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Albert Bandura’s Social Search

Cognitive Theory: Definition

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By Charlotte Nickerson Updated on October 10, 2023

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Social cognitive theory emphasizes the learning that occurs within a social & Examples
context. In this view, people are active agents who can both influence and are
influenced by their environment. ADVERTISEMENT

The theory was founded most prominently by Albert Bandura, who is also
known for his work on observational learning, self-efficacy, and reciprocal
determinism.

One assumption of social learning is that we learn new behaviors by

observing the behavior of others and the consequences of their behavior.

If the behavior is rewarded (positive or negative reinforcement), we are likely

to imitate it; however, if the behavior is punished, imitation is less likely. For
example, in Bandura and Walters’ experiment, the children imitated more
the aggressive behavior of the model who was praised for being aggressive to
the Bobo doll.

Social cognitive theory has been used to explain a wide range of human
behavior, ranging from positive to negative social behaviors such as
aggression, substance abuse, and mental health problems.

Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory proposes that human behavior is the product of
the interaction between personal factors, environmental influences, and behavioral
patterns. He emphasized the role of observational learning, social experience, and
reciprocal determinism in human behavior, suggesting that people are both influenced by
and actively influence their environments.

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The theory is an extension of social learning that includes the effects of

cognitive processes — such as conceptions, judgment, and motivation — on an
individual’s behavior and on the environment that influences them.

Rather than passively absorbing knowledge from environmental inputs, social

cognitive theory argues that people actively influence their learning by
interpreting the outcomes of their actions, which, in turn, affects their
environments and personal factors, informing and altering subsequent
behavior (Schunk, 2012).

By including thought processes in human psychology, social cognitive theory is

able to avoid the assumption made by radical behaviorism that all human
behavior is learned through trial and error. Instead, Bandura highlights the
role of observational learning and imitation in human behavior.

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Numerous psychologists, such as Julian Rotter and the American personality

psychologist Walter Mischel, have proposed different social-cognitive
perspectives.

Albert Bandura (1989) introduced the most prominent perspective on social

cognitive theory.

Bandura’s perspective has been applied to a wide range of topics, such as

personality development and functioning, the understanding and treatment of
psychological disorders, organizational training programs, education, health
promotion strategies, advertising and marketing, and more.

The central tenet of Bandura’s social-cognitive theory is that people seek to

develop a sense of agency and exert control over the important events in their
lives.

This sense of agency and control is affected by factors such as self-efficacy,

outcome expectations, goals, and self-evaluation (Schunk, 2012).

Origins: The Bobo Doll Experiments

Social cognitive theory can trace its origins to Bandura and his colleagues, in
particular, a series of well-known studies on observational learning known as
the Bobo Doll experiments.

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In these experiments, researchers exposed young, preschool-aged children to

videos of an adult acting violently toward a large, inflatable doll.

This aggressive behavior included verbal insults and physical violence, such as
slapping and punching. At the end of the video, the children either witnessed
the aggressor being rewarded, or punished or received no consequences for his
behavior (Schunk, 2012).

After being exposed to this model, the children were placed in a room where
they were given the same inflatable Bobo doll.

The researchers found that those who had watched the model either received
positive reinforcement or no consequences for attacking the doll were more
likely to show aggressive behavior toward the doll (Schunk, 2012).

This experiment was notable for being one that introduced the concept of
observational learning to humans.

Bandura’s ideas about observational learning were in stark contrast to previous

behaviorists, such as B.F. Skinner.

According to Skinner (1950), learning can only be achieved through individual

action.

However, Bandura claimed that people and animals can also learn by watching
and imitating the models they encounter in their environment, enabling them
to acquire information more quickly.

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Observational Learning
Bandura agreed with the behaviorists that behavior is learned through
experience. However, he proposed a different mechanism than conditioning.

He argued that we learn through observation and imitation of others’ behavior.

This theory focuses not only on the behavior itself but also on the mental
processes involved in learning, so it is not a pure behaviorist theory.

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Stages of the Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Not all observed behaviors are learned effectively. There are several factors
involving both the model and the observer that determine whether or not a
behavior is learned. These include attention, retention, motor reproduction,
and motivation (Bandura & Walters, 1963).

Attention

The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and
form a mental representation of the behavior. Some of the things that influence
attention involve characteristics of the model.

This means that the model must be salient or noticeable. If the model is
attractive, prestigious, or appears to be particularly competent, you will pay
more attention. And if the model seems more like yourself, you pay more
attention.

Retention

Storing the observed behavior in LTM where it can stay for a long period of
time. Imitation is not always immediate. This process is often mediated by
symbols. Symbols are “anything that stands for something else” (Bandura,
1998).

They can be words, pictures, or even gestures. In order for symbols to be

effective, they must be related to the behavior being learned and must be
understood by the observer.

Motor Reproduction

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The individual must be able (have the ability and skills) to physically reproduce
the observed behavior. This means that the behavior must be within their
capability. If it is not, they will not be able to learn it (Bandura, 1998).

Motivation

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The observer must be motivated to perform the behavior. This motivation can
come from a variety of sources, such as a desire to achieve a goal or avoid
punishment.

