State Variable in Gas

PRESSURE TEMPERATURE VOLUME

● you put force in an ● 9C = 5F - 160 ● 1L = 1000mL

object

● SI units (International ● 0C/F + 273 = K ● 1mL = cm³

System Units) ● 0K - 273 = -273C

● atm: atmospheric
pressure

● 1atm = 760 mmHg

● 1atm = 760 torr
● 1atm = 101325 pascal

Theory
1. Gases, the total volume which is so small as to be negligible in relation to the volume space in which
the molecule is confined lm
2. The particle of the gas do not attract one another, but instead they move with complete independence.
3. The particle exhibits continuous random motion owning their kinetic energy.
4. Gases has their perfect elasticity.
● No net loss

Basic Gas Law

Boyle's Law Gay Lussac's Law Charle's Law Avogadro's Law

Inversely Proportional Directly Proportional Directly Proportional Directly Proportional

= increase pressure, = increase in
decrease volume pressure and
temperature

Constant = T,n Constant = V,n Constant = P,n Constant = T, P

Combined Gas Law

● PVT

Ideal Gas Law

● Pv = nRT

● n = g/MW
● R = 0.08205 L atm/mol. K
● T = Kelvin

Density = g/vol
STP = 1atm
= 22.40
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure
● The total pressure of the system (P) is the sum of the individual partial pressure of each component.

Vapor Pressure
● volatility: escape of the gas

Raoult's Law
● In an ideal solution:
● The partial Vp of each volatile constituent is equal to Vp of pure constituent multiplied by its
mole fraction.

Henry's Law
● The solubility of gas is Directly to to pressure at constant temperature.
● C=KP
● C = concentration of gas solution
● K = Henry's Law constant
● P = Pressure

Graham's Law
● The speed of diffusion of a gas is relative to MW or density of the gas.
● Inversely Proportional
● Increase MW = Decrease Rate
● Increase Density = Decrease Rate

Clausius - Clapeyron Equation

● P1 = initial Vp
● T1 = initial temp
● R = gas constant (8.314 ⁵/mol.k)
● P2 = Final Pressure
● T2 = Final Temperature

● 100 C = Boiling point

● Heat = joles

Isotonic Solutions

Isotonicity

Osmosis
● movement of water occurs until equilibrium is achieved

Movement of water from diluted to concentrated solutions.

Isotonic Solutions
● When two solutions have SAME osmotic pressure and salt concentration are said to be isotonic
solutions.
 ● Physiologically, isotonic solutions are solutions having the same osmotic pressure as that of the body
fluids when separated by a biological membrane.

● Biological fluids including blood and lachrymal fluid normally have

● In addition, to carrying out pH adjustments, pharmaceutical solutions that are meant for application to
delicate membranes of the body should also be adjusted to approximately the same osmotic pressure
as that of body fluids.

● Isotonic solutions causes NO

● 0.9% w/v solution of NaCl has essentially the same concentration and osmotic pressure as the RBCs
contents. Thus, it is said to be isotonic with blood, and is also known as “Physiological Saline Solution”
(PNSS).

● If RBCs are suspended in 0.9% solution of NaCl, they undergo NO change in their size and shape due
to isotonicity.

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
● Hypo = lower
● Tonic = concentration

● A hypotonic solution has lower osmotic pressure than of the reference (0.9%) solution.

● If RBCs are suspended in 0.1/0.2% w/v solution of NaCl (i.e. Hypotonic), then water from this solution
will enter the RBCs

● To dilute the fluid within the RBCs causing their SWELLING, which may later result in rupturing of
RBCs is known as “Hemolysis” or Haemolysis.

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
● Hyper = greater
● Tonic = concentration
● Out

● A hypertonic solution is one that has greater concentration than a reference solution (i.e. RBCs).

● If RBCs are suspended in 2% w/v solution of NaCl (i.e. HYPERTONIC solution), then water present
within the RBCs will come out. This exit of water from RBCs causes their shrinkage and RBCs become
wrinkled in shape. This shrinkage of RBCs is known as “Plasmolysis”.

ISO-OSMOTIC or ISOSMOTIC SOLUTION

● Solutions having the same osmotic pressure but not necessarily the same concentration are said to be
iso-osmotic or isosmotic solutions.

