QUI TROVI LE DOMANDE CHE FANNO PIÙ FREQUENTEMENTE.

HO FATTO TUTTE LE RISPOSTE

IN UN PAIO DI GIORNO QUINDI TROVERAI UN PO’ DI ERRORI GRAMMATICALI E ALCUNE
INESATTEZZE. PRENDI UN PO’ CON LE PINZE MA CMQ BUONO PER RINFRESCARE. IN FONDO CI
SONO ANCHE DELLE DOMANDE DEL 42 E DEL 73!
Þ ZFW: Zero Fuel Weight: It’s the Basic Empty mass + Variable Load + Traffic Load = Dry
operating mass + Traffic Load. It’s important for the strength of the spars. In fixed-wing
aircraft, fuel is usually carried in the wings. Weight in the wings does not contribute as
significantly to the bending moment in the wing as does weight in the fuselage. This is because
the lift on the wings and the weight of the fuselage bend the wing tips upwards and the wing
roots downwards; but the weight of the wings, including the weight of fuel in the wings, bend
the wing tips downwards, providing relief to the bending effect on the wing.
As long as zero fuel weight is not exceeded, the weight of the aircraft is distributed evenly
enough along the lateral axis so that the rotational stress generated at the spar attach points is
maintained within limits. Once zero fuel weight is exceeded, the wing produces torque around
its center of gravity, increasing the rotational force at the spar attach point beyond the design
limit. Note that these forces are magnified as the gust factor is increased.

Þ Basic Empty Mass (Basic Mass): It is the mass of an aeroplane plus standard items such as:
unusable fuel and other unusable fluids; lubricating oil in engine and auxiliary units; fire
extinguishers; pyrotechnics; emergency oxygen equipment; supplementary electronic
equipment.
Þ Variable Load: It consists of the crew, their baggage and any removable equipment that is
required for that flight, for instance catering and passenger service equipment food and
beverages, potable water and lavatory chemicals. It is also referred to as "operational items".

Þ How to calculate fuel for a trip: The ramp fuel must include:
- Taxi fuel, including APU usage fuel
- Trip fuel (includes T/O, Cruise to destination and Landing fuel)
- Contingency Fuel for weather or re-routing (5% of trip or 5’ holding at 1500ft above
alternate)
- Alternate (missed approach at destination and cruise to alternate airport)
- Final Reserve (30’ at 1500ft overhead alternate for jet)
(45’ at maximum endurance for piston)
- Extra
Þ What is contingency fuel?
Contingency fuel is a quantity of fuel that is calculated prior to take off and must be on board
at the beginning of the taxi that is used in case of unforeseen events during flight. Can be used
for a deviation in flight, rerouting, cope with a delay or bad weather conditions.
Þ What is final reserve fuel?
The final reserve fuel is a quantity of fuel, depending on the type of route you follow and the
aircraft you fly, that must be on board from takeoff to landing.
If we are using this reserve in flight we must declare emergency because we are running out of
fuel and we need priority to landing. This part of fuel can be used only in case of a very
complicate situation.
It can be never planned to be used.
Þ What is the Centre of gravity and why is it important?
 The CG is the point through the weight of an aircraft acts. The CG of an aircraft must remain
within certain forward and aft limits, for reasons of both stability and control.
It’s the point that follows the flight path and where the three axis of the aircraft pass through.
Þ Forward CG: Creates a nose down pitching moment> tail down force must be increased> more
weight and more drag
Increases: Stability and stick forces, Drag, Vs, Vr, Fuel Consump.,
Decrease: Maneuverability, Range and Climb Grad
Aft CG is the opposite.

Þ Why do we have loadsheet?

1. An aircraft filled with passengers, baggage, cargo and fuel could be too heavy for the
engines to lift it off the ground.

2. The balance of the aircraft is crucial, and the location of the passengers, baggage, cargo
and fuel will affect the aircraft cg and trim.

3. The undercarriage can only support a certain amount of weight on landing.

4. Loading too much weight into a particular part of the aircraft could cause damage to the
structure. Whilst this might not be evident straight away it could over a period of time
shorten the working life of the aircraft.

5. Have a written documents.

Þ How to calculate wind components? Wind can be separated into two vector components:
-The headwind or tailwind component in the direction of motion,
-The crosswind component perpendicular to the former.
The headwind component is computed by multiplying the wind speed to the cosine of the angle
between the wind and the direction of travel.
The crosswind component is computed by multiplying the wind speed to the sine of the angle
between the wind and the direction of travel.

HEADWIND CROSSWIND
Cos30= 0.86 Sin30 = 0.5
Cos45= 0.71 Sin45= 0.71
Cos60= 0.5 Sin60= 0.86

A quick way to calculate crosswind is multiply total wind to X/60,

with X= angle between the wind and the direction of travel.

if angle = 10 deg then crosswind component = 1/6 wind strength

if angle = 20 deg then crosswind component = 1/3 wind strength
if angle = 30 deg then crosswind component = 1/2 wind strength
if angle = 40 deg then crosswind component = 2/3 wind strength
if angle = 50 deg then crosswind component = 5/6 wind strength
if angle = 60+ deg then crosswind component = wind strength

Þ Do we have gravity in space? Moon? Sun? Space has microgravity, because it is affected
always by a small gravitation force. Iss still has 90% of gravity. Sun has gravity and in facts we
rotate around it. Moon has gravity, 16% of the earth’s (earth’s is 9.81m/s2)

Þ The POINT OF SAFE RETURN (PSR), previously referred to as the POINT OF NO RETURN (PNR),
is the furthest point along a planned route to which an aircraft can fly and return to the
departure airfield, or departure alternate, with the safe endurance on the aircraft.

Time to PSR: (Endurance * GS home) / (Gs Out + Gs Home)

Distance to PSR = GS Out x Time to PSR

SAFE ENDURANCE is the length of time an aircraft can fly without consuming the
mandatory reserves of fuel that are required overhead its departure airfield, or departure
alternate, in the event of the aircraft returning from the PSR.

Þ The Point of Equal Time or Critical point: Point from which time to dest or back to departure is
the same.

Dist to PET: (Dist Tot * Gs Home ) / ( Gs Out + Gs Home)

Time to Pet: Dist to PET/ Gs Out

Þ Critical AoA: Lift coefficient increases with angle of attack up to a maximum (CLMAX), which
corresponds to the “Critical” angle of attack. Continuing to increase the angle of attack beyond
this point makes it impossible for the airflow to maintain its previous smooth flow over the
contour of the upper surface, and lift will reduce. This phenomena is called stall. If the angle of
attack is increased up to or beyond the critical angle, an aeroplane can be stalled at any
airspeed or flight attitude. A typical stalling angle is about 16°.
The angle of attack for CLMAX is constant for a type of configuration. The higher the trailing
edge flap the lower the AoA. The Crit AoA will not change with weight. What changes is the
speed at which I will stall. To recover from a stall or prevent a full stall, the angle of attack
must be decreased first.

Þ Load Factor: In aeronautics, the load factor is the ratio of the lift of an aircraft to its weight and
represents a global measure of the stress ("load") to which the structure of the aircraft is
subjected:

n = L /W where: n= Load factor, L = Lift, W = Weight

In straight and level flight, lift (L) equals weight (W). In a banked turn of 60°, lift equals double
the weight (L = 2W). The pilot experiences 2 g and a doubled weight. The steeper the bank, the
greater the g-forces. F
 Formula for Load Fact in a turn: 1/cos(bank angle)

Þ What is wing loading? (¹ load factor) In aerodynamics, wing loading is the total weight of an
aircraft divided by the area of its wing. The stalling speed of an aircraft in straight, level flight is
partly determined by its wing loading. An aircraft with a low wing loading has a larger wing
area relative to its mass, as compared to an aircraft with a high wing loading. Therefore we can
change it by reducing the mass or increasing the wing area.

