but visuals which clearly capture the patterns, relationships and
logic of a specific content area.
3. Thirdly, there should be room for practice and exploring outward from the topic.
This can be provided either in the textbook or in an attached workbook.
4. Fourthly, the topics should be organised clearly in the textbook and be simple
to read, without too many things crowding the page.
5. Fifthly, the text should explain clearly how the current topic connects with topics
that were covered previously.
That textbooks must be of an extremely high quality is non-negotiable. To select

textbooks, experts should rate them through a formal process that does not allow room
for corruption. In Senegal, there are two textbook evaluation committees for each
textbook to reduce the possibility of corruption.
It is important to note that no textbooks are needed for Grade R teaching. Consult the
CAPS document on what should be taught to Grade R learners.

3.2.6 How to motivate teachers
We have seen throughout this unit and module that teachers are the crucial factor
determining quality within education systems. Key questions are – How to get good
teachers into the system? How to motivate teachers to do their jobs well? How to
enable them to continually to improve their skills and performance?
Motivational strategies that do not work
Rewarding teachers by paying them extra if their learner performance improves does
not work. It results in all sorts of practices that target short-term improvement without
any long-term benefit. For example, a random set of teachers in Kenya were offered
a pay bonus if their learners’ test scores improved. The test scores did improve – but
not for other subjects or for the rest of the year. The teachers had simply focussed
more on teaching the material that was going to appear on the test. There was no
improvement in teacher attendance, in homework given or marked, in preparation or
teaching style (Abadzi, 2006, p. 116). Similar results have been seen in other
countries – with teachers sometimes going as far as to change learners’ scores to get
the bonus (Levitt & Dubner, 2005).
Motivational strategies that do work
Teachers already inside the system need to have a combination of internal and
external motivators as well as internal and external forms of accountability. Teachers
who are never visited in their classrooms by other teachers, the principal, or an
inspector have only their own inner drive to keep them going. Structures are needed
on three levels to hold teachers accountable. At the level of the school, there needs
to be structures for accountability between teachers, the head of department and the
principal.
At the level of the district, schools need to be inspected regularly. At the level of the
community, teachers need to be held accountable through structures such as the
School Governing Body. Members of the SGB could make short visits to the
classrooms to check that specific objectives are met at specific standards – for
example, learners must be able to read, write and calculate to certain standards by
the end of Grade 3.
32 60 minutes
1. Do you often hear complaints about the South African schooling system? If so:
1.1 How does that make you feel?

1.2 How can the quality of education in South Africa be addressed?

2. Do you think the teachers at your school (or the school where you did WIL) are
motivated to do their best? Write a paragraph to explain.
3. Read the above section about teacher motivation again. Do you agree with that?
Motivate your answer.
4. What motivates you to do your best as a teacher? Explain your answer.
5. How can the teachers at your school (or the school where you did WIL) be
motivated to do better?
Commentary:
We often let negative comments from parents and others impact the way we think
about our work. Think about ways to prevent yourself from becoming negative.
Teacher accountability in developed contexts
The type of accountability and motivation teachers need depends on the nature of the
education system. As we have seen throughout this module, less developed education
systems need different kinds of interventions to more developed systems. Finland, for
example, has a more developed education system. Finland gives teachers and
schools a great deal of freedom when it comes to the curriculum and assessment.
Teachers get together to decide what to teach during the year.
There are no external evaluations of teachers or inspections in the classroom. This

means that teachers have an enormous amount of responsibility to design and deliver
quality education. This is possibly because they come from a highly developed and
educated society and, in general, they are motivated to teach, not to receive a salary
or a position of power but because they are passionate about education. In less
developed education systems, it would be extremely dangerous to put this much
responsibility on teachers.
33 180 minutes
In this unit, you have found out about some of the constraints binding the South
African education system. You have also learnt about research that shows how to
improve the quality of education in less developed contexts.
1. Redraw and complete the following table by filling in solutions to each of the
binding constraints. Refer to your answers to the activities at the end of the
previous sections in this unit to do this activity.

