Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117

Ecosystem and legal framework for coastal

management in Central Chile
Roland Paskoff *, Hermann Manriquez

Department of Geography, Lyon 2 University, P.O. Box 11, 69676 Bron Cedex, France

Military Geographical Institute, Nueva Santa Isabel 1640, Santiago, Chile
Received for publication 20 July 1998

Abstract

At ecosystem level, sandy beaches, dune fields, cliffs, and marine terraces are the main
physiographic units which characterize the coastal fringe of central Chile. Natural hazards
— storm surges, tsunamis, and heavy rains — may induce risks of flooding, erosion, mudflow, and
mass movement for human settlements. Land use, in particular related to the recent tourist
boom, as well as induced environmental degradation are reviewed. The legal framework for
seaside human occupation is critically examined. Recommendations for a better development
are proposed only.  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Just as it happened in developed countries of the Mediterranean, such as Spain,

France, and Italy, at the beginning of the 1960s, the coastal fringe of central Chile is
presently affected by increasing demographic pressure, mainly related to a boom of
seaside tourism within the framework of a growing market economy. Since coastal
environments are fragile by nature, long littoral stretches of the northwestern Medi-
terranean have been irreversibly deteriorated by indiscriminate development. That
bad experience which resulted in a double phenomenon of depredation and privatiza-
tion of the seashore should be a warning for Chile and open the way to a policy of
planning aimed to concile the necessary development with the indispensable conser-
vation of natural resources. Seaside tourism is mainly concentrated in central Chile
between 30° and 34° lat. S (Fig. 1), where the climate is typically Mediterranean: mild
and rainy in the winter, dry and not so hot in the summer because of the cold coastal

*Corresponding author. Fax: #33 1 39559291; e-mail: paskoff@club-internet.fr.

0964-5691/99/$ — see front matter  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 6 4 - 5 6 9 1 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 0 4 8 - 9
106 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117

Fig. 1. Location map: urban centers and resorts along the coast of central Chile.
 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117 107

waters of the Humboldt current which also explains the frequent occurrrence of
morning fogs, the so-called camanchaca. The yearly average rainfall rapidly increases
from north (100 mm) to south (about 500 mm).

2. The physiographic units

Four kinds of physiographic units are found along the coast of central Chile:
beaches, dune fields, cliffs, marine terraces.

2.1. Sandy beaches

Sandy beaches of bay-head type are numerous in central Chile [1]. Fortunately,
unlike many beaches world-wide, they are well nourished with sediments and are not
retreating. Such a privileged situation must be related to the abundant sediment
supply delivered to the coast by rivers. Continental erosion is active for topographic
(steep slopes) and climatic (concentrated precipitations) reasons. Extensive outcrops
of deeply weathered intrusive rocks and of volcanic ashes provide large quantities of
sand. Because waves generally come from the southwest and the coast of central Chile
is oriented north—south, the resulting littoral drift is northward, and consequently
beaches are generally better developed in the northern part of the bays. As a rule,
foredunes are reduced to low hummocks since the most common grasses, the native
species Carpobrotus aequilaterus and the neophyte species Ambrosia chamissonis
accidentally introduced from the North American Pacific coast at the end of the last
century, are not active dune builders [2]. Frequently, small lagoons and swamps have
formed behind beaches impeding streams from freely reaching the sea, except when
heavy floods occur in winter. In spite of their reduced extent, these lagunas and their
surrounding wetlands are of importance for bird communities.

2.2. Dune fields

There are four extensive dune fields along the coast of central Chile [3]. These are
the dune fields of Conchalı́ (31° 54 S), Longotoma (32° 25 S), Ritoque (32° 49 S), and
La Chépica (33° 30 S). They are associated with wide beaches where onshore winds
remove more sand than foredunes are able to trap. Therefore, transverse dune ridges
form behind them. They are characterized by a lack of anchoring vegetation and they
are moving inland, overlapping older, vegetated longitudinal ridges of Holocene age.
Further inland, more ancient wooded dunes now form a subdued rolling topography,
showing well-developed surface soil profiles. Buried soils point to several Pleistocene
dune generations.