Þ What is an FMS and FMC? (flight management system) The FMS is an on-board multi-purpose
navigation, performance and aircraft operations which includes:
FMC, Automatic Flight Control, Navigation system, EFIS.
The FMC is a computer system that uses a large database to allow routes to be programmed
and fed into the system. (navigation by GPS and IRS)

Þ What is the CP? The whole surface of the aerofoil contributes to lift, but the point along the
chord where the distributed lift is effectively concentrated is termed the Centre of Pressure

Þ Camber is defined as the convexity of the curve of an aerofoil from the leading edge to the
trailing edge. Production of lift is dependent primarily on airspeed, angle of attack and aerofoil
design. A fundamental component of aerofoil design is the camber which will vary with the
intended speed and purpose of the aerofoil. The upper surface of the aerofoil will always have
a positive camber while the lower surface may have a positive (convex), zero (flat) or negative
(concave) camber as appropriate for the intended use. An aerofoil in which the camber of the
upper and lower surfaces are the same is referred to as symmetrical and is most often found in
aerobatic aircraft intended for inverted flight
With a positive camber, at zero AoA I have already Lift. With symmetrical, at zero AoA there is
zero Lift. A negative camber at zero AoA produces negative Lift.

Þ What are the 4 forces acting on an airplane? When an aeroplane is moving there are four main
forces acting upon it:

WEIGHT, LIFT, THRUST and DRAG.

Weight is a function of mass and gravity (F=m*a) and always point to the centre of the earth. To
generate a lift force, the aeroplane must be propelled forward through the air by a force called
THRUST, provided by the engine(s).
These force are all closely interrelated, i.e.: The greater the weight - the greater the lift
requirement. The greater the lift - the greater the drag. . The greater the drag - the greater the
thrust required, and so on ..

Þ Vortex generators, are rows of small, thin aerofoil shaped blades which project vertically
(about 2.5 cm) into the airstream. They each generate a small vortex which causes the free
stream flow of high energy air to mix with and add kinetic energy to the boundary layer. This
re-energizes the boundary layer and tends to delay separation.

Þ Drag: opposite to relative wind. Is divided in Induced and parasite

 -Parasite Drag: ( skin friction, form drag, interference drag). Parasite drag has the same
formula has lift but instead of Cl there is Cd. This drag increases with speed.
-Induced Drag: At the tips the particles in lower part of the wing tend to go on the upper side
where there is a higher depression. This creates vortices which produce more drag. The
coefficient of induced drag is calculated : Cl^2/pi*Aspect Ratio. Aspect ratio is LENGTH/Wing
chord. Therefore the higher the A.R. (gliders) the less the induced drag. The higher the speed,
less Cl needed, less induced drag. Higher weight, higher AoA, higher Induced drag. Winglets
prevents Induced Drag.
Þ Winglets: These are vertical aerofoils attached at the wing tip. Winglets partly block the air
flowing from the bottom to the top surface of the wing, reducing the strength of the tip
vortex. In addition, the small vortex generated by the winglet interacts with and further
reduces the strength of the main wing tip vortex. Winglets imprive aircraft efficiency by 6%.
Good for marketing too.
Þ What is Dutch roll? The Dutch Roll is a combination of rolling and yawing oscillations that
normally occurs when the dihedral effects of an aircraft are more powerful than the
directional stability. When the wing raises, due to dihedral effect, the directional stability will
make the aircraft yaw to the opposite side. This causes another lateral stab. Dihedral, and so
on. Dihedral and swept back wings increase the dutch roll tendencies. That’s way there is also
anhedral. To overcome this problems a/c, are equipped with a yaw damper.
Þ Explain manoeuvring speed
This is the highest speed at which full flight controls deflection can be made without exceeding
the limit load factor. Up to this speed, if the load factor is exceeded the aircraft will stall before
sustaining any structural damage. Otherwise at speeds above Va high load factors could lead
to a structural damage. Va varies with aircraft’s weight.
Þ Why do we fly at mach numbers? Maximum Operating Speed (Large Aircraft) VMO / MMO :
VMO is a speed that may not be deliberately exceeded in any regime of flight (climb, cruise or
descent). VMO must not be greater than VC and must be sufficiently below VD to make it
highly improbable that VD will be inadvertently exceeded in operations.. Because VMO is an
Indicated Airspeed, as altitude increases the Mach number corresponding to VMO will
increase. There will be additional limitations on the aircraft because of compressibility effects.
Mmo must be lower than Mcrit, and MMo is in fact used for the coffin corner calculations. In a
climb VMO will be exceded by MMO (maximum operating Mach number) at about 24 000 to
29 000 ft, depending on atmospheric conditions.
If you exceed MMO, there is first a safety margin, then Much Tuck and possibly a structural
damage.

Þ Vc: This is a speed selected by the designer and used to assess the strength requirements in the
cruise.

Þ Vd: This is the maximum speed which has to be considered when assessing the strength of the
aircraft. It is based on the principle of an upset occurring when the aircraft is flying at VC,
resulting in a shallow dive.
Þ Stall IAS : The CL of an aerofoil increases with angle of attack up to a maximum (CLMAX ). Any
further increase above this stalling angle, or critical angle of attack, will make it impossible for
the airflow to smoothly follow the upper wing contour, and the flow will separate from the
surface, causing CL to decrease and drag to increase rapidly. Stall speed increases with altitude
because at low speed CLMAX is fairly constant, but above M 0.4 CLMAX decreases. It also
increases with weight and load factor.
Þ Why a/c fly at high altitudes?
They work better at high altitude because the air is cooler, cool air expands more when heated
than warm air, it is the expansion of the air that drives the combustion engines.
The plane gets a much higher true air speed (TAS) than it would at a lower level.
Also because of higher currents of wind.
Higher altitudes mean less thrust for the plane because the air is thinner yet a high
compression ratio and thermal efficiency can be maintained.
Þ Compression Ratio is the Output press/input press.

Þ What does limit the altitude? Aerodynamic ceiling, service ceiling and pressurization.
Þ Coffin Corner: It has been stated that an altitude can eventually be reached where there is
only one speed at which the aircraft can fly. The coffin corner is where low stall speed and
Mcrit encounter, In the case of a 1g maneuvers, this altitude is called the ‘Aerodynamic Ceiling
or coffin corner’. Operating an aircraft at its aerodynamic ceiling would leave no safety margin.
In 1g flight the aircraft would be constantly on the point of stall. It could not be maneuvered
nor experience the smallest gust without stalling. Regulations require an aircraft to be
operated with a minimum buffet margin of 0.3g. The higher weight, higher G-laod and a more
forward CG position will all lower the aerodynamic ceiling because they increase the Vs stall
IAS and decrease Mm0/Mcrit. To improve Coffing corner> swept wings and area rule.
Þ What is Area Rule? To increase Mcrit. At high-subsonic flight speeds, the local speed of the
airflow can reach the speed of sound where the flow accelerates around the aircraft body and
wings. The speed at which this development occurs varies from aircraft to aircraft and is
known as the critical mach number. The resulting shock waves formed at these points of sonic
flow can result in a sudden increase in drag, called wave drag. To reduce the number and
power of these shock waves, an aerodynamic shape should change in cross sectional area as
smoothly as possible. The area rule says that two airplanes with the same longitudinal cross-
sectional area distribution have the same wave drag, independent of how the area is
distributed laterally (i.e. in the fuselage or in the wing). Furthermore, to avoid the formation of
strong shock waves, this total area distribution must be smooth. As a result, aircraft have to be
carefully arranged so that at the location of the wing, the fuselage is narrowed or "waisted", so
that the total area does not change much.
Þ What is the formula of Lift? ½ rho V^2 CL S( S=Wing Area)
Þ Raked wingtips: where the tip has a greater wing sweep than the rest of the wing, are
featured on some to improve fuel efficiency, takeoff and climb performance. Like winglets,
they increase the effective wing aspect ratio and diminish wingtip vortices, decreasing lift-
induced drag. It’s the difference between 767-200 and 767-400.
Þ Swept wings – Why is important to prevent stall at the root of a swept back wing? Why do
aircraft have swept back wings? Where does a swept wing stall first and what can we do about
it?
The swept back wing is a wing with an angle between the quarter (25%) chord line of the wing
and the lateral axis of the plane. A swept wing is fitted to allow a higher maximum speed.
Because the swept wing \has the free stream velocity broken down to a component of velocity
perpendicular to the leading edge and a component parallel to the leading edge. The
component of velocity perpendicular to the leading edge is less than the free stream velocity
(by the cosine of the sweep angle) and it is this velocity component which determines the
magnitude of the pressure distribution. MCRIT will increase since the velocity component
affecting the pressure distribution is less than the free stream velocity.
 The downside of the swept wing is that it has an increased tendency to stall first near the tips
due to the induced spanwise flow of the boundary layer from root to tip. This perpendicular
component toward the tip slows the flow and added to the friction, it makes the tips stall first.
Loss of lift at the tips moves the CP forward, giving a nose-up pitching moment. This is because
the balance arm of the LIFT, which acts on the CP, moves forward> the moment of the upward
LIFT, which is behind the CG, is less> it creates a nose up moment. This Pitch up situation is
also worsen by the flow coming out from the wings, which with a tip stall is not away from the
tips anymore but from the inner side (more toward the fuselage). This flow creates maximum
downwash on the tailplane which increases its downward force and thus increasing the pitch
up moment of the plane. The AoA of the stalled wing increase at maximum and since the
tailplane is subject to a more turbulent flow of air, its efficiency is lowered and it’s going to be
harder for the pilot to recover from the stall. To prevent the tip stall there are:
-wingfences, thin metal fences which generally extend from the leading edge to the
trailing edge on the top surface and are intended to prevent outward drift of the
boundary layer.
–Vortilons,fences on the lower side and only at the leading edge. The same effect is
also given by engine pods.
- Saw tooth which will generate a strong vortex over the wing upper surface at high
angles of attack, minimizing spanwise flow of the boundary layer.
-Another method for improving the stall pattern is by forcing a stall to occur from the
root. An aerofoil section with a smaller leading edge radius at the root would promote
airflow separation at a lower angle of attack but decrease overall wing efficiency. The
same result can be accomplished by attaching stall strips to the wing leading edge.
-also wing twist