What can be done to overcome the constraint

Binding constraints of South African
and improve the quality of education in South
Education
Africa
Socio-economic, financial and language
issues.
Major problem of reading for meaning.
The constraint of poor support provided
to schools by most provincial education
departments.
The constraints caused by improper
union influence on the operations of
provincial education departments.
The constraints presented by weak
teacher content knowledge and weak
pedagogical skills.
The constraint of wasted learning time.
2. Use your completed table to write an essay in which you outline each constraint
and then provide suggestions about what can be done to overcome the
constraint and improve the quality of education in South Africa. Do not only write
about what you have learnt in the CLG, please use your own ideas as well.
Remember the requirements for Grade R might be different.
Let us look at a South African case study next.
3.3 South African case study
The central problem in South African education is that learners are not learning
to read for meaning by the end of Grade 3. If there is one central problem we should
focus our energies on, it should be trying to improve reading in our schools.
There have been a number of attempts to improve reading in the South African
schooling system over the past years, and in this section, we are going to explore
which kinds of attempts to improve reading, are better than others. In 2017 the
Department of Basic Education published an account of three different interventions
to improve reading, along with clear results, (and) about which intervention was best.
The research study was called the Early Grade Reading Study (EGRS) (DBE, 2017)
and it tested three different intervention models over a two-year period in 150 different
schools. Another 50 schools were used as a control group where no intervention was
done. The learners in these schools were tested for the ability to read for meaning at
the beginning and end of the year, over a two-year period. The interventions were
carried out in North West province and the materials were used to improve the home
language of the learners (Setswana). The EGRS study started in 2015 with Grade 1
learners and then followed the learners into Grade 2 in 2016.
The first intervention (teacher workshops) was implemented in 50 schools and

consisted of providing teachers with lesson plans on reading that were aligned to
CAPS as well as lots of additional reading materials for the learners. The teachers
went to two training workshops a year to learn how to teach the lessons and use the
reading materials.
The second intervention (coaching teachers) was implemented in 50 other schools

that were similar in kind to the first intervention. These schools were provided with the
same lesson plans and the same additional reading materials, but the teachers did
not go on training workshops. Instead, each teacher was provided an on-site coach
who knew how to teach for meaning. These experienced teachers/coaches would sit
in the lessons and help the teacher to teach reading. The teachers would also attend
small cluster training sessions with other teachers from the school and schools
nearby.
The third intervention (parental help) was implemented in 50 schools that were also
similar to the other schools. No extra lesson plans or extra materials were provided.
Instead, weekly meetings were held with the parents of the learners to discuss the
importance of reading in the early grades and to provide the parents with the
knowledge and tools to become more involved in helping the children read.
The fourth group of schools had no intervention and just carried on as they had always
done. The learners in these schools were tested at the same time as the learners in
the other schools to see how much their reading had improved. The fourth group is
called a control group because they do not receive anything extra / no interventions
over the two years that the other schools all received one of the interventions. The
control group can be used to see how much improvement in reading happened without
any intervention. The control group can then be used to check how much the other
schools improved in comparison to them.
Stop and think
Before we look at the results of the study to see which intervention was the best, stop
and ask yourself which intervention you think was the most successful? Why?
34 240 minutes
Before we go on to provide you with an account of which intervention was the best,
read the EGRS case study again carefully, and answer these questions:
1. Which intervention do you think would be the best and why?