➢ Osmotic pressure - same

➢ Concentration of solution - different
 ● E.g. 2% w/v solution of boric acid has the same osmotic pressure as 0.9% w/v solution of NaCl but not
the same concentration. So, both solutions are iso-osmotic but not iso-tonic.

SUMMARY
● Isosmotic solution - solution that have the same osmotic pressure.
● Isotonic solution - solution having the same osmotic pressure as a specific body fluid.

Mix small quantity of blood with aq. NaCl solutions of varying tonicity.

● Blood cells + 0.9% NaCl = cells refrain normal size (isotonic with blood)
● Blood cells + 2% NaCl = cells shrink and become wrinkled on crated (Hypertonic with

Methods of Adjusting Isotonicity

Class I: Addition of a SOLUTE for the tonicity adjusting agent.

(Hypotonic)

1.1 Freezing point depression method/cryoscopic method/ D value method.

1.2 Sodium chloride equivalent method/ E value method.

Class I: D-value Method

● Isotonic solutions may be made in terms of data relating to colligative properties of solutions.
● Colligative properties include:
● Osmotic pressure
● Elevation in the boiling point (FPD)
● Depression in freezing point - most practical
● Lowering of vapor pressure
● Depression in freezing point is a colligative property in which is practical and most convenient for
adjusting tonicity.
● The freezing point of human blood and lacrimal fluid is -0.52 C.
● The molal solution concentration is -1.86 C.
● Pure water 0 C.
● This temperature corresponds to freezing point of 0.9% w/v sodium chloride solution.
● This is considered to be isotonic to blood and lacrimal fluids (tears).
● In this method, an amount of tonicity adjuster (e.g. sodium chloride) is added to drug solution such that
the final freezing point lowering is that of blood or serum (-0.52 C).

1. Strong electrolytes - 100% dissociation

● Irreversible
Ex. strong acids and bases, and salts at very low concentration.

2. Weak electrolytes - less than 100% dissociation

● Reversible
● Default dissociation: 80%
● Parent: 20%
Ex. weak acid and bases, and salts at higher concentration.
 NUMBER OF IONS I VALUE (80% DISSOCIATION)

2 1.8

3 2.6

4 3.4

5 4.2

3. Non-electrolytes - do not dissociate

Number of species: 1
Ex. Organic Compounds
Sugar and Soap

Dextrose
● LR - blue
● D5LR - pink/light pink
● 0.9% NSS and 5% dextrose - yellow

Class I: E-value Method

● E value - gram of NaCl equivalent to 1 gram of substance.

Methods of Adjusting Isotonicity

Class II: Addition of water and dilution with buffered isotonic solution.
(Hypertonic)

2.1 White Vincent Method

● Formula: V= W(g) x E value X 111.1

2.2 Sprowl’s Method

● Formula: 0.3g x E value x 111.1
● It is the modification of the White Vincent Method.
● This method uses mixing the volume of isotonic that can be prepared by mixing.

Types of Solutions

SOLUTE SOLVENT EXAMPLE

Gas Gas Air; O2, CO2, N2, He

Liquid Gas Water in Oxygen

Solid Gas Iodine vapor in air; SOB -

highly toxic

Gas Liquid Carbonated water; soda

Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water; 70%, 40%

ethyl alcohol / 180

Solid Liquid Aqueous sodium chloride

 sol’n - glass of water put salt

Gas Solid Hydrogen in palladium;

high/increase infinity in
hydrogen

Liquid Solid Mineral oil in paraffin

Solid Solid Gold-silver mixture, mixture

of alums=aluminum

The solute (whether gases, liquids, or solids) are divided into TWO main classes:
1. Electrolytes
● Strong = 100%
● Weak

2. Non-Electrolytes

IV Fluids (Dextrose) - sugar - carbs

Electrolytes (Metals)
● substances that form ions in solution, conduct electric current.
● they produce a considerably GREATER freezing point depression and boiling point elevation than do
nonelectrolytes of the same concentration.
● Example of electrolytes: (because of number of species)
○ HCl - strong
○ NaCl - weak
Maybe subdivided further into:
STRONG ELECTROLYTES and WEAK ELECTROLYTES depending on whether the substance is
completely or only partly ionized in water.