2.3. Cliffs

The coast of central Chile is mainly a cliffed coast, generally about 10 m high.
However, most of the cliffs are non-active features with their base now situated at
108 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117

about 4—5 m above present sea level and, consequently, beyond the reach of normal
waves. They were exposed to wave action at the end of the postglacial transgression,
5—6000 years ago. At that time, the coast of central Chile was inhabited by archaic
people for whom sea-food was the main living resource. They left preceramic artifacts
and shell middens on the top of the cliffs which are now separated from the sea by an
emerged wave-cut terrace a few tens of meters wide. Even if the present coastline is
mostly low and rocky, some active cliffs may be found, especially in the vicinity of
Quintero (32° 46 S). Where they are cut into Tertiary soft sandstones, erosion is
generated by two classical processes: notching at the base and subsequent collapsing
of the overlying material. Others are developed into granitic rocks of Jurassic age and
their evolution is controlled by a pattern of orthogonal joints allowing waves to
remove large blocks from the cliff face.

2.4. Marine terraces

One of the most striking topographic features of the coastal fringe in central Chile is
represented by a set of step-like marine terraces, each one separated from the other by
an abandonned cliff, which extend from the foot of the Coastal Cordillera to the
ocean. Their genesis is related to Plio-Quaternary marine transgressions and regres-
sions linked with glacio-eustatic cycles which were superimposed on an uplift move-
ment of the continent. In the surroundings of Coquimbo bay (29° 55 S) where this
movement has been slow (between 0.1 and 0.2 m/10 y), there are five marine terraces,
5 km wide on the whole, the highest of which reaches 120—130 m above present sea
level [4]. Their flat surfaces have made the urban growth of La Serena (110 000
inhabitants) easier. South of Valparaiso (33° 01 S), marine terraces are much more
developed since they extend more than 15 km inland and the highest ones are over
400 m above sea level [5]. They are eroded by ephemeral streams. For centuries, they
have been used for timbering, farming, and animal husbandry.

3. Wave and climate regime

The coast of central Chile is characterized by a highly dynamic environment.

From a tectonic point of view, the coast corresponds to an active continental
margin where the Nazca plate is subducted beneath the South America plate. Such
a situation causes earthquakes and tsunamis. The coast of central Chile may also be
affected by tsunamis of remote origin, as, for instance the tsunami related to the
Alaska earthquake in March 1964. Because of their high frequency and magnitude,
tsunamis represent a major hazard for human settlements located on the seashore of
central Chile. In the La Serena-Coquimbo area, 37 tsunamis have been recorded since
1562. The tsunami which occurred in this area, on November 1922, originated a wave
which reached a height of 12 m. At the same place, in 1868, the tsunami which
destroyed the city of Arica, in northernmost Chile, near the Peruvian border, and
the Alaska earthquake in 1964 provoked waves which were respectively 7.5 and 4 m
high.
 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117 109

The coast of central Chile may also be affected by storm surges, locally called
bravezas or marejadas, which are the product of distant atmospheric perturbations
which originate in the southeastern part of the Pacific ocean [6]. Storm surges which
occurred on 4 June 1924, on 9 August 1929, and on 25 July 1968 are recorded as high
magnitude events. During the last one, waves 6 m high hit the coast. As a result, in the
surroundings of Valparaiso, the lower wave-cut platform, which reaches 4—5 m above
sea level, was entirely submerged, and houses and roads built on it were severely
damaged. Granitic blocks, weighing up to 60 t, were removed.
The coastal climate of central Chile shows a regime of precipitations which may at
the same time be heavy and concentrated. Some figures for Valparaiso give an idea of
the rainfall irregularity and intensity and, as a result, the yearly average of 450 mm is
not relevant. In 1914, the annual amount reached 1247 mm, but only 61 mm in 1924.
Even more important as far as torrential runoff is concerned, a 170 mm rainfall was
recorded in only one day. This rainfall irregularity appears to be related to ‘‘El Nin o’’
events [7] as again evidenced in 1997. That year, from January to October, 764 mm
were recorded instead of 365 mm in a normal year.