2. Have you had any similar interventions at your school? Ask other teachers
about their experience with interventions to support reading.
3. Do you think they were effective? If not, which intervention would you prefer?
Why do you say so?
4. Do children at your school have access to books? How? Do you have a library
at school? In which other ways can you make books accessible?
5. How could you make more books accessible to your learners? Ask other
teachers for their ideas for books in the various home languages of learners.
Think about how families, members of the community, or organisations might
help.
6. How can you get the parents more involved in helping to address this challenge
(pre-reading)?
7. How could you get parents more involved to help develop their children’s
reading and language abilities in both their home language and in the language
of learning and teaching?
8. What opportunities might there be to get members of the community –
pensioners, youth, NGOs, church members, for example – involved with
supporting the development of your learners’ reading and language skills, in
both home language and language of learning and teaching?
9. Write a memo to the Provincial Department of Education, in which you motivate
for such an intervention at your own school.
10. Regardless of the response of the Provincial Department of Education, what
could you and your colleagues do to organise coaching for teaching reading
for teachers in your school? Think of resources you have within your school or
district (for example, highly experienced teachers, or teachers whose learners
have shown higher results with reading and language skills) and resources in
your community (for example, university or NGO programmes, retired teachers
who were successful in teaching reading).
Now, we will have a look at the results of the interventions mentioned in the case
study. In fact, all three kinds of interventions were successful and improved reading in
comparison to the control group of schools which did not have any intervention. But
the most successful of all was the coaching intervention where experienced teachers
went into the classroom to help teachers improve their teaching.
At these schools, learners got about 40% of a year of learning further ahead with
their learning than learners at the schools with no intervention. This is significant. At
the schools where teachers were sent away for training, learners got about 19% of a
year of learning further ahead with their learning than learners at the schools with no
intervention. And at the schools which engaged the parents in helping with reading,
learners got about 13% of a year of learning further ahead than those at the schools
with no intervention.

Figure 6: Intervention results
(Evans, 2017)
This showed that it was more effective to bring experienced coaches into the
classroom to work alongside teachers than to send teachers away to workshops. The
workshops did have some benefit, though. But funds would be better spending on in-
class support than sending teachers to workshops. And it is incredibly significant that
the involvement of parents brought about a substantial gain for students. This
intervention requires no funding, and one that teachers or schools can initiate without
departmental support.
What makes the EGRS study and its findings so important to the South African
education system is that it tried out three different interventions and had a control
group to see how much improvement actually happened in comparison to those that
received no intervention. It is one of the best studies ever done in South Africa to work
out how to improve reading for disadvantaged learners. You can read more about this
study by following the links on the website as listed below:
https://nicspaull.com/2017/08/16/egrs-probably-the-most-important-education-
researchintervention-post-apartheid/
Research across the developing world is coming out with a message that speaks
directly to the South African project of improving educational quality for all. (A good
example from the SEIA is Working Paper 128 – Curricula, Examinations, and
Assessment in Secondary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, 2008). In essence, it

advises to get the basics, such as reading, right before attempting complex
reforms (Spaull & Pretorius, 2019).
Start with what is possible rather than with a glorious dream. Take a long-term view.
Start with small steps, working from what the system can currently handle towards
what it can achieve. Look for ideas and solutions from educational systems in
countries that have similar constraints rather than from those in developed countries.
4. CONCLUSION
Dealing with and solving the problems in the education system in South Africa is
obviously not simple or straight-forward and it is not going to be achieved quickly.
Instead, it will require consistent hard work over a longer period.
The aim of this unit was to help you understand the educational problems in South
Africa and the enormous challenges they present. Hopefully, one day you will be able
to play some part in bringing about the necessary changes to ensure that every
learner, no matter what their socio-economic background may be, or where they may
live, will receive the education they need and are entitled to.
SECTION 3: TEACHERS AS AGENTS OF CHANGE
1. INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1 of this module we learnt about social justice, and in the first two sections of
Unit 2, we learnt about the challenges and constraints facing the Basic Education
system.
It is important to understand that we are not powerless against the challenges that the
system is facing, but that we can overcome many of these if we all work together. To
achieve social justice and overcome the challenges we face, all teachers are required
to be change agents.
Due to a long history of inequality and racism, South African Basic Education is
expected to bring about change and to promote social justice, democracy, and social
cohesion. While policies were changed and curricula and textbooks were re-written
after apartheid, teachers play the most important role in effecting social change
(Cappy, 2016).