Another characteristic of sweepback is the reduced lift curve slope

and therefore reduced CLMAX . This gives a higher stall speed and
increased take-off and landing distances. Aircraft with swept wings
need therefore high lift devices, the least effective used at the root in
order to prevent tip stall. But is has also an advantage since any
reduction of lift curve slope makes the wing less sensitive to changes
in angle of attack due to a gust or turbulence. Since the swept wing
has the lower lift curve slope, a given vertical gust will increase the
CL, and hence the load factor, by a smaller amount than would occur if the wing were straight.
Mack tuck is a condition that can occur when operating a swept-wing airplane in the transonic speed
range. A shock wave could form in the root portion of the wing and cause the air behind it to
separate. This wave is caused by the supersonic flow which decelerates to subsonic, due to
divergent wing profile. This shock-induced separation causes the center of pressure to move aft.
This, combined with the increasing amount of nose down force at higher speeds to maintain left
flight, causes the nose to “tuck.” If not corrected, the airplane could enter a steep, sometimes
unrecoverable dive. A Mach trim is fitted which deflects the elevator up or moves the CG rearwards
by moving the fuel.
Swept wings make a significant little contribution to directional stability and high contribution to
lateral stability, because when the a/c has a yaw to the left, the left wing has a bigger swept than
the right. More lift on the right wing, and more induced drag which makes the a/c yaw to the right.
The best wing to stall is straight because stalls at the root giving nose down tendency and aileron
control.
Wings cannot be swept too much because there would be a higher need of thrust.
Þ What is Mach Crit and why do we prefer a high value of it?
Mach number increases with altitude if we climb at a constant IAS, because M=TAS/a
Tas increases with altitude, and “a”, the LSS, decreases with altitude because it is calculated by
38.95*Ö(Temp in Kelvin). Kelvin is C°+273.
Critical Mach number is the speed at which the first particle of air above the aerofoil, due to
Bernoulli’s Theorem (Ptot is constant) becomes M=1. Even if the a/c is flying below Mach 1.
This is the Transonic speed range. If the aircraft now flies even a knot faster that particle is
going to be supersonic and this creates a shock wave. In aircraft not designed for transonic or
supersonic flight, speeds greater than the Critical Mach number will cause the drag coefficient
to increase suddenly causing a dramatic increase in total drag and changes to the airflow over
the flight control surfaces will lead to deterioration in control of the aircraft. In aircraft not
designed to fly at the Critical Mach number, shock waves in the flow over the wing and
tailplane can be sufficient to stall the wing, make control surfaces ineffective, or lead to loss of
control. There is also an effect on the CP which moves creating a down pitching moment (tuck
under). The goal is to make the Mcrit value as high as possible. This is done by:

-making the camber thinner (lower particles speed, but lower CL)

-Lower wing loading (because of lower AoA)

-swept wings

Þ Spoilers: are a device for reducing the lift of an aerofoil by disturbing the airflow over the upper
surface. They assist lateral control by moving up on the side with the up-going aileron. To function
as a lateral control, the spoilers rise on the wing with the up-going aileron (down-going wing),
proportional to aileron input. On the wing with the down-going aileron, they remain flush. Unlike
ailerons, spoilers cannot give an increase of lift, so a roll manoeuvre controlled by spoilers will
always give a net loss of lift. However, the spoiler has several advantages compared to the aileron:

There is no adverse yaw: The raised spoiler increases drag on that wing, so the yaw is in
the same direction as the roll.

Wing twisting is reduced: The aerodynamic force on the spoilers acts further forward than
is the case with ailerons, reducing the moment which tends to twist the wing.
At transonic speed its effectiveness is not reduced by shock induced separation.
It cannot develop flutter.
Spoilers do not occupy the trailing edge, which can then be utilized for flaps.
Þ How would you make an aircraft more aerodynamical: I would reduce induced drag with
winglets and a good aspect ratio, give it a droplet shape as much as possible because this is the
best shape to decrease form drag. Reduce parasite drag given by antennas, rivets (composite is
better for friction).

Þ Spin recovery: A spin is a yaw aggravated stall which results in rotation about the spin axis. In a
normal spin, both wings stall, but the AoA of each wing, and consequently its lift and drag, are
different. To recover remove any power, centralize control wheel and apply opposite rudder.
Do not use aileron because it will end up in a flat spin.
Þ Spin and CG position: An aft CG keeps the aircraft with a higher nose up attitude leading to a
flat spin and also hard recover from it. Therefore is best to have a FWD CG for spinning.
Þ Spiral Dive: A spiral dive is not a spin; it starts, not with a stall or from torque but with a
random, increasing roll and airspeed. Without prompt intervention by the pilot, this can lead
to structural failure of the airframe, either as a result of excess aerodynamic loading or flight
into terrain. The aircraft initially gives little indication that anything has changed. the roll will
increase and the lift, no longer vertical, is insufficient to support the airplane. The nose drops
and speed increases: the spiral dive has begun. To recover remove thrust, level wings, bring
a/c in level flight. Like a nose down Upset Recovery.
Þ Critical Engine: The critical engine is the engine, the failure of which would give the biggest
yawing moment.
One of the factors influencing the yawing moment following engine failure on a multi-engine
aircraft is the length of the thrust arm (distance from the CG to the thrust line of the operating
engine). In the case of a propeller engine aircraft the length of the thrust arm is determined by
the asymmetric effect of the propeller. At a positive angle of attack, the thrust line of a clockwise
rotating propeller, when viewed from the rear, is displaced to the right of the engine centre line.
This is because the down-going blade generates more thrust than the up-going blade. If both
engines rotate clockwise, the starboard (right) engine will have a longer thrust arm than the port
(left) engine. To overcome the disadvantage of having a critical engine on smaller twins, their
engines may be designed to counter-rotate. VMCA is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the
critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane
with that engine still inoperative and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more
than 5°.

VMCA may not exceed 1.13VSR with:

-maximum available take-off power or thrust on the engines.

-the aeroplane trimmed for take-off.
-the most unfavourable CG position (Vmc is greatest when the CG is at the most aft position.
An aft CG shortens the arm to the center of the rudder’s horizontal lift, which means a higher
airspeed would be required to counteract the engine-out yaw. So the aft CG has the highest
Vmc and a forward CG would decrease Vmc.)