4. Natural hazards

In addition to the seismic hazard which is omnipresent in the whole country,

flooding, erosion, mud flows, and mass movements also represent serious risks for
coastal human settlements in central Chile.
Undoubtedly, flooding as a result of tsunamis or storm surges is a major risk for the
low-lying areas. As a rule, the lower wave-cut terrace which represents a permanent
feature extending up to 4—5 m above present sea level should be declared a non
aedificandi area. In the course of the centuries, the city of La Serena prudently
extended on the higher marine terraces, probably not to be exposed to the danger of
being attacked by pirates, but also to remain beyond the reach of flooding coming
from the nearby Elqui river or from the ocean. Nowadays, the development of a dense
tourist district along the very sea side incurs a major risk which has been totally
ignored by planners although the area is obviously prone to catastrophic floodings
originated by tsunamis and liable to result in death, injury, and damage.
Marine erosion is not the cause of catastrophic destruction in central Chile. Where
the coast is rocky, retreat is very slow, except where, along limited stretches, active
cliffs are cut into soft sandstones or decayed granites. For instance, seawalls have been
erected by dwellers in Quintero to counteract wave action against the receding cliffs
on the top of which houses had been imprudently built. As already explained, beach
erosion is practically unknown in central Chile [8]. However, a dam, with a reservoir
capacity of 200 million cubic meters, now under construction on the Elqui river at
Puclaro, 40 km upstream of its mouth, will probably trap a large quantity of coarse
sediments and put in jeopardy the stability of La Serena beach which, as mentioned
above, has been recently developed [9].
Eustatic sea-level rise expected for the coming decades should not enhance flooding
or start beach erosion in central Chile because it will probably be compensated by the
110 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117

uplifting of the continent which is the long term tectonic trend here. Evidence of this is
given by the emergence of the lower terrace since the peak of the postglacial trans-
gression. A mean uplift of about 30 cm is documented for the sector around San
Antonio (33° 35 S) and Algarrobo (33° 22 S) in relation to the earthquake which
occurred on 3 March 1985.
Because of the rainfall regime, runoff erosion may be very active when the vegetal
cover has been destroyed by anthropogenic actions (clearing for land cultivation,
urban development). Rills and gullies may appear, resulting in extensive bad lands
which are unsuitable for any kind of use, as illustrated in the vicinity of Punta Lacho,
near Las Cruces (33° 30 S). Sloping areas made of soft materials, such as older dunes
and marine terraces cut into rocks subsequently deeply decayed, are especially prone
to this kind of erosion [10].
Aluviones or catastrophic mud flows may be produced by ephemeral streams,
locally known as esteros or quebradas, which come down from the Coastal Cordillera
with a steep longitudinal gradient, and are able to suddenly shift a bulky solid
discharge when heavy downpours occur. The aluvio& n which reached the mouth of the
estero Ren aca, near the resort of Vin a del Mar (33° 02 S), in June 1984, gives an idea of
the destructive effects of such an event: in addition to more than ten or a dozen people
who died, about 10 000 persons suffered from the disaster and the bill of damage to
property came to about 600 000 US dollars.
Finally, even if mass movements are generally responsible only for minor damages,
they are a source of danger in some places and therefore they must also be taken into
account in an effort to mitigate the destructive effects of natural hazards along the
coast of central Chile. In 1986, in Ren aca, a rainy winter induced landslides affecting
eolian sands which had become saturated with water. Damages in summer houses
were reported and containment walls had to be erected to prevent further destruction.

5. Sea and land use

Early use of the coastal fringe of central Chile is documented by shell middens left
by paleo-Indian groups who lived on the resources of the seashore, mainly molluscs
and fish. Near Los Vilos (31° 56 S), the archaeological site of Quebrada Quereo was
occupied as early as 11 500 BP [11]. Up to now, traditional fishing in coastal waters is
still in practice and brings life to many coves of the indented coastline.
With the beginning of the colonial era, farming and animal husbandry started on
marine terraces and older dunes. Three important harbours appeared at that time,
Coquimbo, Valparaiso, and San Antonio. They expanded and became large cities
where industrial activities have been growing in the last decades. In the 1960s, an
industrial complex was created in Las Ventanas, at the margin of the Quintero bay. In
the 20th century, small resorts developed, such as Papudo, Zapallar, Cachagua,
Concón, and Ren aca north of Valparaiso; Algarrobo, El Tabo, Cartagena y Rocas de
Santo Domingo south of Valparaiso. Only Vin a del Mar (300 000 inhabitants), near
Valparaiso, became a tourist city at an international level.
 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117 111