How could you as a teacher contribute to transformation and change in your own
school’s context? The intention of this section is to introduce you to the concept of
teachers as change agents, and to consider the characteristics that you will require to
be an effective change agent. Many of the issues we have looked at in this unit need
to be addressed at a national level to bring improvement in all the schools in South
Africa.
This does not mean, however, that as an individual The term ‘agency’ means a person or
group’s ability, competence, and power
teacher you are powerless to bring positive change to to critically shape their responses to
your class, your school and even the education problematic situations.
system. You have agency – the power to impact the The term change agent means a
professional who influences innovation
situation around you. If you use your agency or changes decisions in a direction that
effectively, your impact could even bring positive is deemed desirable.
change on a district, provincial or national level.
The concept of teachers as agents of change was also covered in more detail in
Professional studies 3: Early Years Teacher Identity and the Profession (R-PFS 313)
and as such, we will not cover it in a lot of detail here – it is only meant to introduce
you to the concept of teachers as change agents and their role.
2. TEACHERS AS CHANGE AGENTS

Bandura (2001, p. 2) states that “to be an agent is to intentionally make things happen
by one’s actions.” He sees teachers as change agents who are open to change and
act accordingly, while being self-conscious of the complexity of change processes in
their schools (Moloi, 2019).
Teachers are seen by most societies around the world, as the individuals who can
help to bring about positive changes in the lives of people. They are considered natural
leaders who can give advice on various affairs in the community (Bourn, 2016).
Bourn (2016) lists three distinct locations where teachers can act as change agents:
Within the classroom; within the wider school; and within society. It is however in the
classroom, in their daily interaction with learners, and in effective teaching practice,
that teachers’ probably have the biggest impact.
Bourn (2016) found that teachers who saw themselves as agents of change tended
to incorporate three forms of pedagogy in their teaching and learning:
1. They took the time to explain what learners should do carefully and
clearly. This helped the students to feel supported (scaffolding was provided)
and competent, as they were clear about what they needed to do.

2. They used stories and examples from their own life in their teaching. This
helped to build a bond of respect and trust with their learners and engage their
learners emotionally in what they were learning, deepening their learning
experience.
3. They encouraged discussion and debate among their students (learners)

on issues of social justice. This helped to develop their critical thinking skills
and their awareness of social justice issues. This also enabled the teacher to
model a concern for and commitment to social justice, creating a good example
for the students to follow and letting them know that their teacher cared about
gender, socioeconomic, or other issues that they or their families faced in their
own lives.
Teachers who recognised their role as agents of change primarily practised three
pedagogical forms: Narrative instruction on what students should do, use of
personal stories and materials to elicit emotional responses, and encouragement
of debate on social issues (Bourn, 2016).
The kind of teacher that can contribute to the transformation of education through
effective teaching is someone who is a well-qualified, competent, dedicated,
caring, mediator of learning, designer of learning programmes, administrator,
assessor, researcher, subject specialist, and lifelong learner (Quan-Baffour &
Arko-Achemfuor, 2009).
Van der Heijden, Geldens, Beijaard and Popeijus, (2015) found that the following
characteristics are associated with teachers who are successful change agents:
Lifelong learning (being eager to learn and reflect), mastery (giving guidance, being
accessible, positive, committed, trustful, and self-assured), entrepreneurship (being
innovative and feeling responsible), and collaboration (being collegial). These four
key values are explained below:
1. They believed in lifelong learning. They did not think that formal training
prepared them for life but continued to seek new knowledge and skills, and
questioned their existing ways of teaching. By reflecting on their experiences,
they were able to gain new insights which they could use to improve their
teaching.
2. They valued mastery. They felt that it was important to be an expert in their
work and be committed to their discipline, giving guidance to their learners in
an accessible, positive, and confident way.
3. They had an entrepreneurial attitude. This means they were always open to
new ideas and new opportunities, and they were willing to experiment and
innovate. They did not wait for others to solve their problems or give them what
they needed: they saw themselves as capable of finding a way forward and
took responsibility for doing so.
4. They valued collaboration with other teachers. This means working with
their colleagues by discussing problems and sharing ideas, observing, and
giving feedback on each other’s teaching, and asking or offering help when
needed. These teachers wanted to grow in their expertise and were willing to
share and receive, and their students reaped the rewards.
All four of these values are important values for you to teach your learners as well
because they will enhance their commitment and ability to keep learning throughout
their lives, promoting success in whatever they do. In your module on Classroom
Practice, you explored some of these values and your attitude towards them.
In 2011, Jansen and two of his journalism students at University of the Free State,
Nangamso Koza and Lihlumelo Toyana, published an appeal in the newspaper to the
public to send in stories about the teachers who had changed their lives. They
published these stories in their book, Great South African Teachers: A Tribute to South
Africa's Great Teachers from the People Whose Lives They Changed.
They noticed that there were seven different main ways in which the teachers who
were written about had been ‘great’ (Hayward, 2012). As you read this list, think about
whether you had any teachers with these characteristics. Also think about whether
you would like to be described in this way as a teacher.
1. Subject artist: Some teachers were exceptional in the way they taught their
subject. They were passionate about it and made it come alive for their
students, showing them how it was relevant to their lives outside of the
classroom.
2. Courageous activist: Some teachers were activists, who linked what they
were teaching to the issues of social justice in their learners’ lives and in
society.
3. Inspiring mentor: These teachers inspired their students by giving them kind
words of encouragement and sharing insight and wisdom. Some of these
teachers personally sponsored some of the needs of their students.
4. Life performer: These teachers did not just show up and teach from the front
of the class. They lived out their lives with passion and drama with their
learners, making the classroom an exciting place to experience life on a bigger
scale than they would otherwise, and be challenged to look at things in new
ways.
5. Soft disciplinarian: These teachers had excellent discipline in their
classrooms but achieved it with a gentle touch – treating each learner with
respect and earning their learners’ respect and cooperation in return. They
never bullied, humiliated or threatened their learners.
6. Tough love coach: These teachers were strict and no nonsense: the learners
knew there would be consequences if they did not cooperate. But what also
came through strongly from these teachers was how deeply they cared about
their learners: their strictness came from their belief that their learners had great
potential and their determination to help their learners fulfil that potential.
7. Extended parent: Some teachers cared for their learners as a loving parent
would, so the learner moved between home and school always feeling cared
for.
While many of the teachers did not just fit in one of these descriptions, what they all
had in common was that they were not interested in what was the minimum required
by the department or the union. For them, teaching was their life, and they went above
and beyond what they had to serve their learners (Hayward, 2012).
The world needs great teachers,