Jet aircraft have a critical if there are four or more engine per wing. Or if there is crosswind.
Þ What is the AoA? The angle between the Relative Wind and the Chord
Þ What is the angle of incidence? Angle between longitudinal axis and chord of the wing.
Þ High Lift devices?
The H.L.D. are used to reduce both T/O and LND speeds. To do so CL max must be as high as
possible. The bigger the camber the higher the CL max, but this will also increase to much
the Drag for cruising > changeable profile with the HLD
• The Trailing edge flaps are:
- Plain Flap which are used in light a/c.
- Split Flap, higher L and D than plain (yak52 e DC3)
- Slotted Flap, there is a slot where air flow passes and
reenergizes the airstream. Higher L and lower D than
Split Flap.
- Fowler Flap slides aft and then down. Increases both
camber and wing area> most efficient.
Tr. Edge HLD give higher CLmax but it’s given at a lower
AoA. The critical AoA also decreases. Vs decreases.
Drag increases though and. The increase in drag is
greater than the increase in lift > glide angle increases,
maximum glide distance decreases, climb angle reduces.
• Leading edge flaps:
- Leading Edge Flap/Kruger: lower part of leading edge rotates out in front of the profile. For
any AoA the CL will be increased.
- Slots/Slats: A slat is a small auxiliary aerofoil attached to the leading edge of the wing. When
deployed, the slat forms a slot which allows passage of air from the high pressure region
below the wing to the low pressure region above it. The boundary layer is re-energized. They
increase the critical AoA and the Clmax. Other AoA still have the same CL as if they were
without slats. Slats are more efficient on Vs than Flaps .
- why the Kruger flaps are inboard while the slats are outboard on the wing ? the leading-
edge flap is less effective in delaying a stall than a slat, the inboard section of the wing is
forced to stall first, thus preventing the possibility of a tip stall.

Contrary to the T.HLD the L.HLD increases the Clmax giving the possibility to increase the
AoA> Critical AoA increases. Also the ‘suction’ peak does not move forward, so the effect of
the slot on pitching moment is insignificant.
Þ Geometric Dihedral: The angle between the plane of each wing and the horizontal, when the
aircraft is unbanked and level; positive when the wing lies above the horizontal, Negative
geometric dihedral is used on some aircraft, and is known as anhedral. The principal surface
contributing to the lateral stability of an aeroplane is the wing and the effect of geometric
dihedral is a powerful contribution to lateral stability. If there is a gust from the left, the relative
airflow is now not parallel to the a/c longitudinal axis, but it comes from the right too. This rel.
wind hits the right wing from below which increases its angle of attack and makes the right wing
rise. The left is instead hit from above, lift decreases and the left drops. The a/c is laterally stable.
Diheadral helps aircraft with low wings because it makes more relative airflow hit the lower
part of the lowered wing. High wing aircraft already produce this diheadral effect (high wings
are in fact more stable than low wings a/c). If they are too stable they can be fit with an anhedral
wing.
Þ What is Mach Tuck: As speed increases beyond the Critical Mach number (MCRIT), shock wave
formation at the root of a swept-back wing will: reduce lift forward of the CG, and reduce
downwash at the tailplane. Together, these factors will generate a nose-down pitching moment.
At high Mach numbers, an aircraft will become unstable with respect to speed; instead of an
increasing push force being required as speed increases, a pull force becomes necessary to
prevent the aircraft accelerating further. This is potentially dangerous. A small increase in Mach
number will give a nose-down pitch which will further increase the Mach number. This in turn
leads to a further increase in the nose-down pitching moment. This unfavourable high speed
characteristic, known as “Mach Tuck”, “High Speed Tuck” or “Tuck Under” would restrict the
maximum operating speed of a modern high speed jet transport aircraft.

To maintain the required stick force gradient at high Mach numbers, a Mach trim system must
be fitted. This device, sensitive to Mach number, may:

-deflect the elevator up,

-decrease the incidence of the variable incidence trimming tailplane, or
-move the CG rearwards by transferring fuel from the wings to a rear trim tank.
Þ What is the benefit of rear mounted engines?
- Plane can sit lower, so gear will be shorter (=lighter). This simplifies loading/unloading.
- Simpler wing design.
- Lower risk of FOD because they are higher.
- Lack of noise in the front.
- Smaller fin and rudder due to less yawing moment in engine out situations because they are
closer to the fuselage.
Þ What is the disadvantage of rear mounted engines?
Since tail engines typically lead to a cruciform or a t-tail, there are deep stall concerns.
- Wing mounted engines counteract wing bending.
- Wing mounted engines counteract wing twist if mounted ahead of wing as is the norm today.
- Very high bypass engines with large fans are impractical to mount in the tail.

Þ T.TAIL:
A T-tail is an empennage configuration in which the tailplane is mounted to the top of the fin. The
T-tail differs from the standard configuration in which the tailplane is mounted to the fuselage at
the base of the fin.
Advantages: The tailplane is kept well out of the disturbed airflow behind the wing and fuselage,
giving smoother and faster airflow over the elevators. A T-tailed aircraft is easier to recover from
a spin than aircraft with other types of empennage, as the elevator is located above the rudder,
thus creating no dead air zone ("burble") above the elevator where the rudder would be
ineffective in spin conditions
Disadvantages: The aircraft may be prone to suffering a dangerous deep stall condition, where a
stalled wing at high angles of attack may blank the airflow over the tailplane and elevators,
thereby leading to loss of pitch control. The vertical stabilizer must be made considerably stronger
and stiffer (and therefore heavier) to support the forces generated by the tailplane.
A T-tail in general does not have as good stall recovery characteristics as a conventional tail.
T-tails with engines mounted aft of the fuselage and with clean wings all have greater drag than
conventional tailed planes with engines hung from the wing. They also seem to have much greater
climb rates however.

Þ Dynamic Pressure: Because air has mass, air in motion must possess kinetic energy (1/2 m
V^2), and this will exert a force per square metre on any object in its path, such as an aircraft.
By being brought completely to rest the kinetic energy will become pressure energy which,
for all practical purposes, is equal to:
Dynamic Pressure (N/m^2) = ½ ρ V^2

Dynamic pressure is proportional to the density of the air and the square of the speed of the air
flowing over the aircraft. If speed is doubled, dynamic pressure will be four times greater. The
symbol for dynamic pressure ( ½ ρ _V2 ) is q or Q. Dynamic pressure cannot be measured on its
own because static pressure will always be present. The sum of Dynamic and Static pressure is
known as Total Pressure. Because dynamic pressure is dependent upon air density and the
speed of the aircraft through the air, it is necessary for students to fully appreciate the factors
which affect air density.

Temperature - increasing temperature decreases air density. Changes in air density due to air
temperature are significant during all phases of flight.

Static pressure - decreasing static pressure decreases air density. Changes in air density due to
static pressure are significant during all phases of flight.

Humidity - increasing humidity decreases air density. (The reason increasing humidity
decreases air density is that the density of water vapour is about 5/8 that of dry air). Humidity
is most significant during take-off and landing.

Increasing altitude will decrease air density because the effect of decreasing static pressure is
more dominant than decreasing temperature.

Þ Pitot tube: All aerodynamic forces acting on an aircraft are determined by dynamic pressure, so
it is essential to have some means of measuring dynamic pressure and presenting that
information to the pilot. A sealed tube, open at the forward end, is located where it will collect
air when the aircraft is moving. The pressure in the tube (pitot tube) is Dynamic + Static and, in
 this context, is called “Pitot” pressure (because the air is inside the pitot tube).. A hole (vent) in
a surface parallel to the airflow will sense static pressure. If the pressure from the pitot tube is
fed to one side of a diaphragm mounted in a sealed case, and static pressure is fed to the other
side, the two static pressures will cancel each other and the diaphragm movement will be
influenced only by changes in dynamic pressure. Movement of the diaphragm moves a pointer
over a scale so that changes in dynamic pressure can be observed by the flight crew. But the
instrument is calibrated at ISA sea level density, so the instrument will only give a ‘true’
indication of the speed of the aircraft through the air when the air density is 1.225 kg/m3.

