See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/262242202

Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Conducting Meetings and

Events in Virtual Worlds

Article in International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications · October 2012
DOI: 10.4018/jsita.2012100104

CITATIONS READS

0 702

2 authors, including:

Arhlene A. Flowers
Ithaca College
18 PUBLICATIONS 35 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Arhlene A. Flowers on 27 October 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

48 International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012

Theoretical and Practical

Aspects of Conducting Meetings
and Events in Virtual Worlds
Arhlene A. Flowers, Department of Strategic Communication, Roy H. Park School of
Communications, Ithaca College, Ithaca, NY, USA
Kimberly Gregson, Change Institute, British Ministry of Defense, London, England, UK

ABSTRACT
Whether businesses will make use of virtual worlds for meetings, training, and events is not just an academic
question. Use of existing and newly developed virtual worlds is expected to grow for the near future. International
companies are entering a variety of virtual worlds to promote collaboration among their geographically
dispersed workforce for training and meetings, as well as for business-to-business and business-to-consumer
applications with internal and external audiences. These worlds provide engaging experiences that can be
enjoyable and memorable. This article addresses opportunities and challenges in conducting meetings in
virtual worlds. It covers the evolution of technology for virtual meetings, a theoretical analysis of technology
acceptance, case studies on organizations utilizing virtual worlds, and practical considerations for conduct-
ing virtual meetings and events.

Keywords: Collaborative Meetings, Second Life, Virtual Business Applications, Virtual Meetings and
Events, Virtual Worlds

INTRODUCTION interact in ways that work with existing work

The evolution from videoconferencing to
Internet technology, particularly in virtual
worlds, has provided more affordable and ef-
ficient technology for organizations to “meet”
and communicate from multiple locations for
lectures, conferences, staff meetings, training,
and other business-to-business and business-to-
consumer applications. Virtual worlds, such as
Second Life, are predicted to grow in popularity
in the near future among all age groups (Gartner,
2007; KZero, 2009), because they let organiza-
tions create environments where people can
flows. Virtual worlds have opened up unique
communication platforms for organizations to
connect “face to face” with the online world’s
growing number of residents through events,
demonstrations, exhibitions, market research,
online distance learning, and other collaborative
platforms. In a survey conducted by Unisfair
of 550 U.S. marketers in 2011, 60% indicated
that they will increase expenditures for virtual
worlds; 87% predict hybrid virtual/physical
events will include approximately half of all
events held over the next five years, while 42%