Conjuncture has been drastically changing since the 1980s. The extensive use of
the coastal fringe of central Chile is rapidly giving way to dense occupation under
the pressure of national and international tourism which is rapidly growing within the
framework of a liberal economy which is attractive for private investments. At the same
time, new phenomena are arising in the Chilean society. An important segment of the
population now has access to consumer goods which so far were limited to the upper
class. Leisure time is also more popular and at the same time the number of cars is
increasing: according to estimates, it will grow, between 1992 and 2000, from 500 000 to
one million units in the Metropolitan Region of Santiago, located in central Chile, in
which 40% of the 13.2 million inhabitants of the whole country are living. Therefore, the
mobility of this population will be improved, resulting in an intensified pressure on the
coastal fringe, especially as the need for a second home will also increase. In addition,
the economic integration currently in progress with other South-American countries,
Argentina in particular, will probably increase such a pressure even more.
The tourist boom which is currently affecting the coast of central Chile has
originated in the last few years a multiplication of new resorts and condominia, so far
unknown in Chile. They look like those which were built up in Mediterranean France
and Spain during the so-called ‘‘¹rente Glorieuses’’, too often resulting in a deep
denaturalization of the coastal scenery through the detrimental development of
buildings on the very shore front.
The following data illustrate the increasing economic importance of tourism which
is introducing new architectural standards in the occupation of the coastal fringe of
central Chile. Three new resort projects alone in the La Serena area (La Serena Norte,
Puerto Velero, Las Tacas) represent by themselves 45% of the entire investments in
the tourist item for 1996 (more than 2 million US dollars) which were increased
twofold compared to 1995. South of Valparaiso, the Santa Augusta de Quintay and
San Alfonso del Mar projects represent an investment of 150 and 120 million US
dollars, respectively. Recently, a Chilean—Spanish consortium presented a project for
a new seaside resort to be built during the forthcoming decade in the former fundo or
large estate of Alto de Puchuncavı́, between Horcón and Maitencillo (32° 43 S): an
urban center for 20 000 inhabitants extending over 2200 hectares is planned.
Opposing the investors who are very active in promoting seaside tourism within
a society called Corporacio& n de Promocio& n ¹uristica de Chile, are groups of ecologists
whose action is aimed at nature conservation and restriction of development. They are
calling for state interventionism in order to control private investments and enforce
regulations, the goal being to preserve, before it is too late, most of the coastal natural
features and to reconcile the needs of development with preservation imperatives. The
developers support the right of property and market mechanisms, and say that the
‘‘greens’’ encourage economic stagnation. The former are favoured to the detriment of
the latter by the liberal economic model which is nowadays prevalent in Chile.
Conflicts of use may arise from the above mentioned tourist boom on account of its
incompatibility with the development of other coastal ressources. For instance, the
project of the Los Pelambres mining company to build up a copper concentration
plant and a maritime terminal at Chungo point, 3 km north of Los Vilos, is generating
opposition from several sectors of the local community. They entertain fears regarding
112 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117

possible environmental damages which could adversely affect traditional fishing in

coastal waters as well as possible tourist development of the area.
In addition, to the denaturalization of certain portions of the seaside, the increasing
number of new resorts and condominia frequently involves a de facto privatization of
coastal public property by unjustified granting of concessions and lack of free access
to the shore.