Þ Maximum Ceiling: The maximum ceiling can be limited by different factor: Engines for example
give us an Absolute ceiling, but we can be limited by Aerodynamic or even also structural
limitation due to pressurization.
Þ Absolute Ceiling - Can we fly there? The altitude at which the theoretical rate of climb, with all
engines operating at maximum continuous power, is reduced to zero feet per minute. The RoC
is given by the difference between the Power Available and the Power Required, divided by the
Weight. With increase in altitude, the Power Required increases. Power which is the rate of
doing work, thus, (Force*Dist)/Time)] and for the Power Required is DRAG*SPEED, therefore:
D*TAS. Tas increases with altitude and therefore Power Required increases with altitude. The
power available instead decreases because the Force is now the Thrust, and Thrust decreases,
due to less dense air, at a faster rate than the increase in Tas. Therefore the diff. between the
two powers decreases and the RoC decreases up to 0ft/min which is the absolute ceiling. We
could reach this altitude but we would not have any excess thrust to accelerate or turn.
Þ Service Ceiling The pressure altitude at which the rate of climb is reduced to a specified
minimum value
It gives a margin to the Absolute ceiling
Þ Aerodynamic Ceiling The altitude, in unaccelerated 1g level flight, where the Mach number for
the low speed and high speed buffet are coincident.

Þ What is QNH/QFE/QNE?
QNH, QFE and QNE are three sub scale setting to use when we want to know a determined
height or altitude.
QNH is the pressure at the station to the sea level in standard atmosphere; so, if we set it in
the altimeter we will read, on the ground, airport elevation, and in flight, our altitude. QFF is
the one if we reduce it down to sea level as the actual air conditions.
QFE is the pressure at the airfield, if we set it, on ground we will read zero and, on flight, we
will read our height.
QNE is the standard setting 1013.25HPA that we set after crossing transition altitude to fly in
fly level.
Þ What is the LSS at sea level in ISA conditions?
661 KTS (formula 38.95*rad K)

Þ Supercooled Water Droplets

When talking about super-cooled water droplet, we can define it as any water droplet that has a
temperature at or below 0 °C = the freezing point for water, but are still in liquid condition.
Small supercooled water droplets may be expected in temperatures from 0° to -40°C, . They tend
to freeze instantly when in contact with aircraft structure and create rime ice. Large Supercooled
Water Droplets may be expected in temperatures from 0° to -20°C. They tend to freeze
progressively, because Latent heat is released by the droplet during freezing, which delays the
freezing process. The unfreezed water will flow back and freeze creating clear ice

In fact, for each 1°C bellow 0°C, 1/80 of the droplet freezes at impact over an airfoil. For example,
if temperature is -20°C, 1/4 will freeze instantly, while the rest of the droplet will flow back and
freeze progressively.

Between 0 °C and -20 °C: we can typically find both the LARGE and the SMALL super-cooled water
droplets in the clouds, depending on the cloud type.

Between -20 °C and -40 °C: typically only the SMALL water droplets may be present in the cloud as
the large ones tend to freeze below -20 °C.
Below -40 °C: no water droplets present - only ice crystals.

Þ How do super cooled water droplets form?

Supercooled water exists because it lacks the ability to complete the nucleation process- there is
no “condensation or freezing nuclei” to freeze on..
This is because the water molecules in a pure and uncontaminated "water drop" are oriented so
that they counteract the structure needed for an ice crystal to form. However, if a "freezing
nuclei" - such as a particle of dust, ice crystals, or in fact any other external force (such as an
aircraft flying through the cloud) becomes present, it will affect the water droplet and it may
freeze almost at once - instantaneously, depending on its size:
LARGE super-cooled water droplets do not freeze immediately, as opposed to the SMALL super-
cooled water droplets that do freeze immediately once a freezing nuclei becomes present (in our
case the aircraft structure).

Þ What is the DALR and SALR ?

Both are rate of temperature decrease (lapse rates) of a parcel of air when it lifts. DALR relates to
dry air lapse rate (3°/1000 ft) , SALR relates to saturated air lapse rate (1,8°/1000 ft at mid
latitudes). Adiabatic means without exchange of heat or pressure.
When we talk about SALR (saturated adiabatic lapse rate) and DALR (dry adiabatic lapse rate) we
are talking about vertical movement of the air, i.e. convection.
If we warm a particle of air, it will expand and have lesser density and weight than the surrounding
air, so it will rise. It will behave without exchange of heat with surrounding air, and we define this
process adiabatic (imagine the particle of air as if it would be an air baloon). When the particle
moves to a lower level of atmosferic pressure it will expand, and since there is no energy coming
in and out it will cool. We can measure how much the particle will cool if it’s dry or saturated.
A dry air particle is a particle that is less than saturated: it will cool 3°/1000 ft (DALR), and,
depending on the stability of the air (defined by the actual ELR), it will stop (matching the
surrounding temperature) or continue to rise and eventually become saturated.
Note that this sequence can also take the reverse order, where an air mass sinks.
The air becomes saturated when its temperature reaches the dew point temperature.
Condensation starts (and cumulus or -generically- clouds can be seen) and there is an additional
factor: latent heat.
SALR is lower than DALR because as the air mass condenses, it releases latent heat which is added
into the system. SALR varies with the rate of latent heat released, which in turn depends on the
total amount of water present at saturation.

Þ How do tropical storms form?

TRS are thermal depressions that develop over the warm tropical oceans (5° and 25° of latitude) in
zone of low pressure zones where trade winds converge and have sustained wind speeds in excess
of 33 kt, they are designated tropical cyclones when the sustained wind speed exceeds 63 kt ( In the
western Pacific they are called typhoons, and in the southern hemisphere they are called cyclones).
The key factors are: 1) warm ocean water (26° C- 27°C) causing a layer of warm water of 70 meters
thick (over 25° north the sea is too cold). This is a good source of latent heat; 2) Coriolis force that
causes a circular movement of air (less coriolis effect under 5° latitude - no TRS); 3) low level
disturbance: intense heat causes a lot of thunderstorm in the area, favoured by the unstable air in
the subtropical zone. various low pressure centers of small size form im the area. These
thunderstorms merge and create an intense low pressure system (wind is warm and lighter). 4), the
temperature difference between air masses: the warm and humid air over a warm sea and the
converging cooler trade winds, forms a lot of instability.

The tropical cyclones have a thermal origin, and they develop over tropical seas during late summers
(August to mid-November).

The warm air over the sea rises moved by a cooler air around. The condensation process releases a
lot of latent heat (that is the power of the TRS- more latent heat more air rise and violent
thunderstorms), that gives acceleration to the particles due to the SALR. The warm air rises, causing
an area of lower air pressure below.

Air from surrounding areas with higher air pressure pushes into the low pressure area, refilling the
area with moisture. Then that "new" air becomes warm and rises, too, being “sucked” at a faster
rate. As the warm air continues to rise, the surrounding air swirls in to take its place. As the
warmed, moist air rises and cools off, the water in the air forms clouds. The whole system of
clouds and wind spins and grows, fed by the ocean's heat and water evaporating from the surface.
Storms that form north of the equator spin counterclockwise. Storms south of the equator spin
clockwise. This difference is because of Earth's rotation on its axis, causing the coriolis effect

As the storm system rotates faster and faster, an eye forms in the center. It is very calm and clear
in the eye, with very low air pressure. Higher pressure air from above flows down into the eye.
Þ Where would you find hurricanes? In the caribbean (Atlantic and Eastern-Pacific)
Þ Where do typhoons form? In asia, Western Pacific (N Hemisphere) and South China sea
Þ Where do cyclones form? Indian Ocean,Off the coast of East Africa,Western Pacific (S
Hemisphere), incl. Australia (called also Willy Willy
These are different names for the same phenomenon:

Þ What are the doldrums?

The term "Doldrums" can refer to either:

• an area located around the ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone) = where the Trade
winds converge, typically located relatively close to the Equator. Calm to light winds and
low pressure prevail in this area due to high temperatures => rising air.
• a climatic situation when a relatively shallow / slack pressure gradient exists between the
high pressure areas in the "horse latitudes" and the Equatorial low pressure areas,
resulting in weak (light) trade winds and subsequently a weak ITCZ.

Þ Height of tropopause? How does it vary with latitude?

 The tropopause is the boundary in the Earth's atmosphere between the troposphere and
the stratosphere. It is a thermodynamic gradient stratification layer, marking the end of
troposphere. It lies, on average, at 17 kilometres above equatorial regions, and about 9
kilometres over the polar regions.