DOI: 10.4018/jsita.2012100104

Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012 49
will decrease spending on real-world confer-
ences (Salomon-Lee, 2011).
Today’s virtual worlds emulate elements
of experiences that were once considered pure
fantasy—from the holodeck, an entertainment
room with holographic simulations in Star Trek,
to the metaverse, a futuristic virtual world in
Neal Stephenson’s novel Snow Crash from
1992. Teleporting is a reality in Second Life,
where avatars can be beamed instantly to dif-
ferent locations. Collaborations for businesses,
nonprofits, and governments can be realized
with virtual face-to-face transactions in three-
dimensional immersive worlds.
This article reviews technology from
picture phones to virtual worlds, including
Second Life, used to facilitate collaboration in
organizations with geographically distributed
members. Four case studies based on interviews
with a variety of stakeholders describe elements
of the process. It concludes with practical con-
siderations on how organizations can select the
most appropriate virtual world venue, provide
training and resources, establish guidelines,
address privacy and security issues, document
and promote in-world activities, and utilize
collaborative opportunities.
Evolution of Videoconferencing
to Virtual world meetings
Videoconferencing is defined as “an electronic
form of on-line audio and visual communica-
tion which overcomes the problems of physical
distance while reducing the need for travelling”
(Panteli & Dawson, 2001) and it has enabled
people to meet visually without being physically
present. These systems allowed for synchronous
communication, similar to actual face-to-face
meetings.
The Picturephone was an early attempt
by AT&T to help people meet virtually; it
was introduced in 1956 and later showcased
as the improved “Mod 1” Picturephone at the
1964 World’s Fair in New York at a futuristic
Walt Disney company exhibit. In 1970, AT&T
introduced a commercial application for the
Picturephone, but the product was not a fi-
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
nancial success because of its high cost, bulky
size, small screen, and unfriendly user controls
(AT&T, 2010a). In a collaborative AT&T proj-
ect, NASA used early satellite transmissions
for videoconferences and television feeds from
astronauts (AT&T, 2010b). Affordable satellite
technology in the 1980s created opportunities
for conference facilities to use videoconferenc-
ing for global meetings with physically large
and costly systems.
The growth of personal computers and
the commercialization of the Internet opened
the way for a variety of PC-based videocon-
ferencing systems. Many new developments
provided higher quality images that were
almost television quality for much less money
(Carey, 2002). Journalists used videoconfer-
encing on cell phones to report live from the
front in Afghanistan in 2001 (Roberts, 2004).
High-end telepresence systems introduced in
2007 claimed to improve quality by reducing
jerky images, sound delays, and other annoy-
ing irregularities. However, these systems can
cost over $300,000 for a room-based system
(Stafford, 2008).
Systems have become smaller and por-
table, and some are even desk-based to work
with the user’s own computer. More users with
broadband connections to the Internet have
spurred innovations in webconferencing to
share presentation slides and other files, write
notes on a shared whiteboard, watch streaming
video, conduct polls to solicit feedback, and
record the meetings. As products improved,
four categories of products developed: general
business communication, collaboration tools,
project management focus, and training tools
(Winfield, 2004). Earlier systems were replaced
with more affordable and lighter systems, of-
fering innovative features with higher-quality
imagery and sound. However, some controls
were still difficult to learn and some issues
included audio delay and the lack of the sense
of actually being physically present at the
virtual meeting.
Malhotra (1998) observed that the discus-
sions about the latest technology for videocon-
ferencing were overly optimistic and asked if
50 International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012
videoconferences and other new technology
“are offering solutions as panaceas for the
business challenges of the knowledge era” (p.
58). Researchers began to question the validity
of industry claims about the beneficial effects
of media richness on performance. Ferran and
Watts (2008) found that videoconferences were
more mentally challenging than face-to-face
communication, so participants actually had
decreased capacity for the meeting content.
Discussions tended to be more hostile than
meetings with similar people held face to
face (Stuhlmacher & Citera, 2005). However,
videoconference attendees under time pressure
had faster responses than face-to-face groups
(Caballer, Gracia, & Peiró, 2005).
Pearlman and Gates (2010) investigated the
future viability of virtual worlds for the meetings
industry, concluding that virtual worlds offer
environmental and cost-savings benefits, with
“innovative and viable methods” (p. 261); yet
“this research identified the many challenges
and threats regarding the use of virtual worlds
before widespread business adoption may
occur” (p. 263), with the lack of familiarity
of new technology and technological skills
being barriers.
Meetings in Virtual Worlds
Damer (2008) reviewed the history of virtual
worlds for user-created events from the Maze
War game in 1974, enabling two networked
workstation users to play in 3D and com-
municate with instant messaging, to Habitat
in the 1980s, offering the first color graphical
virtual world with movable avatars text chatting,
and to the 1990s, with Worlds Chat and later
AlphaWorld, providing real-time synchronous
communication in a richer virtual world on the
Internet. Hosted by Contact Consortium with
4,000 participants in AlphaWorld, “Avatars98”
was the first virtual world conference.
The newer generation of virtual worlds,
such as Linden Lab’s Second Life, ProtonMe-
dia’s ProtoSphere, and Altadyn’s 3DXplorer,
has enabled organizations to meet in mediated
spaces in which people from anywhere around
the globe can connect. Although virtual worlds
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
will not completely replace the need for people
to meet face-to-face, “many marquee brands are
experimenting and learning how to operate in
this space” (Biba, 2007). This technology lets
organizations face the limitations (managing
distractions and the learning curve in utilizing
the technology), benefits (travel cost-savings
and time spent traveling), and logistics and
constraints of any type of meeting whether in
a physical or virtual space (agendas, protocol,
and engagement).
Evolution of Second Life from
Personal to Business Users
Second Life®, a virtual world created by
Linden Lab in 2003, and other virtual worlds
have changed the way people interact and meet
online, thereby presenting new opportunities for
individuals and organizations to communicate
and collaborate in an immersive virtual environ-
ment. Second Life, an online three-dimensional
virtual world imagined, created, and owned by
its residents, offers a platform to anyone or any
organization that wants to try it.
Since its inception, Second Life has ap-
proximately 29.5 million residents as of June
2012 (Shepherd, 2012), represented by cus-
tomizable animated images known as avatars,
in a virtual area that is the approximately 2,000
square kilometers (Linden Lab, 2011), where
individuals and organizations have a dialogue
with its inhabitants. Second Life residents are
empowered to change their gender, appearance,
race, age, and even the species of their avatars.
Residents can take classes, make and sell virtual
goods, attend events, drive cars, or fly space
ships. Second Life is designed to give residents
control over every aspect of their in-world life;
the world is as vibrant and alive as the residents
are creative and involved (Ondrejka, 2004).
An in-world economy functions with currency
earned in-world that can be exchanged for dol-
lars back into the real world.
In 2006, Second Life began to experience a
steady increase in personal users (Nino, 2008),
but also in businesses, with major brands, such
as IBM, Toyota, Sony, Kraft, and 1-800-FLOW-
ERS. Just as residents are able to customize and
International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012 51
build, businesses can access the same tools to
engage in a dialogue and undertake specific ac-
tivities with Second Life residents. The business
world seemed to take notice of Second Life in
2006 starting with a BusinessWeek cover story
(Hof, 2006) that extolled the opportunities for
real-world corporations and in-world entre-
preneurs. A series of positive articles followed
in magazines, such as Wired (Wallace, 2006)
and Fortune (Kirkpatrick, 2006). The media
coverage focused on opportunity, creativity, and
financial gain. Profiles featured a land owner
who made US$1 million in Second Life, other
success stories, and the Linden Lab founders
(Colligan, 2006).
The positive press did not continue forever.
Beginning in December 2006, a ValleyWag blog
post kicked off a backlash against all the posi-
tive coverage (Shirky, 2006), criticizing the user
statistics reported by Linden Lab and accusing
the company of overestimating the user base
to attract businesses. The negative publicity
continued in 2007, starting with a Los Angeles
Times article (Semuels, 2007), and quickly
spread to other media including BusinessWeek
(McConnon & Jana, 2007), Forbes (Rosma-
rin, 2007), and Wired (Rose, 2007)—the same
magazines that provided the overwhelmingly
positive coverage in 2006. Most of the negative
coverage seemed to assume that companies’
time in Second Life has been ill-spent; some
articles plainly suggested companies should get
out. BusinessWeek (McConnon & Jana, 2007)
listed all the companies that left Second Life.
Organizations, such as American Apparel and
Wells Fargo, established islands, hosted a few
events, and then left, perhaps because the islands
were not successful as an additional revenue
stream. A public relations executive explained
the situation when brands began leaving Second
Life: “recent failures can be compared to the
mistakes that led the dotcom bubble to burst in
2000—the firms that struggled were the ones
that overspent too quickly without thinking
the process through” (Devaney, 2008, p. 24).
However, a variety of for-profit compa-
nies, nonprofits, and educational institutions
have been utilizing Second Life, as well as
other virtual worlds, for a different form of
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
business-to-business and business-to-consumer
communication—as a “place” to connect with
audiences. IBM, New Media Consortium,
Northrop Grumman, MacArthur Foundation,
and the American Library Association are a few
examples. Second Life includes a business sec-
tion in its online Destination Guide, highlighting
examples of organizations engaged in in-world
meetings, training, recruitment, and other ap-
plications (Linden Lab, 2012). A “Second Life
Work” wiki provides answers to frequently
asked questions, an online brochure, and suc-
cess stories. Second Life compares its meeting
capabilities to that of videoconferencing, stating
that it “provides a sense of presence that many
people find more engaging and compelling than
many other types of conferencing, as well as
providing a 3D space to share information”
(Linden Lab, 2010, para. 16).
Other virtual worlds offering environments
for businesses have emerged. For example,
ProtonMedia, a provider of virtual world tech-
nology, was established in 2006 and developed
ProtoSphere as “a secure, private virtual world
environment for collaboration and learning”
(ProtonMedia, 2010, para. 1) and later launched
ProtoSphere 2.0 (see Figure 1) in 2012, offering
enhanced integration, security, authentication,
media boards, moderator control, and immer-
sive spaces (ProtonMedia, 2012). ProtonMedia
has created immersive environments for such
organizations as AstraZeneca, Boeing, Chevron,
Deloitte, Duke University, Johnson & Johnson,
Merck Inc., and TIAA-CREF.
ACCEPTANCE OF
TECHNOLOGY AND
TELEPRESENCE
Past studies of consumers’ acceptance of
technology have found a small number of
variables involved in the acceptance process.
The technology acceptance model (TAM) has
often been used to examine users’ intentions
to apply technology. Davis (1989, 1993) and
Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw (1989) identified
two basic variables that have been included in
most studies of TAM: perceived usefulness (i.e.
52 International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012
Figure 1. ProtonMedia ProtoSphere large training room (© 2012, ProtonMedia, Inc. All rights
reserved. Used with permission.)
something that will enhance job performance)
and perceived ease of use (i.e. relatively free
from effort) as positive influences on attitudes
towards application of technology. Venkatesh
and Davis (2000) extended the model, adding
variables such as voluntariness of technology
use, quality of the output, and how easily results
can be demonstrated.
A number of studies have looked at the
role of fun in adopting technology. Venkatesh
and Davis (1996) added measures of enjoyment
to see if users having fun with a system were
more likely to use it. Teo, Lim, and Lai (1999)
introduced perceived enjoyment and Moon and
Kim (2001) included perceived playfulness.
In a study of individual user decisions to play
online games, Hsu and Lu (2007) included
flow and social use measures. Chung and Tan
(2004) extended TAM with variables related to
the user such as computer-using skills, personal
innovativeness, and playfulness to the technol-
ogy, such as whether a Web site was flexible,
interactive, easy to use, navigate, and search.
Shen and Eder (2009) examined users’
intentions to adopt virtual worlds for business
and extended the model with three user variables
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
that influenced perceived ease of use: computer
anxiety, computer playfulness, and computer
self-efficacy. The attitude toward technology
was positively affected by perceived useful-
ness and pleasure, which in turn positively
influenced attitudes towards technology and
the intention to adopt.
Owens, Davis, Murphy, Khazanchi, and
Zigurs (2009) identified several components for
a model of teamwork in virtual environments.
They identified presence, defined by Steuer
(1992) as a sense of being in an environment
and now more broadly considered to include
copresence, social presence, and telepresence
as something that affects people on virtual
teams. People experience a stronger sense of
presence as the technology (i.e., screen reso-
lution and virtual world interface) improves;
enhanced technology allows for more realistic
representations of avatars and a wider array of
interactions.
Sarker, Valacich, and Sarker (2005) pro-
posed a model for technology adoption by small
groups (TAG) as a process of discussion and
consideration of existing attitudes towards tech-
nology to create what they call a “group valence”
International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012 53
(p. 44) that takes into account factors such as
pre-existing attitudes towards technology, the
attitudes after discussion of the majority as well
as of high-status members, and any conflict
between members, along with characteristics
of the technology itself, such as its utility and
complexity that are similar to the TAM factors
of perceived usefulness and ease of use. Lederer,
Maupin, Sena, and Zhuang (2000) discovered
that TAM variables plus quality of information
encouraged staff to revisit Web sites relevant
to their jobs.
CASE STUDIES ON
ORGANIZATIONS
CONDUCTING VIRTUAL
MEETINGS
Companies are hosting virtual meetings and
events for business-to-business and business-
to-consumer applications. Sun Microsystems,
Dell, Microsoft, Cisco, and other technology
companies have held events for customers and
employees. Sports-related events have been
sponsored by Major League Baseball and the
National Basketball Association. Educational
organizations have made use of virtual worlds
for events and training. The Idaho Bioterrorism
Awareness and Preparedness Program simulated
real-world, high-risk emergencies to provide no-
risk training to participants (Rittenberry, 2008).
A number of benefits have been identified
from past events held in virtual worlds. An im-
portant advantage is cost savings. Intel saved
$265,000 by moving its Embedded Channel
Conference from a real-world hotel to a virtual
world (Linden Lab, 2009b). Benefits include
no travel costs, venue rentals, and catering
costs; employees do not lose productive work
time traveling to meeting sites and disrupt their
private lives. Reuben Steiger, founder of design
firm Millions of Us, puts the cost benefit into
perspective, “The advantage [virtual world
meeting] has over the real world is cost, and
the advantage it has over the Web is it’s like
the real world” (Biba, 2006, p. 17). Companies
have come to realize that virtual meetings are
environmentally friendlier, eliminating carbon
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
emissions associated with flying or driving to the
meeting site. Virtual world meetings bring with
them elements of fun and surprise that increase
engagement with the content. Collaboration is
enhanced by the variety of communication tools
in virtual worlds.
Several limitations have been identified,
including people being distracted by events in
their offices or real lives while attending virtual
meetings and the learning curve associated
with using virtual world software. Companies
have had to overcome firewall barriers and in-
compatible hardware issues. To be successful,
virtual meetings and events need to overcome
resistance from staff and some have only suc-
ceeded after receiving buy-in from upper level
management. “Adopting social media in the
corporate environment enabled greater com-
munication and collaboration, but it only works
with the buy-in of the CEO” (Ashling, 2007,
p. 29). Several companies have had to deal
with developing protocols for virtual meetings,
including dress codes, security, agenda sharing,
and communication privacy.
Sense of Fun: Conference
and Event Rental Spaces
Companies that want to host an event in Second
Life have several options. They can acquire an
island for an initial fee and monthly payments,
hire a designer, and build their own custom
space. This is ideal for companies that plan to
have recurring events, need to have the space
for many attendees, or want to be able to close
off the island for a private event. Using these
sites lets a company take a slow approach to
virtual world events, so they can minimize costs,
check out risks, and help employees navigate
in virtual spaces. These sites usually provide
tools to help participants interact with each
other and share information, along with spaces
for undertaking group projects, collaborating,
and socializing. Many visual elements attract
and hold participants’ attention when distrac-
tions are needed (Smith & Jainschigg, personal
communication, 2009). Here people talk within
the same virtual space, unlike the disembodied
54 International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012