6. Environmental deterioration

The degradation of the vegetation is the most striking evidence of human impact on
the natural environment in the coastal fringe of central Chile. South of the La Ligua
river (32° 23 S), the native evergreen sclerophyllous forest, which once covered the
marine terraces, has largely disappeared, mainly during the 19th century marked by
an expansion of wheat cultivation. In areas which are no longer cultivated, it has been
replaced by an open scrub of Acacia caven or by planted forests, mainly of Eucalyptus
globulus and Pinus radiata. North of the La Ligua river, the natural matorral has been
drastically reduced by goat and sheep overgrazing, thereby opening the way to soil
erosion. On older dunes, the destruction of the vegetal cover as a consequence of
agricultural, residential, or recreational uses not only results in an impoverishment of
the biodiversity [12], but also allows a revival of sand movements, as can be seen in
the Concon-Ren aca area, just south of the mouth of the Aconcagua river (32° 50 S).
As far as active dunes are concerned, no systematic attempts have been made in this
part of the Chilean coast to control sand movements by extensive plantings of marram
grass (Ammophila arenaria), pines, and eucalyptus, as has been done further south, in
Chanco (35° 45 S) for instance. Therefore, and fortunately, dune fields examined here
mostly are still in a natural state.
The hydromorphic vegetation of the few lagoons and swamps which are found in
the coastal fringe of central Chile has shrunk considerably [13]. The El Peral lagoon,
near Las Cruces, is now considered a nature sanctuary and consequently protected,
but it is unfortunately surrounded by an increasing urbanization. The Llolleo lagoon
has been largely reclaimed for the spatial expansion of industrial activities linked to
San Antonio harbour. The same situation is affecting the wetlands which extend
behind the beach north of Algarrobo, but in this case the reason is the development of
the new resort of San Alfonso del Mar where a large artificial lagoon is now under
construction!
Coastal waters have undergone a twofold deterioration. An impoverishment of the
mollusc biomass has been reported, especially in the case of the most gathered shells
for seafood, such as the loco (Concholepas concholepas), a gastropod in high demand
by Chilean people. Moreover, coastal waters may be locally contamined by
unprocessed liquid waste disposals close to urban centers and resorts [14].
Soils and air surrounding Ventanas, in front of Quintero bay, equipped since 1960
with an industrial complex (copper refinery and thermo-electric plants) are highly
polluted. Values of Cu above 6000 ppm have been reported in the soils and the air is
constantly contaminated with SO [15].

 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117 113

Another relevant aspect of environmental deterioration which has to be taken into

consideration deals with the architectural heritage represented by the traditionnal
resorts, such as Zapallar (32° 35 S), in which natural and human elements have been
harmoniously blended (Fig. 2). Nowadays, high buildings are spoiling the coastal
scenery. In San Alfonso del Mar, north of Algarrobo, multi-storied condominia under
construction will shortly form an unfortunate architectural screen of high walls on the
shore front, curtailing the view of the ocean for all those who are living behind. La
Serena, one of the most beautiful cities of Chile where a great number of public

Fig. 2. Zapallar (32° 35 S), a traditional resort on the coast of central Chile. Cottages scattered in a wooded
environment above the beach; no road on the seafront.
114 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117

Fig. 3. La Serena (29° 55 S), a coastal stretch newly urbanized for tourist purposes. The beach is fringed
with a large avenue and a continuous line of multi-storied buildings whose lower flats are exposed to
tsunami hazards.

buildings show a unique colonial style, is now disfigured with its new Avenida del Mar.
A continuous line of incongruous condominia runs along this avenue, characterized
by high density traffic in summer and located too near to the seashore (Fig. 3).

7. Legal framework and development

There is in Chile a set of laws and ordinances designed to regulate land use. Some of
them, such as the recent ¸ey de Bases del Medio Ambiente (1994) and Reglamento del
Sistema de Evaluacio& n de Impacto Ambiental (1997) are applicable to the entire
country. Others are specific to the coastal fringe, and refer in particular to public
access to the sea-shore and to land use planning [16].
The problem of public access to the seashore arises every summer in Chile when
advertisements indicating ‘‘No Entrance’’ become visible in the vicinity of beaches. As
a matter of fact, the Civil Code clearly defines as public property the so-called playa
whose upper limit corresponds to the highest water mark of spring tides (Fig. 4). In
front of land under State ownership, and only in this case, according to a law passed in
1982, there is a strip called terreno de playa, 80 m wide, measured from the landward
limit of the playa, which cannot be sold to private persons. In all cases, there is a right
 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117 115

Fig. 4. Legal status of strips of land parallel to the shoreline, according to Chilean regulations: (A) in front
of private property; (B) in front of State property.