The average height of the tropopause The significance of the tropopause height is that it
usually marks the maximum height of significant cloud, the presence of jet streams, the
presence of Clear Air Turbulence (CAT), the maximum wind speed, the upper limit of most
of the weather. The height of the tropopause is inversely proportional to latitude. (in the
Northern Hemisphere It decreases from south to north and vice versa).

Þ What are the trade winds? (NE in northern emisphere-SE in southern)

Trade winds are consistent winds converging to the equatorial trough from the subtropical high
belt on each side of it. The turning effect of geostrophic force (Coriolis) causes northeast trades in
the Northern Hemisphere and southeast trades in the southern. The trade winds blow towards the
thermal equator and will therefore change direction when crossing the geographic equator. NE
trades will back; SE trades will veer

Þ What is an inversion?
An inversion in the atmosphere is where temperature rises with an increase in height. This produces
extreme stability and must inhibit the formation of cloud. An inversion always exists above
turbulence cloud and inversions have a similar effect at ANY altitude.
We have different types of Inversions:

-Terrestral radiation in a night of clear skies will also result in a temperature inversion above the
surface (radiation inversion- cooling from below).

-Advection can cause inversions, by cooling the air from below or warming from above.

-We have Subsidence Inversion in a high pressure system, when air descends at the centre. As the
air descends it will be heated adiabatically and will be warmer than the air at a lower level. This is
typical of hot summer days

-A mixing of a dry turbulent layer of air.

-Frontal inversion, due to a warm front
-valley inversions – katabatic effect.

-We have inversions at higher level of the stratosphere, where temperature will show an increase
with height (in ISA from 20 km to 32 km the temperature increases at 1°C per km).

We can find inversions in the Continental polar cold air mass, and the maritime Tropical warm
(Azore’s High). This air mass cools as it moves northward and it becomes more stable, and causes
advection fo

Risks: An inversion Determines windshear due to a difference on winds in the warm and cold air
mass and severe turbulence.This happens when the free stream wind is very strong(40 kts), and
there is a marked vector difference between the cold calm air and the warm air above (40°
difference), and the temperature inversion is marked (10° C in the firsts 1000 ft agl)
The turbulence inversion could produce a turbulence cloud (SC) with moderate to severe turbulence
and moderate clear icing.
It’s important to pay attention to inversion due to the fact that the warm air gives is less dense
and this gives poor performance to the engine while climbing (the temperature rises) before
breaking trough the inversion, and more while descending

Þ What does CAVOK mean?

The code CAVOK is frequently used in the METAR code, being the abbreviation for “cloud,
ceiling and visibility are OK.” If CAVOK is used, it will replace the visibility, RVR, weather and cloud
groups. There are four criteria which must be met in order for CAVOK to appear in the METAR.
These are:
• the visibility must be 10 kilometres or more.
• the height of the lowest cloud must be no less than 5000 ft, or the level of highest minimum
sector altitude, whichever is the greater.
• there must be no cumulonimbus or ‘towering cumulus’ (TCU) present.
• there must be no significant weather at or in the vicinity of the aerodrome.
Þ What is an isothermal layer?
If temperature remains constant with height it is called an isothermal layer. It determines absolute
stability (ELR=0°C)
In ISA athmosphere we find an isothermal layer of -56,5°in the stratosphere from above the
tropopause (36000 ft- 11km) up to 65.000 ft -20 km

Þ VFR vs VMC: Vfr is the visual flight rules that an aircraft has to fly accordingly. VMC are the
visual meteorological conditions. VMC are:
-above 10.000ft: visibility of at least 8km, 1500mt horizontal distance from clouds, 1000ft
vertically.
-between 10.000ft and 3000ft: visibility of at least 5 km, 1500mt horizontal distance from clouds,
1000ft vertically.
-below 3000ft in controlled airspace (A to E): visibility of at least 5km, 1500mt horizontal distance
from clouds, 1000ft vertically.
-below 3000ft in uncontrolled airspace (F and G): visibility of at least 5km, clear of clouds and with
ground contact.

Þ International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

The values of temperature, pressure and density are never constant in any given layer of the
atmosphere. To enable accurate comparison of aircraft performance and the calibration of pressure
instruments, a ‘standard’ atmosphere has been adopted. The standard atmosphere represents the
mean or average properties of the atmosphere. Europe uses the standard atmosphere defined by
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The ICAO standard atmosphere assumes the
following mean sea level values:

Temperature 15°C
Pressure 1013.25 hPa
Density 1.225 kg/m3
Þ Metar Decoding:
BR is mist and it comes from the French word Brumè.
MIFG is Shallow Fog, which is fog up to 2 meters (5 feet deep) on land, and 10meters over
seas.
DZ is drizzle is a kind of precipitation with droplets diameter between 0,2 and 0,5 mm.
Rain has diameter between 0.5 and 5.5mm
The difference between Mist and Fog: fog is below 1000mt of visibility and mist is between
1000 meters and 5000mt.
Haze is also between 1000 and 5000 but it is due to solid particles and not clouds/waters.

Þ Difference between a Metar and a TAF: Metar are Meteorological Aerodrome Reports and are
weather observation which tell me the situation of the airport at that time of observation.
They are generally issued every 30 minutes. It may include a TREND information, but this is
only valid for 2hrs after the observation. (BECMG, permanent change. TEMPO if the new
condition lasts for maximum an hour). If the conditions change significantly between two
METAR observation, a SPECI is issued. The TAFs is Terminal Aerodrome Forecast and are
forecast valid 9 or 18 hours and are updated every 3 hours. It can include a PROB to indicate
 how possible is an event to take place. If I am on a flight which is to arrive 4 hours later I
should look at the TAFs because metar are observation at the time of publication and the
Trend is maximum 2hours ahead. Then there are also SIGMET/AIRMET (Significant
Meteorological Message/Airman meteorological Information) which advices of dangerous
weather in flight.
Þ What can we expect to find below a thunderstorm in approach: Especially during the mature
stage, we find strong down currents of up to 2400 fpm., called microbursts, which also move
outwards by reaction from the ground. These can create a Gust Front and windshear.
Windshear is the sudden change in speed and/or direction of the wind including vertical
currents, which will displace an aircraft abruptly from its flight path. Substantial control input
is required. Thunderstorms frequently produce windshear and, although it is hazardous at all
levels, it is in the lower levels that windshear may have more drastic consequences. Winds
caused by the outflow of cold air from the base of a thunderstorm cell have been known to
change in shallow layers of a few hundered feet by as much as 90knots in speed and 90° or
more in direction.
Þ What to consider about CAT and where should you fly?
Clear-air turbulence (CAT) is the turbulent movement of air masses in the absence of any
visual clues, such as clouds, and is caused when bodies of air moving at widely different
speeds meet. The atmospheric region most susceptible to CAT is the high troposphere at
altitudes of around 7,000–12,000 metres (23,000–39,000 ft) as it meets the tropopause. Here
CAT is most frequently encountered in the regions of jet streams. At lower altitudes it may
also occur near mountain ranges. Radars cannot detect this turbolence and pilot must
understand if the aircraft is above or below the tropopause in order to climb or descend.
Even though the core is in the Tropical air, the biggest CAT is in the Polar Air
In the Northern Hemisphere cold air is to the North and warm air is to the south. Jetstreams
are therefore from west to east. Below the tropopause the air is warmer toward the south but
above it it’s colder because the tropopause is higher.
-Flying north with Temp increasing means I am above the tropopause> Jetstreams are below
me>climb to avoid CAT
-Flying north with Temp decreasing means I am below the tropopause> Jetstreams are above
me>Descend to avoid CAT

Þ What would you do if you found the nav light wasn’t working? Probably is not possible to go
flying at night, but a pilot should check the MEL of the aircraft.
A minimum equipment list (MEL) is a list which provides for the operation of aircraft, subject
to specified conditions,
A Deferred Defect is An identified aircraft defect which has been assessed as being within the
requirements of the Minimum Equipment List (MEL)

Þ Dew point and little spread with the temperature: The Dew Point is the air temperature at
which a sample of air would reach 100% humidity based upon its current degree of saturation.
Once the relative humidity of a mass of air becomes 100%, then if the temperature falls it
cannot hold all of the water vapour within it. The excess water vapour will then condense
into cloudor fog or, if in contact with objects on or near the ground, will form dew or hoar frost.
 When observing successive weather reports (METARs), a reducing gap between the actual
temperature and the Dew Point temperature gives an indication of impending low visibility
conditions and the possibility of fog.