voices of phone conferences or the faces on
videoconferences.
Several spaces like this in Second Life
have been developed. One of the first was set
up by the Crowne Plaza hotel chain on its The
Place to Meet Island with several buildings
resembling its real-world hotels, where inter-
ested parties could rent space for virtual events
or meetings. Another such facility was the
Swiss-based Vision’s Alpine Executive Center,
which operated in Second Life from 2009 to
2011. The center may return to another cheaper
virtual world platform in the future (A. Adams,
personal communication, 2012). The center was
set up to look like a mountain resort with pine
forests and snow-covered mountains, along
with comprehensive meeting and recreational
facilities, and a train to help visitors get around
the island. The goal was to create a site with
a sense of place where attendees would feel
as if they had been some place specific with
other real people. Having a space resemble an
architectural style, rather than reproducing some
specific place, gave people a sense of space,
suggesting a style that they are familiar with.
The space led participants through the event
and triggered emotional responses. A variety of
proprietary tools were made available to meeting
attendees, including support for brainstorming,
categorizing, and voting (see Figure 2). Events
could be recorded to share results with others
in the office or to review after the meeting. The
center was designed to support the philosophy
that fun is an important element to company
events, making them more memorable with
skiing, snowboarding, and ice skating, as well
as with hot air balloons and an art gallery with
rotating exhibits set up in ice caverns (A. Adams,
personal communication, 2009).
Sometimes in-world events are held in lieu
of real-world events. The center hosted a 24-
hour technology product kick-off event for
Unisys. The company gained exposure for less
than $10,000, a price much smaller than a
similar real-world event. Some events are only
possible to host in a virtual world. The center
hosted Hong Kong Net, an educational program
with universities in Hong Kong, the Nether-
lands, and the United States, which was set up
to investigate information technologies in a
global environment. Virtual worlds also can
support team-building events. A department
from Sun Microsystems rented the island for
Employee Day with downhill ski races and

Figure 2. Participants use 3D interactive brainstorm and categorizer tool in a risk-assessment

workshop at the Alpine Executive Center (© 2009, Alpine Executive Center. Used with permission.)

Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012 55
other entertaining platforms (Adams, personal
communication, 2009).
Second Life posts online a current list of
enterprises (Linden Lab, 2012), offering meet-
ing and event spaces, from business centers
and conference halls to entertaining fantasy
environments and recreation.
Sense of People: Job Fairs
Businesses trying to recruit employees have
used virtual worlds. TMP Worldwide organized
the first virtual job fair in May 2007, a three-
day event labeled Network in World with the
tagline “in world interviews, real world jobs,”
with companies including eBay, Microsoft, and
Verizon (TMP Worldwide, 2007a). More than
750 people requested interviews and approxi-
mately 150 were selected and attended actual
interviews (TMP Worldwide, 2007b). Because
of the strongly positive responses from job seek-
ers and firms, TMP held a second fair in August
2007 with different companies, including GE
and Accenture (TMP Worldwide, 2007c). The
goal was to attract international applicants by
demonstrating through the use of the virtual
world that the company was forward thinking
and technologically advanced in a cost-effective
manner (Gold, personal communication, 2009;
Vong, personal communication, 2009).
The companies participated in the fairs
because they wanted to reach an international
audience to broaden the pool of applicants for
positions at the firms. Using Second Life gave
the firms an opportunity to brand themselves
as innovative risk takers. They realized that the
event would not attract hundreds of applicants,
but they thought it would help them reach people
who were using cutting-edge technology. The
firms received positive media attention for
their efforts in the virtual world, which they
realized would help them attract more qualified
employees in the future.
To make sure things ran smoothly, TMP
and the participating firms worked together
to accomplish many of the same things they
would with real interviews. Applicants were
pre-screened and the companies invited the
most qualified for their job openings. TMP
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
provided greeters at the landing site to make
sure people had appointments and to direct
them to the correct interviewer. TMP opened
the island before the event, so potential ap-
plicants could practice using Second Life and
dress their avatars in appropriate business attire.
TMP trained the company representatives and
provided branded clothing for them to wear.
Each company interviewing applicants received
a branded area on the job fair island. Applicants
could meet one on one with applicants in a space
set up like a traditional meeting room. Many
companies organized activities for the job fair
participants, such as a roller coaster or parachute
ride (Vong, personal communication, 2009).
According to a Second Life job fair organizer,
companies involved in the fair found that the fun
atmosphere lightened the often tense interview
situations. Job seekers and interviewers reported
that they were less nervous. Other companies
wanted to showcase the firm and selected more
business-like settings, instead of showing off
the features of the virtual world (Gold, personal
communication, 2009).
The overall response was positive. Em-
ployers and applicants felt engaged during
the interviews and using avatars made it seem
more human than a phone interview or even an
interview with text chat and streaming media
(Gold, personal communication, 2009). Some
participants specifically mentioned it was more
engaging than using a videoconferencing system
(Vong, personal communication, 2009). At the
time, the companies knew the event would
generate positive media coverage, which would
make the impact of the job fair beyond just the
attendees. TMP Worldwide has not run another
job fair because its clients felt that the media
coverage would not be as extensive as the
exposure generated during the earlier events.
Role of the Champion
As with many businesses using virtual worlds,
the Fenimore Art Museum, based in Cooper-
stown, NY, has been in Second Life because of
the efforts of one person. In this case, the vice
president and chief curator of the museum was
encouraged to experiment with the virtual world
56 International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012
by the museum’s research librarians who heard
about it at a conference in late 2007. Usually the
champion comes into Second Life voluntarily
(Smith & Jainschigg, personal communica-
tion, 2009). These champions spend some of
their own money and a lot of their own time to
investigate. Sometimes they set up company-
related events on their own initiative to bring
other people into Second Life. This helps them
bring more people in-world, because they can
demonstrate both the fun and business-related
elements. Executives hear about the events the
individual set up, see the press attention, and
come in-world to check it out for themselves,
before getting the company more formally
involved.
Unlike the businesses involved in the
other case studies, the museum does not have
its own island in Second Life. The museum
has held exhibits in several spots to provide
content and events to reach different audiences.
This allowed the museum to be involved with
several communities in Second Life, including
an exhibit by a deaf artist in a site suggested by
leaders of the deaf community, and exhibits on
historically themed Sims. The museum has to
be concerned about the institution’s image and
with the opinions of the owners of the images
in the real-world museum. It has a permanent
space on an island owned by an established
community with content guidelines. The images
from the museum are displayed much like at
the real-world museum, with notecards with
information about the exhibit. The museum
has security on the images, so that they cannot
be copied. The images are for sale, however.
One of the reasons to be in-world is to con-
nect the museum with new audiences. Program-
ming attracts viewers and builds support for the
museum’s continued presence in Second Life,
with events such as exhibit opening receptions,
gallery talks, and lectures. The curator also has
visited other people’s exhibits and art events to
build connections and support for his museum’s
activities. The exhibits supplement real-world
activities of the museum, as a low-cost way of
gaining attention for the works the museum has
gathered. The museum has only paid rent for
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
one of the four sites where images have been
exhibited. The museum has established a rich
social media marketing strategy and its Second
Life activities are one part of that strategy (P.
D’Ambrosio, personal communication, 2009).
Focus on Security: IBM
and Second Life
IBM has held virtual business-to-business
events to collaborate with developers (Borre-
mans, 2007). IBM uses various tools to bring
its international workforce together, including
phone and videoconferencing with shared
whiteboards and facilities for recognizing who
wants to speak next to facilitate discussion.
However, when IBM wanted more immersive
interaction and for staff to work on large builds
together, the company also used many virtual
worlds including Active Worlds, Unity, and
Metaverse, a rudimentary one built inhouse. The
virtual worlds created stronger memories of the
events, because they evoked a sense of place for
the attendees. Some of the tools required little
hardware power, so more people can use them.
However, not one was as flexible or allowed
users to be as creative as Second Life (Bishop,
personal communication, 2009). IBM has had
more than 5,000 employees in Second Life and
a number of training exercises (Greenfield,
2008) on approximately 35 IBM islands. The
IBM Virtual Business Center in Second Life
(see Figure 3) lets visitors consult with IBM
concierges from around the world and contains
nine areas, including meeting spaces, exhibi-
tions, and a library. An IBM consultant for its
virtual business unit, launched in September
2006, said, “They are all shocked how real
[interviewing avatars in-world] feels” (Wetzler,
2007, para. 15). IBM issued dress code guide-
lines for its employees when they are avatars.
The company’s global director of 3D Internet
and virtual business said, “…they need to be
mindful of presenting professional images. That
means that they wouldn’t want to show up at a
business meeting ‘dressed as a fuzzy character’”
(Kitchen, 2007, p. F04).
IBM also was the largest test user in Sec-
ond Life Enterprise Beta, which was introduced
International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012 57
Figure 3. IBM Virtual Business Center in Second Life (@2007, IBM. Used with permission.)
in November 2009 (Boulton, 2009), giving IBM
more privacy, security, and the ability to au-
thenticate users. Second Life Enterprise allowed
companies to run Second Life on their own
servers, behind their firewalls for maximum
security, enabling companies to host a number
of islands simultaneously, enough to bring to-