Bandura (1977) proposed that motivation has three main components:

expectancy, value, and affective reaction. Firstly, expectancy refers to the belief
that one can successfully perform the behavior. Secondly, value refers to the
importance of the goal that the behavior is meant to achieve.

The last of these, Affective reaction, refers to the emotions associated with the
behavior.

If behavior is associated with positive emotions, it is more likely to be learned

than a behavior associated with negative emotions. Reinforcement and
punishment each play an important role in motivation.

Individuals must expect to receive the same positive reinforcement (vicarious

reinforcement) for imitating the observed behavior that they have seen the
model receiving.

Imitation is more likely to occur if the model (the person who performs the
behavior) is positively reinforced. This is called vicarious reinforcement.

Imitation is also more likely if we identify with the model. We see them as
sharing some characteristics with us i.e., similar age, gender, social status as we
identify with them.

Features Of Social Cognitive Theory

The goal of social cognitive theory is to explain how people regulate their
behavior through control and reinforcement in order to achieve goal-directed
behavior that can be maintained over time.

Bandura, in his original formulation of the related social learning theory,

included five constructs, adding self-efficacy to his final social cognitive theory
(Bandura, 1986).

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Reciprocal Determinism

Reciprocal determinism is the central concept of social cognitive theory and

refers to the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of people — individuals with a
set of learned experiences — the environment, external social context, and
behavior — the response to stimuli to achieve goals.

Its main tenet is that people seek to develop a sense of agency and exert control
over the important events in their lives.

This sense of agency and control is affected by factors such as self-efficacy,

outcome expectations, goals, and self-evaluation (Bandura, 1989).

To illustrate the concept of reciprocal determinism, Consider A student who

believes they have the ability to succeed on an exam (self-efficacy) is more
likely to put forth the necessary effort to study (behavior).

If they do not believe they can pass the exam, they are less likely to study. As a
result, their beliefs about their abilities (self-efficacy) will be affirmed or
disconfirmed by their actual performance on the exam (outcome).
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This, in turn, will affect future beliefs and behavior. If the student passes the
exam, they are likely to believe they can do well on future exams and put forth
the effort to study.

If they fail, they may doubt their abilities (Bandura, 1989).

Behavioral Capability

Behavioral capability, meanwhile, refers to a person’s ability to perform a

behavior by means of using their own knowledge and skills.

That is to say, in order to carry out any behavior, a person must know what to
do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior,
further affecting the environment in which they live (Bandura, 1989).

Reinforcements

Reinforcements refer to the internal or external responses to a person’s

behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior.

These reinforcements can be self-initiated or in one’s environment either

positive or negative. Positive reinforcements increase the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated, while negative reinforcers decrease the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated.

Reinforcements can also be either direct or indirect. Direct reinforcements are

an immediate consequence of a behavior that affects its likelihood, such as
getting a paycheck for working (positive reinforcement).

Indirect reinforcements are not immediate consequences of behavior but may

affect its likelihood in the future, such as studying hard in school to get into a
good college (positive reinforcement) (Bandura, 1989).

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Expectations

Expectations, meanwhile, refer to the anticipated consequences that a person

has of their behavior.

Outcome expectations, for example, could relate to the consequences that

someone foresees an action having on their health.

As people anticipate the consequences of their actions before engaging in a

behavior, these expectations can influence whether or not someone completes
the behavior successfully (Bandura, 1989).

Expectations largely come from someone’s previous experience. Nonetheless,

expectancies also focus on the value that is placed on the outcome, something
that is subjective from individual to individual.

For example, a student who may not be motivated by achieving high grades
may place a lower value on taking the steps necessary to achieve them than
someone who strives to be a high performer.

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to the level of a person’s confidence in their ability to

successfully perform a behavior. ADVERTISEMENT

Self-efficacy is influenced by a person’s own capabilities as well as other

individual and environmental factors.

These factors are called barriers and facilitators (Bandura, 1989). Self-efficacy
is often said to be task-specific, meaning that people can feel confident in their
ability to perform one task but not another.

For example, a student may feel confident in their ability to do well on an exam
but not feel as confident in their ability to make friends.

This is because self-efficacy is based on past experience and beliefs. If a student

has never made friends before, they are less likely to believe that they will do so
in the future.

Modeling Media And Social Cognitive

Theory
Learning would be both laborious and hazardous in a world that relied
exclusively on direct experience.

Social modeling provides a way for people to observe the successes and failures
of others with little or no risk.

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This modeling can take place on a massive scale.

Modeling media is defined as “any type of mass communication—television,
movies, magazines, music, etc.—that serves as a model for observing and
imitating behavior” (Bandura, 1998).

In other words, it is a means by which people can learn new behaviors.

Modeling media is often used in the fashion and taste industries to influence
the behavior of consumers.

This is because modeling provides a reference point for observers to imitate.

When done effectively, modeling can prompt individuals to adopt certain
behaviors that they may not have otherwise engaged in.

Additionally, modeling media can provide reinforcement for desired behaviors.

For example, if someone sees a model wearing a certain type of clothing and
receives compliments for doing so themselves, they may be more likely to
purchase clothing like that of the model.