Þ Types of Fog:
Fog reduces visibility below 1000meters due to water droplets. There are 5 types:
-Radiation Fog: On a cloudless night, especially within a high pressure system, the land surface
loses heat to the atmosphere by radiation and cools. Moist air in contact with cooling surface
also cools and when the temperature falls below the dew point for that air, fog forms. This
type of fog only creates over ground, not over sea.
-Advection Fog: Forms when warm and moist air moves over a cold surface, either land or
water, either day or night. The air mass is cooled from below by the colder surface and, if the
temperature of the air mass is reduced to the dew point, then fog forms.
-Steam fog: Steam Fog occurs when very cold air flows across relatively warm water. Water
vapour evaporating from the surface of the water rapidly cools below its dew point, as it is
mixed with and cooled by the cold air, and condenses to form fog.
-Hill Fog: Forms because of humid air forced to rise above the ground up a slope. Its temp
dreacres and reaches the dew point.
-Frontal Fog: in front of a front and is caused by rain bringing warm air from above to cooler
humid air below.

Þ Windshear recognition and recovery: Entering in a downdraught we find a microburst

towards us which gives us an increase in headwind, a climb, increase in IAS and a costant GS
due to inertia. As recognized a pilot should set maximum power and pitch up to 15° with wings
levelled. Rectract speed brakes if deployed, but not change configuration (gear/flaps).
Þ Jetstream: What is the cause? What is the minimum speed? At what height? Why westerly?
Is it faster London-NY or back?
Jetstream are narrow fast moving currents of air in excess of 60 knots. Higher in the
troposphere, the density decreases, and the temperature effect overwhelms the surface
pressure effect. Hence, winds veer and back to blow perpendicular to the surface temperature
gradient as altitude increases, which means that the upper winds will generally be westerly in
both hemispheres. Jetstreams are about 1000NM long, 18.000ft thick and 150NM wide. They
mostly occur just below the tropopause where they can reach speeds of up to 350 knots.
The average winter wind component from London to New York is minus 50 knots. These are
generally westerly because their direction is governed by the thermal wind, which blows with
low temperature on the left in the Northern Hemisphere due to the combination of the
Coriolis Force and the Pressure Gradient Force. Coriolis acts 90 degrees to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Over the Atlantic there are
two distinct jet stream patterns – the polar front Jet and the subtropical jet. Each may reach
200 knots.

Þ Lenticular Clouds: Provided there is sufficient moisture in the atmosphere, distinctive clouds are
formed with mountain waves and these provide useful warning of the presence of such waves.
The clouds are:
-Lenticular, or lens shaped clouds which form on the crests of the waves. They may appear
above the mountain tops and in the crests of the waves downwind. They may be found up to,
and possibly above, the tropopause. Ragged edges indicate turbulence.
 -Rotor, or roll-clouds occur under the crests of strong waves downwind of the ridge. The
strongest rotor is normally formed in the first wave downwind and will be level or slightly above
the ridge crest.
-Cap clouds form on the ridge and strong winds may sweep the cloud down the lee slopes
Mountain waves can create only in stable air with the wind blowing perpendicular +/- 30° to
the mountain crest. I would fly to the upwind side of the mountain giving me a lateral
separation rather than a vertical because mountain waves can extend even up to the
tropopause.

Þ Thunderstorms (TS): occur in well developed cumulonimbus (Cb) cloud, though not all Cbs
produce thunderstorms. They are most likely to occur when there is:

-An Environmental lapse rate (ERL) greater than the SALR (instability because any parcel of air
with RH will be warmer than the surrounding and will rise to a higher level) through a layer at
least 10 000’ thick and extending above the freezing level.
-Sufficient water vapour to form and maintain the cloud.
-Trigger * action to produce early saturation, thus enhancing instability.

* The so-called triggers or lifting forces are:

Convection
Orographic uplift
Convergence
Frontal uplift

Thunderstorms are classified as:

-Air mass type (more common in summer time), triggered by insolation of land surface.
-Frontal type (more common in winter time), and are associated with a cold front. They are
more difficult to avoid because they spread and can form a line.
Within a CB we can find:
-Severe Turbolence
-Icing, especially with supercooled droplets
-Hail
-Lighting
Therefore they should be avoided by at least 10NM on the sides, especially not vertically if
they are fast growing.
3 stages:
>Building stage, large cumulus cloud, up draught up to 60 kts, 15-20 minutes.
>Mature stage: Up draught and downdraught coexist.
Water droplets greater than up draught forces, fall.
Mature stage reached when water starts to fall.
Microburst, Macroburst, Windshear, Squall.
15-20 minutes.
>Dissipating stage: no more air to feed the cell, no more trigger action, downdraughts
overcome up draughts.
Precipitation stops. Cloud base tends to rise.
Þ Rate one turn: In turning flight, the number of degrees of heading change per unit of time
(usually measured in seconds) is referred to as the rate of turn. By definition, a rate one or
standard rate turn is accomplished at 3°/second resulting in a course reversal in one minute or
a 360° turn in two minutes. A rate one half turn is flown at 1.5°/second and a rate two turn at
6°/second. The bank angle required to conduct a turn at a specific rate is directly proportional
to True Airspeed (TAS). The approximate bank angle required to accomplish a coordinated rate
one turn (3°/second) can be calculated by dividing the TAS (in knots) by 10 and then adding
half of it. Up to 25° on bank.
180 degress of turn in 1 minute

Þ Instruments blockage when climbing and descending:

PUDSOD: PITOT UNDERREADS DESCEND, STATIC OVERREADS DESCEND
-Blocked pitot tube: A blocked pitot tube is a pitot-static problem that will only affect
airspeed indicators. A blocked pitot tube will cause the airspeed indicator to register an
increase in airspeed when the aircraft climbs, even though actual airspeed is constant. This is
caused by the pressure in the pitot system remaining constant while the static pressure is
decreasing. It will seem that the aircraft is travelling faster because of a bigger difference. In
reverse, the airspeed indicator will show a decrease in airspeed when the aircraft descends
because of less difference due to an increase in the static pressure. The pitot tube is
susceptible to becoming clogged by ice, water, insects or some other obstruction. To prevent
icing, many pitot tubes are equipped with a heating element. A heated pitot tube is required
in all IFR aircraft.
-Blocked static port: A blocked static port is a more serious situation because it affects all
pitot-static instruments. One of the most common causes of a blocked static port is airframe
icing. A blocked static port will cause:
-the altimeter to freeze at a constant value, the altitude at which the static port became
blocked. -the vertical speed indicator will read zero and will not change at all, even if vertical
speed increases or decreases.
-the airspeed indicator will reverse the error that occurs with a clogged pitot tube and cause
the airspeed to be read less than it actually is as the aircraft climbs. When the aircraft is
descending, the airspeed will be over-reported. This is because the Ptot air increases because
static increases, but the static port is blocked and therefore the difference in pressure is
greater and it seems like an increase in speed.
In most aircraft with unpressurized cabins, an alternative static source is available and can be
selected from within the cockpit or by breaking the V/S instrument.

Þ ASI : The pitot head senses pitot pressure and the static/vent senses static pressure. These two
pressures are fed to the airspeed indicator, a differential pressure gauge, which measures their
difference (the dynamic pressure). Static pressure is present on both the inside and the outside
of the metal walls of the capsule and so cancels. Therefore the pressure differential between
the inside and outside of the capsule is (Dy + S) - S which is Dynamic. Expansion or contraction
on the capsule will therefore be proportional to the changes in dynamic pressure produced by
changes of airspeed. The capsule movements are transmitted by a linkage to the pointer
indicating airspeed on the face of the ASI. Thus, the ASI measures airspeed by measuring
dynamic pressure, displaying the result (usually in knots) on a suitably calibrated scale. (1 knot
is 1 nautical mile per hour).
Þ Altimeter: Altitude can be determined based on the measurement of atmospheric pressure.
The greater the altitude, the lower the pressure.
Static pressure is fed into the case of the instrument from the static source. As height increases,
static pressure decreases. A mechanical linkage magnifies the capsule expansion and converts
it to a rotational movement of a single pointer over the height scale. The simple altimeter has
a setting knob which is geared to the pointer. With this knob we can set a reference value so
that the instrument shows approximate height above pressure level.