gether 800 people simultaneously for events
without having to work around Linden Lab’s
downtime schedules. IBM employees had team
meetings on a Second Life Enterprise island.
An IBM case study on the Academy of Technol-
ogy ‘s Virtual World Conference and Annual
Meeting in Second Life estimated that the return
on investment was $320,000, comparable to
“one-fifth the cost of a real world event” (Lin-
den Lab, 2009a, p. 1). Since many of the sessions
were about virtual worlds, IBM decided to have
events in such a world that offered social events
and fun activities along with business sessions.
The company saved money on travel and lost
productivity. Its only cost was for building items
on its enterprise server (Bishop, personal com-
munication, 2009). In August 2010, Linden Lab
announced the discontinuation of Second Life
Enterprise, while continuing to honor existing
contracts, to focus on strengthening its main
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Second Life grid, where organizations still
maintain business operations (Korolov, 2010),
including IBM. IBM Research also launched
Virtual Collaboration for Lotus Sametime in
2009 that allows Lotus Sametime users to set
up virtual meeting spaces (IBM, 2009).
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
FOR VIRTUAL MEETINGS
As in planning a real-world meeting, the major
starting point is asking a few basic questions:
• What is the objective of the meeting? Is it
informational or motivational?
• Who needs to attend the meeting? Are they
external or internal audiences? Where are
they located? Who will be running the
meeting and serving as presenters? What
is the total number of attendees?
• What are your set-up needs—displays,
audio-visual equipment, staging, seating,
and entertainment? How much interactivity
will be needed?
• When does the meeting need to be held?
• How long will the meeting be held?
58 International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012
• How does the meeting need to be captured
or recorded?
• What is the budget?
Having the answers to these core ques-
tions will help those responsible for planning
meetings and events to address important
considerations to hold a collaborative meeting
or event in a virtual world:
• What are the technological skill sets of the
people conducting or attending the event?
Have they been in virtual worlds before,
even for pleasure? Have they participated
in videoconferences or webconferences?
• Does the organization have a presence in
any virtual world, such as existing islands
in Second Life? Has the organization ever
conducted any activities in a virtual world?
• How long will the set-up need to exist or
will it be used on an ongoing basis?
• Is it a hybrid event, bringing elements of
a real-world event into the virtual world?
Selecting the Best
Virtual World Venue
Selecting the best metaverse is a major decision,
considering the evolving and growing number of
virtual worlds and immersive software vendors
entering the marketplace. Organizations can
host events or meetings in an existing virtual
world, adapt an existing 3D environment, or
create their own. The increasing sophistication
of the virtual platforms enables participants to
communicate real-time by voice or text, emulate
body language, exchange business cards and
documents, track brainstorming with interactive
whiteboards, stream in video, conduct surveys
or even visual polling, and record sessions.
Many virtual platforms have simulated a broad
range of conference facilities, while others can
replicate real-world locations. Service provid-
ers can plan and organize a virtual event from
start to finish, including training participants,
simplifying avatar selections, designing the
agenda, providing in-world support in real time,
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
and documenting and evaluating the events to
best suit the organization’s needs.
ThinkBalm published a list of immersive
software vendors in 2010 (Driver, & Driver,
2010), which included Altadyn’s 3DXplorer,
Immersive Workspaces, Linden Lab, Proton-
Media, INXPO, and ON24, among others. A
few changes to note: Forterra Systems Inc.’s
On-Line Interactive Virtual Environment
(OLIVE) product line was purchased by the
Science Applications International Corporation;
Teleplace software was open sourced as Open
QWAQ and assets were later liquidated in 2011
(Korolov, 2011); and Unisfair was acquired by
InterCall in 2011.
Providing Training and
Resources for Participants
In-world training is essential—and the extent
of time to train would be dependant on the
technological abilities of the participants. Many
of our interviewees mentioned that they set up
training sessions for meeting attendees and they
conducted one-on-one training with interested
executives, particularly those presenting at
the meeting. Attendees need to be comfort-
able navigating their avatars in virtual worlds,
mastering such basics as walking, sitting,
teleporting, and manipulating body gestures,
as well as understanding how to communicate
by voice or text, participate in activities, and
share documents. Generational groups may
have varying learning curves: “Gen X [1961
to 1976], the only generation to start out with
analog technology and see everything go digital;
and Gen Y [1977 to 1994], the first generation
to only know digital technology” (Goldenberg,
2007, p. 12).
Establishing Guidelines
A panel of virtual world innovators conducted
by Human Resources magazine in the UK all
agreed that “virtual worlds need just as much
control as real ones” (Crush, 2008, para. 16),
addressing the value of setting up a structure for
people to work within virtual worlds, a venue
International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012 59
that may offer more freedom to people than
they are willing to accept or function in success-
fully without guidelines. Smith and Jainschigg
(personal communication, 2009) described a
process they go through with companies to set
up access and controls for building, names,
and avatars before moving to discussing virtual
presence and events.
The physical appearance of the participants’
avatars needs to be considered. An avatar is a
virtual extension of an individual’s physical
self. Would staff take a conversation with a
baby penguin or bouncing eyeball seriously or
be overwhelmed by Beowulf or the grim reaper?
Dress code guidelines need to be established
about how much avatars need to look like the
real people in terms of sex, ethnicity, and other
physical characteristics. Some service providers
offer quick solutions to creating avatars, with a
menu to select from, or can customize avatars
with uploaded photos to resemble real-world
people.
As in the real world, the best meetings
and events follow a clear agenda with set tim-
ings, logical flows and breaks, orientation and
registration, pre-arranged presenters, easy-to-
follow visual materials, engaging activities with
interactive discussions, entertainment, food and
beverage (most virtual meetings offer virtual
refreshments), giveaways, and feedback and
assessment mechanisms.
Addressing Privacy and Security
For public events, Second Life is currently
the largest in scale of residents to attract to a
company-sponsored event. Second Life is a
“freewheeling virtual world, open to the public”
(Lohr, 2007, p. C6) and losing some control is
a reality, however. Griefers (troublemakers)
can be a nuisance, but can be squelched easily.
Second Life is “self-policing but the technology
remains vulnerable” (Cane, 2007, p. 3). Other
virtual worlds providing business meetings and
events also provide security measures. Some
companies have opted to create their own virtual
environments. For example, MTV Networks,
originally used Second Life, and later created
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Virtual MTV with Makena Technologies as an
online 3D experience for consumers to connect
with the brand and its shows through events,
games, and activities.
Documenting and Promoting
Meetings and Events
Documenting meetings and events held in
virtual worlds can be beneficial for gaining
exposure in media outlets, building relationships
with employees and stakeholders, positioning
an organization as innovative, and adding origi-
nal content to corporate Web sites and social
media. From a public relations standpoint,
organizations can promote virtual world activi-
ties by disseminating news releases to generate
publicity in traditional media outlets, e-zines,
and blogs, particularly outlets that contain
editorial sections on technology. Second Life
has its own in-world blogs, publications, and
television and radio programs that cover this
specific virtual world.
The documented results of a meeting or
event can be shared with employees and other
stakeholders via an electronic or print newsletter
or with another type of electronic communiqué.
News releases can be posted on a company’s
Web site, along with screenshots and edited
videos of virtual events and meetings. A case
study or white paper also can be uploaded on
the Web sites of the company and the service