may you become one of them.
3. SUMMARY
In this section, you were briefly introduced to the concept of change agents and the
role of teachers as change agents. You were also referred to Professional Studies 3:
Early Years Teacher Identity and the Profession (R-PFS 313).
35 180 minutes
1. Write the definition of a change agent, in your own words.

2. Why do we need change agents in Basic Education?
3. Considering the first two units of this module, which dealt with Social Justice and
the challenges and constraints faced in the South African basic education
system, what do you think is the role that teachers can play in bringing about
change in our basic education system?
4. Think back to the teachers you have had throughout your life. Was there one (or
more) – that you think has left a lasting impact on you? They might have given
you support at a time when you most needed it or influenced the way you saw
yourself, your values, or your life choices – including your career choice to
become a teacher.
Choose one teacher and ask yourself what qualities the teacher had, that made
them an agent of change. Make a list of the qualities you can identify and write
a description and some examples next to each quality.

5. Now think about your own school or your WIL school. Identify at least three
things that need to change.
6. Write a paragraph describing how you could become an agent for change using
the approaches discussed in this section and others you may have identified in
the teacher you selected from your own experience as a learner.
7. How would you introduce the change and work together with the principal, other
teachers, and learners to ensure success?
Commentary:
All teachers should be change agents, and you should not only focus on your own
classroom, but also the school, and even the community.
36 120 minutes
Go back to the essay that you wrote for Activity 1. Has your understanding of the
concept of social justice changed? Now answer the following questions.
1. How would you explain to other teachers how to bring about justice in
education?
2. Are you convinced that social justice should play a role in education? Motivate
your answer.
3. Can you mention any constraints in education you are aware of and the effect
of it in the school where you are doing your WIL?
Commentary:
The purpose of this activity is to see how you have grown during this module and
what you have gained from this module.
Now that you have come to the end of this module, reflect on Unit 2 by doing the next
self-assessment activity.

