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MATH F213
Relations and Digraphs
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Ordering Relations
 Definition
Recall that a partial order on a set 𝐴 is a relation 𝑅 on 𝐴 which is
reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive.

A set 𝐴 together with a partial order 𝑅 on 𝐴 is called a partially

ordered set or a poset and is denoted by 𝐴; 𝑅 .

Check if the following sets are poset

𝐴 be the set of real numbers, the relation 𝑅 on 𝐴 defined by

𝑎𝑅𝑏 if and only if 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴

Let 𝑈 be any set and 𝐴 = 𝒫 U = the set of all subsets of 𝑆. For any
𝑆, 𝑇 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑆, 𝑇are subsets of 𝑈. We define a relation 𝑅 on 𝐴 by 𝑆𝑅 𝑇
if and only if 𝑆 ⊆ 𝑇.

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 Examples :
1) 𝐴 be the set of real numbers, the relation 𝑅 on 𝐴 defined by
𝑎𝑅𝑏 if and only if 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 is a partial order on 𝐴.
Reflexivity follows as 𝑎 ≤ 𝑎 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.
To see antisymmetry, suppose for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑎𝑅𝑏 and 𝑏𝑅𝑎. Then
𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎. Hence 𝑎 = 𝑏.
Transitivity follows by noting that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏, 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐 implies 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐.
2) Let 𝑈 be any set and 𝐴 = 𝒫 U = the set of all subsets of 𝑆. For
any 𝑆, 𝑇 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑆, 𝑇are subsets of 𝑈. We define a relation 𝑅 on 𝐴 by
𝑆𝑅 𝑇 if and only if 𝑆 ⊆ 𝑇.
Then [A; 𝑅] is a poset.

Remark :Keeping analogy in mind, we use notation

≤ for any partial order 𝑅

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Total order

Let [𝐴; ≤] be a poset. For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, we say 𝑎, 𝑏 are comparable if

𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 or 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎.
Ex. Let 𝑈 = 0,1 . For the poset [𝒫 𝑈 ; ⊆], the elements 0 , {0,1}
are comparable while 0 , {1} are not comparable.

Definition : A poset [𝐴; ≤] is called a totally ordered set or a chain

if any two elements of 𝐴 are comparable.
In this case, ≤ is called a total order.

Thus, the set ℝ of real numbers with usual order is totally ordered.
But if |𝑈| > 1, then [𝒫 𝑈 ; ⊆] is not a totally ordered set.

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Check if the following sets are a poset or a chain

Let 𝑃 be the set of all positive integers and define the relation | by:
for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑃, 𝑎|𝑏 if and only if 𝑎 divides 𝑏, i.e., there exists 𝑐 ∈ 𝑃
such that 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐. Check for [𝑃; |].

Then [𝑃; |] is a poset but not a chain. Note that 2 and 3 are not
comparable. We call | the divisibility order on 𝑃.

Let 𝑛 = 𝑝𝑘 for some prime number 𝑝 and positive integer 𝑘, and

𝐷𝑛 denote the set of all positive divisors of 𝑛. Check for [𝐷𝑛 ; |]

For the divisibility order |, [𝐷𝑛 ; |] is a poset. For general 𝑛, it is not

a totally ordered set, but if 𝑛 = 𝑝𝑘 for some prime number 𝑝 and
positive integer 𝑘, then [𝐷𝑛 ; |] is a chain.

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Check if the following sets are a poset or a chain

Let 𝑛 be a fixed positive integer and 𝐼𝑛 = {𝑥: 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛, 𝑥 is an

integer}. Check for [𝐼𝑛 ; |]

For any 𝑛 ≥ 3, [𝐼𝑛 , |] is a poset but not a chain, as 2, 3 are not

comparable.

Remark. If [𝐴; ≤] is any poset and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴, then [𝐵; ≤] is also a

poset.

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Pictorial representation of posets

• We have seen that any relation on a finite set A can be

represented by a digraph. Hence a finite poset can also be
represented by a digraph.

• But since a partial order must have reflexivity, antisymmetry

and transitivity, digraphs are complicated. But for finite posets
(only), digraphs can be simplified. These simplified versions are
called Hasse (or poset) diagrams, named after a German
mathematician Helmut Hasse.

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Hasse (poset) diagrams

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 Hasse (poset) diagrams
To understand Hasse diagrams, we need some concepts.

For an arbitrary partial order ≤ on a set 𝐴, we define another

relation < on 𝐴 such that for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑎 < 𝑏 if and only if 𝑎 ≤
𝑏 but 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏.