provider of the virtual world.
Utilizing Unique Collaborative
Opportunities
A 3D virtual world can replicate the real world,
simulate dangerous crises, or create worlds of
fantasy and imagination that would be too chal-
lenging or expensive to conduct or stage in the
real world. Companies can have their real-world
offices, showrooms, training centers, or other
facilities re-created into a virtual world that can
be utilized by their employees, clients, custom-
ers, and other invited audiences. In today’s
global economy, businesses benefit by having
backup locations, such as virtual replications,
60 International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012
to maintain operations and continue meetings
when a blizzard or a volcano erupts and disrupts
travel plans or a man-made crisis occurs that
affects the transportation of people and cargo.
The elements of surprise and fun can be
fully realized in virtual worlds for creativity and
unique interactions. Organizations can conduct
virtual meetings where participants could enjoy
social activities to scuba dive in vibrant coral
reefs, bungee jump off a majestic waterfall,
ski a challenging slalom course, and then talk
about their experiences at an exotic beachside
resort—all during the same day without leaving
their offices or homes.
Using virtual worlds let people participate
who would be unable to travel to a regular real-
world meeting. IBM has a worldwide workforce
with dispersed teams who meet virtually and
have used Second Life for many collaborative
events, including a virtual cultural festival for
IBM employees with sessions to accommodate
participation from employees in different time
zones (Bishop, personal communication, 2009).
Virtual worlds also can be used for mixed-
reality events where people can be involved in
the real world and in virtual worlds. Attendees
in the virtual world can see and hear the real-
life speakers and see the crowds. They can
participate in conversations by having someone
at the conference monitor the chat channel
or by having screens at the real-world venue
showing the virtual world. The U.S. Air Force
set up MyBase in Second Life, a virtual air
force base where visitors can learn about its
history and fly an airplane. The idea is to reach
people who would have few opportunities to
collaborate with members of the military and
where service personnel can meet and undertake
training (Knuteson, 2008). The Air Force made
the decision in 2010 to give every Air Force
member an account in Second Life. Using the
virtual world is a way to encourage training
and professional networking, thereby letting
tech-savvy young people experience the military
and, concurrently, serve as a recruitment tool
(Thompson, 2010).
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
CONCLUSION
With corporate budgets being slashed and travel
costs rising in an increasingly global workforce,
virtual meetings and events offer cost-effective
solutions with significant savings in airfare,
rental cars or mileage reimbursements, hotel
accommodations, and food and beverage
expenses. Another benefit includes less stress
from the wear and tear of travel on the staff’s
professional and personal lives. Reducing car-
bon dioxide emissions has a positive impact on
the environment. Recording a virtual event is
also much cheaper.
Virtual worlds offer unique employee and
customer interaction with the organization, its
brand and products or services in a world that
replicates the real-world company or other
locations, simulations of dangerous environ-
ments or fantasy experiences. Having backup
operations in a virtual world also makes good
business sense, because when a natural or
man-made disruption occurs anywhere in the
world, replicated environments can help keep
a company functioning.
The benefits outweigh the potential chal-
lenges, such as acceptance of technology,
learning curve of staff, adequate training of
staff and time allocations, bandwidth of com-
puter equipment, security and privacy, buy-in
from management, and cost of outsourcing
expertise. Innovations will continue that will
most likely create more lifelike virtual envi-
ronments with simpler navigational tools and
seamless, high-quality audio and visual capa-
bilities for avatars to communicate. In addition,
mixed-reality events can increase participation
and enable people in both worlds to interact.
Virtual worlds can be more cost effective than
most videoconferencing and webconferencing
products, offering a greater sense of presence.
Virtual worlds provide “an innovative tool for
richer and more nuanced communication and
collaboration among workers, industry partners
and customers” (Lohr, 2008, p. 6).
International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012 61
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This is an updated and abridged article of an
original book chapter by A. Flowers and K.
Gregson (2011) published in K. Malik and P.
Choudhary (Eds.), Business organizations and
collaborative web: Practices, strategies and
patterns. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
REFERENCES
Ashling, J. (2007). Blogs & social media forum
2: What’s on the corporate horizon? Information
Today, 24(7), 29.
AT&T. (2010a). 1970: Picturephone. Retrieved
February 1, 2010, from http:// www.corp.att.com/
attlabs/reputation/timeline/70picture.html
AT&T. (2010b). 1962: Satellite Transmission. Re-
trieved February 18, 2010, from http://www.corp.att.
com/attlabs/reputation/timeline/62trans.html
Biba, E. (2006, December 11). Staging Second Life
events can be tricky: In-world b-to-b events are well-
publicized but are by no means the right marketing
outlet for everyone. B to B, 17. Retrieved May 20,
2010, from http://www.btobonline.com/apps/pbcs.
dll/article?AID=/20061211/FREE/612110755
Borremans, P. (2007). Clarifying IBM’s strategic
mission for social media. Strategic Communication
Management, 11(3), 24–27.
Boulton, C. (2009). Second Life takes virtual real-
ity behind the firewall at IBM, Navy. Eweek.com.
Retrieved June 8, 2012, from, http://www.eweek.
com/c/a/Messaging-and-Collaboration/Second-
Life-Takes-Virtual-Reality-Behind-The-Firewall-
at-IBM-Navy-574778/
Caballer, A., Gracia, F., & Peiró, J. (2005). Affective
responses to work process and outcomes in virtual
teams: Effects of communication media and time
pressure. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20(3/4),
245–260. doi:10.1108/02683940510589037
Cane, A. (2007, January 24). Big players join in
new game Second Life: Alan Cane looks at how
commercial organisations are exploring the virtual
world. Financial Times, 3. Retrieved May 20, 2010,
from, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/562ad9cc-ab50-
11db-b5db-0000779e2340.html
Carey, R. (2002, May). See ya! Successful Meet-
ings, 51(6), 75.
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chung, J., & Tan, F. (2004). Antecedents of perceived
playfulness: An exploratory study on user acceptance
of general information-searching websites. Informa-
tion & Management, 41(7), 869–881. doi:10.1016/j.
im.2003.08.016
Colligan, T. (2006). Philip Rosedale. Esquire (New
York, N.Y.), 146(6), 223–224.
Crush, P. (2008). Virtual worlds- Virtually speaking.
Human Resources. Retrieved May 1, 2010, from
http://www.hrmagazine.co.uk/news/search/864791/
E-learning-Virtual-worlds---Virtually-speaking/
Damer, B. (2008). Meeting in the ether: A brief his-
tory of virtual worlds as a medium for user-created
events. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 1(1).
Davis, F., Bagozzi, R., & Warshaw, P. (1989). User
acceptance of computer technology: A comparison of
two theoretical models. Management Science, 35(8),
982–1003. doi:10.1287/mnsc.35.8.982
Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived
ease of use, and user acceptance of information tech-
nology. Management Information Systems Quarterly,
13(3), 319–340. doi:10.2307/249008
Davis, F. D. (1993). User acceptance of information
technology: System characteristics, user perceptions
and behavioral impacts. International Journal of
Man-Machine Studies, 38(3), 475–487. doi:10.1006/
imms.1993.1022
Devaney, P. (2008). Digital domains- A second com-
ing for virtual worlds. PR Week, 24.
Driver, E., & Driver, S. (2010). The enterprise im-
mersive software decision-making guide. ThinkBalm
immersive internet analyst report series, issue 4.
ThinkBalm. Retrieved June 6, 2012, from http://
www.thinkbalm.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/
ThinkBalm-Decision-Making-Guide-Jan-19-2010-
FINAL.pdf
Ferran, C., & Watts, S. (2008). Videoconferencing
in the field: A heuristic processing model. Man-
agement Science, 54(9), 1565–1578. doi:10.1287/
mnsc.1080.0879
Gartner. (2007). Gartner says companies must em-
brace new technologies as additional opportunities
to innovate: Gartner special report examines how
consumerization will further impact enterprises
during the next decade. BusinessWire.
Goldenberg, B. (2007). The rise of the digital client.
Customer Relationship Management, 11(8), 12.