37 90 minutes
Self-assessment activity: Unit 2
If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the criteria, go back to the relevant

section to study it again.
Now that I have worked through this unit,

YES UNSURE NO
I can critically understand and reflect on:
Achievements in basic education since 1994.
Challenges in basic education.
Constraints in basic education in SA.
External factors impacting basic education.
The research on overcoming challenges

in education.
Practical solutions that can be implemented

in the South African system.
Understand and explain the role of the

professional teacher as change agent.
Identify and apply the values and pedagogy

needed to become an agent of change.
4. CONCLUSION
In this module, Professional Studies 4: Education Policy and Practice (R-PFS 324),
we first explored how formal education developed in South Africa and looked at how
education is intricately tied up with political, economic and cultural forces.
We saw how the South African education system was developed systematically to
enforce racial discrimination for the benefit of whites and how this brutal system was
resisted, opposed, and ultimately defeated.

We then explored how the system of education works in South Africa post-apartheid,
by detailing the principles, policies, and laws of South African education as well as the
organisational and financial way education works.
We also looked at how our educational system is still struggling with the weight of
apartheid and the legacy of inequality it has left us with, resulting in our current
education system having some key binding constraints that are preventing us from
moving forward as fast as we would like. By understanding what these key binding
constraints are, we can start the process of solving these problems and moving our
education system and the future lives of our learners forward.
Finally, we considered solutions we also introduced the concept of teachers working

as change agents in the system, to bring about positive change. We wish you the best
in your future teaching career!

REFERENCES
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students with severe disabilities: Literature review". International Journal of Special
Education, 27(1), pp. 42–59.
Badat, S. & Sayed, Y. (2014). Post-1994 South African education: The challenge of
social justice. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science, 652(1), pp. 127–148.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual review

of psychology, 52, pp. 1–26. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, Inc.
Bell, L.A. (1997). Theoretical foundations for social justice education. In M. Adams,
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53)6

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES 4: CRITICAL ISSUES IN

CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE

Copyright ¤ SANTS Private Higher Education Institution Pty. Ltd.

Programme coordinator Prof Ina Joubert

Discipline coordinator Mr Hendri Kruger

Author Prof Marike de Witt

Reviewer Prof Marike de Witt

Language editor Tumisang Shongwe

Technical editor Ms Bonita Duursema

Mrs Judith Brown

Graphic artist N/A

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING i

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING PROGRAMME

We welcome you to the Professional Studies 4: Critical Issues in Education (R-PFS

The purpose of the Diploma in the Grade R Teaching programme is to offer a

The diploma qualification requires that teachers develop a depth of specialised

2. OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAMME

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING iii

Outline of modules of the Diploma in Grade R Teaching programme

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING iv

Language competencies will be assessed during the course of your programme.

The different types of learning are:

Fundamental learning, which includes student personal and academic

x Disciplinary learning refers to disciplinary or subject matter knowledge and

x Situational learning refers to knowledge of the varied learning situations of

x This learning incorporates general pedagogical knowledge referring to the study

Depending on the purpose of a qualification, particular mixes of the five types of

x Disciplinary learning (11 credit);

Most modules display an integration of the above-mentioned types of learning. Apart

Organising principles of the programme structure of the Diploma in Grade R

Organising principles Modules in programme

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING vi

Organising principles Modules in programme

English Home and First Additional Language and

Afrikaans Home Language and Literacy Learning in

isiXhosa Home Language and Literacy Learning in

isiZulu Home Language and Literacy Learning in

Sepedi Home Language and Literacy Learning in

Setswana Home Language and Literacy Learning in

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING vii

4. PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE

At the end of this module students should be able to:

x Understand perspectives on social justice in education.

The content comprises:

x Perspectives on social justice in education.

x Developed professional sensitivity and awareness of social issues and

x Addressing social injustices through responsive praxis.

5. WORKING THROUGH THE CURRICULUM AND

These guidelines will help you:

x Work consistently throughout the semester;

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING ix

Commentaries appear at the bottom of some activities. Commentaries are not

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING x

When completing the template, consider the following:

DIPLOMA IN GRADE R TEACHING xi

Challenges and constraints in the

Spitzman, E. & Balconi, A. (2019). Social Justice in Action: A Document Analysis

9. ASSESSMENT OF THE MODULE

9.1 Summary of assessment

The following conditions are applicable:

9.4 Semester examination

10. PLAGIARISM WARNING FOR STUDENTS

x Submit only your own and original work.

53)6