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY
● Properties of a solution that are different from those of the pure solvent are vapor pressure freezing
point, boiling point and rate of diffusion of particles through a membrane-osmosis.
● Depends on the nature and the mole fraction of the solvent, but not on the properties of the
solute.
● These properties which are determined by (wala nahuman sulat)

Dependent on the numerical concentration but is independent on its nature.

A. Osmotic Pressure
B. Vapor Pressure Lowering
C. Boiling Point Elevation
D. Freezing Point Depression

Since colligative properties are mainly driven by the number of ions present in the solution, the number of
ions differ from electrolyte and non-electrolyte.
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY NON-ELECTROLYTES ELECTROLYTES

Osmotic Pressure π=MRT π=iMRT

π=mRT π=imRT

Vapor Pressure Lowering Not affected Not affected

Boiling Point Elevation ΔTb=mKb ΔTb=imKb

m - molality
K - constant
b - boiling point
ΔT −¿change in temp

Freezing Point Depression ΔTf =mKf ΔTf =imKf

Change ( Δ ) - is always a positive value.

● Δ = Final - Initial

OSMOTIC PRESSURE
● Pressure that resists osmosis.
Osmosis:
● The movement of water molecules from higher water concentration DILUTED to lower water
concentration. CONCENTRATED through a semi-permeable membrane.
● The movement of water molecules from lower solute concentration DILUTED to higher solute
concentration. CONCENTRATED through a semi-permeable membrane
● SOLUTION: SOLUTE + SOLVENT

SOLUTE SOLVENT

Concentrated Increase Decrease

Diluted Decrease Increase

Osmotic Pressure is derived from the ideal gas formula. (Pv = nRT) R - 0.08205

Since we need pressure, deriving the formula will lead to:

P = (n/v)RT → P=MRT → π=MRT (Van’t Hoff Equation)

Since molarity is affected by the changes of temperature, molarity is sometimes changed to molality (not
affected to change of temp).

π=mRT (Moarse Equation)

VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

● Happens when solute is added to a solution or solvent
● Governed by Raoult’s Law

+ Solute → decrease Vp → Increase Δ Vp

 ● Δ Vp = Vp∘- Vp solution ( ∘- sa taas pure or superscription if sa baba kay
subscription)
● Δ Vp = Xsolute x Vp∘
● Vpsolution = Xsolute Vp ∘

○ What is X? X is the mole fraction

RAOULT’S LAW
● It is used to find the new vapor pressure of a liquid after an amount of solute has been added.
● States that the partial vapor pressure of each component of an ideal mixture of liquids the vapor
pressure of the pure component multiplied by the molar fraction of the mixture.

Raoult’s Law is expressed by the vapor pressure equation:

PA = PA ∘ (XA)
PB = PB ∘ (XB)
Where:
P = partial vapor pressure of solute
P∘ = vapor pressure of pure solute

VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

Mole Fraction (X) = fraction between the component of a solution, in unit mole.

1.
mole of solute
Xsolute =
mole of solution

mole of solute
Xsolute =
mole of solute+ mole of solvent

2.
mole of solvent
Xsolvent =
mole of solution

mole of solvent
Xsolvent =
mole of solute+ mole of solvent

★ Xsolute + Solvent = 1 (solution)

★ Δ Vp = Xsolute Vp∘→ Solute - corresponds to the vapor pressure lowering
Vp∘ = Vpsolution + Δ Vp
⇓ ⇓

Solvent Solute
BOILING POINT ELEVATION
● Happens when solute is added to a solution or solvent

+ Solute → Increase Tb → Δ Increase Tb

⇑ ⇑

Tb∘ Tb Solution
grams / MW
Pure solvent Solution m=
kg solvent
● Δ Tb = Tbsolution - Tb∘
● Δ Tb = mKb (m-molality, not affected by the changes of temp)
Kb - boiling constant of Ebullioscopic constant (0.52 C/molal),
water-applicable

FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

● Happens when solute is added to a solution or solvent
+ Solute → decrease Tf → increase Δ Tf

⇑ ⇑
Tf∘ Tf Solution
Pure solvent Solution
● Δ Tf = Tf∘- Tbsolution
● Δ Tf = mKf (m-molality, not affected by the changes of temp)
● Water in Kf - freezing constant of Cryoscopic constant (1.86
C/molal) water H2O