62 International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012
Greenfield, D. (2008). IBM and Linden partner
on enterprise-class Second Life. ZDNet. Retrieved
February 1, 2010, from http://blogs.zdnet.com/
Greenfield/?p=213
Hof, R. (2006). It’s not all fun and games: Virtual
worlds abound in useful business applications. Busi-
nessWeek, 3982, 76.
Hsu, C., & Lu, H. (2007). Consumer behavior in
online game communities: A motivational factor
perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(3),
1642–1659. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.09.001
IBM. (2009). Made in IBM Labs: Secure 3D meeting
service now available with Lotus Sametime. Retrieved
June 11, 2012, from http://www-03.ibm.com/press/
us/en/pressrelease/27831.wss
Kirkpatrick, D. (2006, November 10). No, Second
Life is not overhyped. Fortune. Retrieved February 7,
2010, from http://money.cnn.com/2006/11/09/tech-
nology/fastforward_secondlife.fortune/index.htm
Kitchen, P. (2007). Change @ work: Doing business
in Second Life. Newsday, p. F04.
Knuteson, S. (2008). MyBase offers Air Force per-
spective in virtual worlds. Air Education and Training
Command. Retrieved May 20, 2010, from http://
www.aetc.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123126415
Korolov, M. (2010). Second Life discontinues
enterprise platform. Hypergrid Business. Retrieved
February 1, 2011, from, http://www.hypergrid-
business.com/2010/08/second-life-discontinues-
enterprise-platform/
Korolov, M. (2011). Teleplace gone; 3D ICC steps
in to help customers. Hypergrid Business. Retrieved
June 6, 2012, from http://www.hypergridbusiness.
com/2011/12/teleplace-gone-3d-icc-steps-in-to-
help-customers/
KZero. (2009). Active VW user forecast: 2009-2013.
Retrieved May 20, 2010, from http://www.kzero.
co.uk/blog/?p=3836
Lederer, A., Maupin, D., Sena, M., & Zhuang, Y.
(2000). The technology acceptance model and the
World Wide Web. Decision Support Systems, 29(3),
269–282. doi:10.1016/S0167-9236(00)00076-2
Linden Lab. (2009a). Case study IBM: How meeting
in Second Life transformed IBM’s technology elite
into virtual world believers. Retrieved February 10,
2010, from http://secondlifegrid.net.s3.amazonaws.
com/docs/Second_Life_Case_IBM_EN.pdf
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Linden Lab. (2009b). Intel saves budget and goes
green with a virtual world conference: Rivers Run
Red’s Immersive Workspaces™ in Second Life.
Retrieved May 28, 2010, from http://secondlifegrid.
net.s3.amazonaws.com/docs/Second_Life_Case_In-
tel_EN.pdf
Linden Lab. (2010). Second Life work/FAQs. Re-
trieved June 6, 2012, from http://wiki.secondlife.
com/wiki/Second_Life_Work/FAQs
Linden Lab. (2011). The Second Life economy
in Q3 2011. Retrieved June 8, 2012, from http://
community.secondlife.com/t5/Featured-News/The-
Second-Life-Economy-in-Q3-2011/ba-p/1166705
Linden Lab. (2012). Destination guide>business.
Retrieved June 6, 2012, from http://secondlife.com/
destinations/business/
Lohr, S. (2008, April 7). Second Life for corporations.
The New York Times, p. C6. Retrieved May 20, 2010,
from http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?re
s=9B06E3DE1F3FF934A35757C0A96E9C8B63.
Malhotra, Y. (1998, July/August). Deciphering the
knowledge management hype. Journal for Quality
and Participation, 21(4), 58–60.
McConnon, A., & Jana, R. (2007, June 11). Beyond
Second Life: Companies thinking twice about the
popular virtual world are finding more security and
flexibility in alternatives. BusinessWeek, 4038, 24.
Moon, J., & Kim, Y. (2001). Extending the TAM
for a World-Wide-Web context. Information &
Management, 38(4), 217–230. doi:10.1016/S0378-
7206(00)00061-6
Nino, T. (2008). Second Life charts. Retrieved May
20, 2010, from http://dwellonit.taterunino.net/sl-
statistical-charts/
Ondrejka, C. (2004). A piece of place: Model-
ing the digital on the real in Second Life. Design
Computing and Cognitions, 4, 1-11. Retrieved May
20, 2010, from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract_id=555883
Owens, D., Davis, A., Murphy, J., Khazanchi, D.,
& Zigurs, I. (2009). Real-world opportunities for
virtual-world project management. IT Professional
Magazine, 11(2), 34–41. doi:10.1109/MITP.2009.35
Panteli, N., & Dawson, P. (2001). Video conferencing
meetings: Changing patterns of business communica-
tion. New Technology, Work and Employment, 16(2),
88–99. doi:10.1111/1468-005X.00079
International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012 63
Pearlman, D. M., & Gates, N. A. (2010). Hosting
business meetings and special events in virtual
worlds; A fad or the future? Journal of Convention
& Event Tourism, 11(4), 247–265. doi:10.1080/154
70148.2010.530535
ProtonMedia. (2010). What we do. Retrieved
February 18, 2010, from http://protonmedia.com/
what-we-do/
ProtonMedia. (2012, January 26). ProtonMedia
introduces ProtoSphere 2.0: the immersive, social,
learning & collaborative software for the enterprise.
Retrieved June 8, 2012, from http://www.proton-
media.com/2012/01/26/protonmedia-introduces-
protosphere-2-0-the-immersive-social-learning-
collaboration-software-for-the-enterprise/
Rittenberry, R. (2008, September 1). Virtual pre-
paredness: If your real-life emergency training is
a logistical nightmare, consider Second Life. Oc-
cupational Health & Safety. Retrieved February 20,
2010, from http://ohsonline.com/Articles/2008/09/
Virtual-Preparedness.aspx
Roberts, L. P. (2004). The history of video confer-
encing - moving ahead at the speed of video. Re-
trieved February 18, 2010, from http://ezinearticles.
com/?The-History-of-Video-conferencing-Moving-
Ahead-at-the-speed-of-video&id=5369
Rose, F. (2007, July 24). How Madison Avenue is
wasting millions on a deserted Second Life. Wired.
com. Retrieved December 8, 2009, from http://www.
wired.com/techbiz/media/magazine/15-08/ff_sheep
Rosmarin, R. (2007, August 11). Virtual fun and
games. Forbes. Retrieved February 7, 2010, from
http://www.forbes.com/technology/2007/11/08/
virtual-world-games-technology-cx_rr_1108world.
html
Salomon-Lee, C. (2011). Unisfair study: Marketers
embrace virtual and hybrid events. Virtual Edge
Institute. Retrieved June 6, 2012, from http://www.
virtualedgeinstitute.com/2011/05/unisfair-study-
marketers-embrace-virtual-and-hybrid-events/
Sarker, S., Valacich, J., & Sarker, S. (2005). Tech-
nology adoption by groups: A valence perspective.
Journal of the Association for Information Systems,
6(2), 37–71.
Semuels, A. (2007, July 14). Virtual marketers
have second thoughts about Second Life. Los An-
geles Times, p. C1. Retrieved May 20, 2010, from
http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jul/14/business/
fi-secondlife14
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Shen, J., & Eder, L. (2009). Exploring intentions to
use virtual worlds for business. Journal of Electronic
Commerce Research, 10(2), 94–103.
Shepherd, T. (2012). Second Life grid survey–eco-
nomic metrics. Retrieved June 6, 2012, from http://
gridsurvey.com/economy.php
Shirky, C. (2006, December 12). Second Life: A story
too good to check. Gawker. Retrieved February 1,
2010, from http://valleywag.com/tech/second-life/a-
story-too-good-to-check-221252.php
Stafford, P. (2008, December 31). Pushing telepres-
ence technology into the boardroom. Financial Times
(London), p. 16.
Steuer, J. S. (1992). Defining virtual real-
ity: Dimensions determining telepresence.
The Journal of Communication, 42(4), 73–93.
doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992.tb00812.x
Stuhlmacher, A. F., & Citera, M. (2005). Hostile
behavior and profit in virtual negotiation: a meta-
analysis. Journal of Business and Psychology, 20(1),
69–93. doi:10.1007/s10869-005-6984-y
Teo, T., Lim, V., & Lai, R. (1999). Intrinsic and ex-
trinsic motivation in Internet usage. Omega, 27(1),
25–37. doi:10.1016/S0305-0483(98)00028-0
Thompson, C. (2010, April 22). Air Force to give
recruits a virtual world avatar. Dusan Writer’s
Metaverse. Retrieved May 20, 2010, from http://
dusanwriter.com/index.php/2010/04/22/air-force-
to-give-recruits-a-virtual-world-avatars/
Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. (1996). A model of the
antecedents of perceived ease of use: Develop-
ment and test. Decision Sciences, 27(3), 451–481.
doi:10.1111/j.1540-5915.1996.tb01822.x
Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. (2000). A theoretical
extension of the technology acceptance model: Four
longitudinal field studies. Management Science,
46(2), 186–204. doi:10.1287/mnsc.46.2.186.11926
Wallace, M. (2006, April). My second life as a
muckraker. Wired, 14(4). Retrieved February 7, 2010,
from http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.04/
second.html
Wetzler, C. M. (2007). Exploring the vast busi-
ness potential of the metaverse. The New York
Times, p. 6, 14WE. Retrieved May 20, 2010, from
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/16/nyregion/
nyregionspecial2/16peoplewe.html
Winfield, L. (2004). Web conferencing made simple.
Communication News, 41(6), 14–16.
 64 International Journal of Strategic Information Technology and Applications, 3(4), 48-64, October-December 2012