For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, we say 𝑏 covers 𝑎 if 𝑎 < 𝑏, but there does not exist

c ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑎 < 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 < 𝑏.

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 Hasse (poset) diagrams
Since several elements of the partial order are forced by others
through the defining properties of partial order, we make following
simplifications in digraphs of finite posets to get the Hasse
diagram.
1) Loops are not drawn. (There is no loss of information, by
reflexivity)
2) The directed arrows are not drawn. To avoid the confusion, if
𝑎 < 𝑏, we represent the vertex 𝑎 at an lower level compared to
𝑏. This can be done because if 𝑎 < 𝑏, then we can’t have 𝑏 <
𝑎. (antisymmetry)
3) We draw a line from a vertex 𝑎 to a vertex 𝑏 if and only if
𝑏 covers 𝑎. (Note that 𝑎 < 𝑏 if and only if we can travel from 𝑎 to 𝑏
along lines always moving upwards, by transitivity.)

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Draw Hasse diagram for the following

𝑎) [𝐷8 ; |], b) [𝒫 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ; ⊆]

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Let us see how the partial order can be recovered from Hasse diagram.
In 𝐷8 , the vertices which can be reached from 1 going upwards are 1, 2,
4, 8. This gives pairs (1,1), (1,2),(1,4),(1,8).
Starting with 2, we get (2,2),(2,4),(2,8). In the similar manner we get
(4,4),(4,8) and (8,8). These comprise all elements of the partial order.

For [𝒫 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ; ⊆], let us list pairs with 1st component {b}.

From {b}, going upwards we can reach {b}, {a,b}, {b,c}, {a,b,c}.
This gives pairs ({b},{b}), ({b},{a,b}), ({b},{b,c}) and ({b}, {a,b,c}).

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Draw Hasse diagram for the following

𝑎) [𝐷12 ; |], b) [1,2,3,4,6,9; |]

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 Special elements in posets
Let [𝐴; ≤] be a poset and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 be any subset.
• An element b ∈ 𝐵 is called the least element of 𝐵 if 𝑏 ≤ 𝑥 for all
𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
• There is at most one least element of 𝐵.(why)

If 𝐵 has least elements 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ,then as 𝑏1 is a least element of 𝐵

and 𝑏2 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑏1 ≤ 𝑏2 . Interchanging their roles, 𝑏2 ≤ 𝑏1 . Hence by
antisymmetry, 𝑏1 = 𝑏2 .

• An element b ∈ 𝐵 is called the greatest element of 𝐵 if x≤ 𝑏 for

all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵. As for least element, 𝐵 has at most one greatest
element.

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 Example
Find least element and greatest element of A

In (g), 360 is the greatest element of 𝐴 as it can be reached from

any element of 𝐴 by moving up always. 𝐴 has no least element.

In (h), 1 is the only least element of 𝐴.

𝐴 has no greatest element.
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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 Special elements in posets
Let [𝐴; ≤] be a poset and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 be any subset.
• An element b ∈ 𝐵 is called a minimal element of 𝐵 if there is no
𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 such that 𝑥 < 𝑏. B can have more than one minimal
elements.
• Analogously an element b ∈ 𝐵 is called a maximal element of 𝐵
if there is no 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 such that b< 𝑥. There can be more than one
maximal elements of 𝐵.

• The least (greatest) element of B is always minimal (maximal)

element of B. If B has unique minimal (maximal) element, then
it is the least(greatest) element of B.

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 Example
Find minimal elements and maximal elements of A

In (g), 2,3,5 are minimal elements of 𝐴, as there is no line going

down from them.
360 is a maximal element of 𝐵 = 𝐴.
In (h), 1 is the only minimal element of 𝐵 = 𝐴.
𝐵 = 𝐴 has 3 maximal elements 4, 6, 9.
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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Let [𝐴; ≤] be a poset and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 be any subset.

An element 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 is called a lower bound of 𝐵 if b≤ 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.

In (g), for B={120, 180} , C={2,3,5}, and In (h), for B={4, 6},
C={4,9}, find all lower bounds.
In (g), B has set of all lower bounds {2,3,5,30,60} and B has no
lower bounds.
In (h), B has lower bounds {1,2} and C has lower bounds {1} .

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Let [𝐴; ≤] be a poset and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 be any subset.
An element 𝑏0 ∈ 𝐴 is called the greatest lower bound (or glb ) of B
if 𝑏0 is a lower bound of 𝐵 and 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏0 for any lower bound 𝑥 of 𝐵.

In (g), for B={120, 180} , C={2,3,5}, and In (h), for B={4, 6},
C={4,9}, find glb.
In (g), B has glb 60. On the other hand, C has no glb.