of passage easement for fishermen along a strip of 8 m measured from the upper limit
of the playa.
A law promulgated in 1977 prescribes that owners of land contiguous to the portion
of coast considered as public property must give free access to the seashore for tourist
and fishing purposes if there is no road or path. However, in December 1996, the
Supreme Court declared unconstitutional such a provision on the grounds that it
injures the right of property. The controversy on free access to the seashore continues
in Chile.
The national policy, regarding development and land use in the coastal zone,
including coastal waters, the so-called mar territorial, is explained in an ordinance
enacted in 1994. The coastal fringe of the country is considered a strategic area in
which multiple uses are possible. Therefore, it is necessary to avoid conflicts and to
establish a harmonious coexistence between them. Such integrated planning must be
carried out at an intercomunal scale (the comuna is an administrative unit roughly
equivalent to the parish) because the administrative division of the country does not
coincide with the areal extension of homogeneous geographic units. Nature conserva-
tion is not specifically considered in the act. Recently, in 1997, the Navy Subsecretary’s
Office, which is in charge of the management of the coastal fringe, set up a commission
whose goal is to define more precisely the legal framework which will regulate
seashore uses.
So far, land-use maps are compulsory only for urban areas at a comuna scale. They
are called planos reguladores comunales [17]. Rural areas are not regulated and
huge tourist condominia may be built on large estates, practically without any
legal hindrance. There are also cases of spontaneous seaside settlements which are
116 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117

appearing suddenly in estates, previously parcelled in small lots without any minimal
planning: no water and light supply, no sewage system. Los Quinquelles, about 15 km
north of La Ligua river, is a significant example of such a ‘‘resort’’ [18].

8. Conclusion: recommendations

Much remains to be done in Chile regarding coastal protection and integrated

planning. It is necessary to act quickly if more irreversible environmental damages are
to be avoided. Disastrous experiences which occurred in Mediterranean Spain and
France must be a warning for Chile. There is still time in this country, but the matter is
urgent. The double phenomenon of denaturalization and privatization of the sea-
shore, which, in some sectors of central Chile, threatens to spill over the whole
coastline, requires urgent and clear solutions in accordance with a unique environ-
ment. Taking the necessary steps implies the preservation of its natural and cultural
features, the adoption of adequate restoration measures, the rational exploitation of
its resources in a perspective of sustainable development, a guarantee of its open and
public use and enjoyment, with exceptions fully justified and strictly limited. The
following basic rules are suggested:
(1) Precise demarcation, using clear geographic concepts, of coastal public property
which is inalienable and cannot be acquired by prescription, on which access is
free and any kind of building is forbidden.
(2) Elaboration of large-scale maps showing coastal physiographic units [19], includ-
ing their ecological values and sensitiveness to different kind of uses: urban,
industrial, agricultural, aquicultural, recreational.
(3) Elaboration of maps showing the distribution of areas which may be affected by
natural hazards: flooding, erosion, mudflows, mass movements.
(4) Promulgation of a Shore Act aimed to be a powerful tool for proper management
of the Chilean coast and grounded on some basic principles:
(a) limitation on ownership rights on private lands adjacent to coastal public
property through demarcation of strips affected by easements, the goal being
the preservation of the natural character of the seaside and the guarantee of
free access to the shore;
(b) incentive for a transversal occupation of the coastal fringe in order to avoid
a linear urbanization spilling over all the shoreline;
(c) prohibition of a ‘‘crawling’’ urbanization in rural estates;
(d) protection of natural areas forming ‘‘green gaps’’ extending along about one
third of the seashore.
(5) Conservation or acquisition, by the Ministerio de Bienes Nacionales (Ministry of
Public Properties) of land presenting a natural or cultural interest, which would
remain empty, inalienable, imprescriptible, and opened freely to pedestrians.
(6) Establishment of natural reserves, especially in dune and wetland areas.
Such measures are aimed at ensuring at the same time a controlled development of
the Chilean coast and the strict protection of an outstanding area which will be, if it is
correctly managed, an essential asset for the future of Chile.
 R. Paskoff, H. Manriquez / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 105—117 117

Acknowledgements

This article is the product of a seminar which was conducted by the senior author in
June 1997 at the invitation of the Pontificia ºniversidad Cato& lica de Chile whose
academic vice-chancellor, Ricardo Riesco Jaramillo, is especially acknowledged. We
also thank Lucila Recart Trudgett who assisted in the field and revised the English
version of the text which was also improved by Nobert P. Psuty and Frank van der
Meulen.

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