Worldwide, T. M. P. (2007a). TMP hosts network Worldwide, T. M. P. (2007c). TMP hosts another
in world: First of its kind job fair on SecondLife. work in world job fair on Second Life, August 21-23.
Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.tmp. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.tmp.
com/articles/article_00090.html com/articles/article_00099.html
Worldwide, T. M. P. (2007b). TMP concludes suc-
cessful network in world job fair on Second Life.
Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.tmp.
com/articles/article_00094.html

Arhlene A. Flowers is an Associate Professor of Integrated Marketing Communications in the

Department of Strategic Communication at the Roy H. Park School of Communications, Ithaca
College, NY. Her research encompasses virtual worlds, interactive marketing, visual literacy,
social media application in crisis communications, and marketing to children. Prior to join-
ing Ithaca College in 2006, she held senior management positions at public relations agencies
headquartered in New York City and also headed public relations worldwide for a publicly held
company in Toronto. She had represented a wide range of public and private companies, govern-
ment organizations, and nonprofits on all continents except for Antarctica. Born in Hawaii and
raised in New York, Arhlene holds a Bachelor of Arts from New York University and a Master
of Professional Studies from the New School.

Kimberly Gregson served as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Television-Radio at the

Roy H. Park School of Communications, Ithaca College, NY, specializing in game design and
research methods from 2002 to 2010. Her publications on virtual worlds, Web sites, and online
communication have appeared in book collections and academic journals. She also has conducted
classes, events, and research in Second Life. She is currently conducting research on training,
political stabilization, and social media for the British Ministry of Defense with colleagues at the
Change Institute in London, UK. She received her PhD in Mass Communication from Indiana
University and an MS in Information Science from Indiana University-Bloomington, and a BA
from the University of Missouri-Columbia.

Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

View publication stats