In (h), B has glb {2}. C={4,9} has glb 1.

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Let [𝐴; ≤] be a poset and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 be any subset.

• 𝐵 has at most one glb.

• The least element of 𝐵 is the glb of 𝐵.
• On the other hand, the glb of 𝐵 is the least element of 𝐵 if and
only if it is in 𝐵.

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Let [𝐴; ≤] be a poset and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 be any subset.

• An element 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 is called an upper bound of 𝐵 if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 for all

𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
• An element 𝑏0 ∈ 𝐴 is called the least upper bound (or lub ) of B
if 𝑏0 is an upper bound of 𝐵 and 𝑏0 ≤ 𝑥 for any upper bound 𝑥
of 𝐵.
• The relationship between lub and the greatest element is
analogous to that of glb and the least element.

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In (g), for B={120, 180} , C={2,3,5}, and In (h), for B={4, 6},
C={4,9}, find all upper bounds and lub.

In (g), the set B={120, 180} has the set of all upper bounds {360} and
lub 360. On the other hand in (g), C={2,3,5} has lub 30.

In (h), B and C has no upper bounds and no lub.

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 Special elements in chains

In chains (totally ordered sets), the concepts of minimal element

and least element coincide. If the chain is finite then they also
coincide with glb.

Same holds for maximal and greatest and lub.

The Hasse diagram for chains can be drawn in straight line
(hence also called linear order).

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 Well ordered sets
Definition : A totally ordered set [𝐴; ≤] is said to be well ordered if
any non empty subset 𝐵 of 𝐴 has the least element. In this case
the relation ≤ is called a well order.

Remarks :1) In fact, initial requirement of totally ordered set is

not essential. If in a poset [𝐴; ≤] any non empty subset 𝐵 of 𝐴
has the least element then it must be totally ordered.

To see this note that for any 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 in 𝐴, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏} has the least
element, say 𝑎. Then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and hence 𝑎, 𝑏 are comparable.

2) A finite set is totally ordered if and only if it is well ordered.

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Which of the following is a Well ordered set

The set ℝ of all real numbers with usual order ≤

The set ℝ of all real numbers with usual order ≤ is totally ordered
but not well ordered. Consider open interval (1, 2) having no
smallest element.

The set ℕ of positive integers with usual order ≤

The set ℕ of positive integers with usual order ≤ is well ordered.

This property is equivalent to the principle of mathematical
induction.

the set of negative integers with usual order ≤

It has no smallest element BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 Enumeration

Can we list all elements of a set 𝐴 is 0th, 1st, 2nd, etc ? By doing so,
we will also have a well ordering on 𝐴.
This can be done by having a function 𝑓: 𝑁 → 𝐴 which is onto.
Definition : Let 𝐼 be an initial segment of 𝑁, i.e., 𝐼 = {𝑘 ∈ 𝑁 : 𝑘 ≤
𝑛} for some 𝑛 ∈ ℕ (finite case) or 𝐼 = 𝑁. A function 𝑓: 𝑁 → 𝐴 which
is onto is called an enumeration of 𝐴. If 𝐴 has enumeration then it
is said to be countable. Otherwise it is called uncountable or
nondenumerable.
Is the set ℤ of all integers countable.

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Cartesian Product of countable sets

If 𝐴, 𝐵 are countable then 𝐴 × 𝐵 is also countable.

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The set Q of all rational number is countable (denumerable).

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 Isomorphism of posets
(Kolman; Sec 6.1)
Let 𝐴; ≤ , [𝐴′ ; ≤′ ] be two posets and 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐴′ be an one-to-one
correspondence between 𝐴 and 𝐴′ . We say 𝑓 is an isomorphism
from 𝐴; ≤ to [𝐴′ ; ≤′ ] if for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 if and only if
𝑓 𝑎 ≤′ 𝑓 𝑏 .
Two posets are isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism from
the 1st poset to the 2nd poset.

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Are [𝐷8 ; |] and 1,2,3,4; ≤ are isomorphic.

Are [𝐷6 ; |] and [𝒫 1, 2 ; ⊆] are isomorphic.

Dont consider arrows in the Hasse Diagram.

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Consider sine and cosine functions. They are not related.

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 Ex.

Let a positive integer 𝑛 = 𝑝1 … 𝑝𝑘 , where 𝑝1 , … , 𝑝𝑘 are distinct primes.

Then the posets [𝐷𝑛 ; |] and [𝒫 𝑝1 , … , 𝑝𝑘 , ⊆] are isomorphic.

Proof is left as an exercise.

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