Þ VSI: The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) displays rate of climb or descent. The instrument senses
rate of change of static by comparing the present static pressure with the static pressure
measured 4-6 seconds earlier. When an aircraft departs from level flight, the static pressure will
change. The VSI measures the pressure difference between each side of a restricted
choke/metering unit. in level flight the pressures on each side of the choke are the same, during
a climb or descent, air fed to the choke immediately responds to the change of atmospheric
pressure but the choke transmits this change at a lower rate.

Þ The IVSI (Istantaneous) consist of the same basic elements as conventional VSIs, but in
addition they emply an accelerometer unit which is designed to create a more rapid
differential pressure effect, specifically at the initiation of a climb or descent.

The Errors of the VSI

-Instrument Error. Due to manufacturing imperfections.

-Position (or Pressure) Error. If the static pressure is subject to position error the VSI will wrongly
indicate a climb or descent when speed is suddenly changed; this is most noticeable during take-
off acceleration.

-Manoeuvre-induced Error. Any short term fluctuations in pressure at the static vent during
attitude changes will cause the instrument to indicate a false rate of climb or descent.

Additionally with most VSIs, the linkage includes a small counterbalance weight, the inertia of
which causes delays in the indications of changes in vertical speed during manoeuvres.

Time Lag. The pointer takes a few seconds to steady because of the time taken to build up a
steady pressure difference on climb or descent. There will also be a time lag on levelling out
because of the time taken for the pressures to equalize. This error is most noticeable after a
prolonged climb or descent, especially at a high rate.

Serviceability Checks

On the Ground
The instrument should read zero, or the error should be within the permissible limits

+/- 200 feet per minute at temperatures – 20°C + 50°C

+/- 300 feet per minute outside these temperatures

Þ The Artificial Horizon Introduction

The artificial horizon (AH) provides the pilot with information in terms of the aircraft’s attitude
both in pitch and roll. It is a primary instrument, replacing the natural horizon in poor visibility.
Limitations

In modern instruments there is _complete freedom in roll and up to 85° plus and minus in pitch. If
the limitations are exceed the gyro “topple” giving erratic movement.

Þ Gyroscopes:

The simplest form of gyroscope (or gyro) consists of a rapidly spinning disc (called a rotor). Any
rapidly spinning symmetrical rotor exhibits gyroscopic properties. The shaft about which the rotor
spins is called the axis. Gyros are defined in their orientation as either horizontal or vertical by
reference to the spin axis, not the rotor. Properties of a gyro:
1)Rigidity: Rigidity is the gyro’s property of maintaining its axis in a fixed direction in space unless
subjected to an external force. It is caused by the inertia of the spinning mass.

The rigidity of a gyroscope is increased if the mass is increased, the effective radius at which the
mass operates is increased, or if the rotor rpm is increased.

2)Precession: is the property of a gyro that causes it to tilt in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of any outside force.
Effectively, this means that precession and rigidity are opposite characteristics. If a gyro has a lot
of rigidity, it will not precess very much. If it precesses a lot, it cannot be very rigid.

Þ Wander
Despite this property of rigidity, the orientation of a gyro axis may alter over time. Any departure
of a gyro axis from its original orientation is called wander. Wander may be either real or
apparent. If the gyro axis wanders in the horizontal plane, it is called drift, either real or
apparent. If the gyro axis wanders in the vertical plane, it is called topple, either real or apparent.
-Real Wander. In real wander, the axis of the gyro moves with respect to inertial space. This
departure from the original orientation is caused by manufacturing imperfections, such as
uneven rotor bearing friction, gimbal friction, imbalance in the mass of the rotor and unbalanced
gimbals.
-Apparent Wander. However, even if all real wander were eliminated and the gyro remained in
the same orientation in space (for instance, pointing at a distant star) the direction indicated by
a gyro would still change. This is because of changes in the observer’s frame of reference. One
is caused by the rotation of the earth and is called Earth Rate (Earth Rate =15× sine
latitude°/hour). The other is caused by flight east or west at latitudes other than the equator
and is called Transport Wander.
Þ ADF/NDB: the adf is the automatic directional finder that tells me the relative bearing to the
Non Directional Beacon.
(200-1750 kHz)
A non-directional beacon is a medium range radio navigational aid that sends out a signal in all
directions for aircraft to home to. It transmits in the 200 – 1750k Hz medium and low
frequency bands.
The automatic direction finder (ADF) is a needle indicator fitted in the aircraft that shows the
direction to the selected NDB. This is either displayed as a relative bearing on an RBI or as a
QDM/QDR on an RMI.
Height is not limiting as VHF, because it uses LF and MF. The errors are:
-static interference for example are due to local thunderstorms
-night effect : fluctuation of the needle due to the interaction of surface wave with the
skywaves.
-Station interference: interference from other stations especially at night.
-costal refraction because radiowaves travel faster over
-quadrantal effects: due to metallic surfaces of the aircrafts.
Range:
10-25nm (Locator beacons)
>50nm (En Route Beacons)
However, the max range over land is 300nm (3√Power output in Watts) and over sea is
600nm (9 √Power output in Watts)

Þ How does a VOR work? (VHF omnidirectional range) VOR is a type of navigation system, it is
aligned with magnetic north and it emits two signals, a 360-degree sweeping variable signal
and an omni-directional reference signal. The signals are compared by the aircrafts receiver,
and a phase difference between them is measured, giving a precise radial position of the
aircraft and displaying it on the instruments. (it is a line-of-sight instrument and it also has a
cone-of-confusion when flying near or over the top of a VOR it will give erroneous readings.
Þ What is the most important thing on instrument flight? Your scan
Þ INS: It is a self-contained navigation system. Inertial Navigation means the determination of a
vehicle’s location without the aid of external references. Three accelerometers are mounted
on a platform and orientated. This platform is driven by gyros (two or three) to always
maintain its alignment with these axes regardless of any movement of the aircraft. An INS
usually requires an initialization process that establishes the relationship between the aircraft
“frame” (the reference axes) and the geographic reference (position and orientation). The
basic concept behind an INS system is the measurement of changes in relative motion
(through the measurement of acceleration) to project a changing position in some inertial
reference frame over time.
Analogue feeds can be taken directly from the accelerometers and gyros that are in direct
proportion to acceleration, and changes in velocity and direction.
Þ IRS: Advanced INS where the laser gyros allow a processor to maintain a stable platform
mathematically, rather than mechanically like the INS does with the gyros. The laser principle
works by calculating the difference in frequency between two laser beams rotating in opposite
direction. The most significant potential problem is lock in, also known as laser lock, which
occurs at very low rotation rates.
Þ GNSS: Global Navigation Satellite System: It’s purpose is to obtain a fix (ac position) by
measuring the time taken for a mnimum number of satellites in known positons to reach the
 aircraft receiver. In Europe we have Galileo, GPS in American. GNSS work in UHF band and can
be divided in 3 segments:
-space segment/satellite: transmits signal to the receiver to determine, position, time and
velocity.
-control segment (ground antennas and stations): monitors the staus of the satellites.
-user segments (gps receivers): track satellites to determine position.
There are although some errors:
-atmospheric effects: which is a path delay due to ionosphere.
-Clock Error because Gps have their own time, which is different from UTC.
-Dilution of precision: due to the geometry and the number of satellities available.

Þ Specific fuel consumption: Fuel Burn per hour/engine thrust

Þ Primary Flight Display (PFD) :The PFD is part of an Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)
display and brings all of the information required to fly the aircraft onto one display. It has an
EADI normally surrounded by speed, altitude and vertical speed tapes and often a compass
display incorporating some minimal navigation information. It also has an area which is used for
annunciating flight director, autopilot and autothrottle modes and status, known as the Flight
Mode Annunciator (FMA).
Þ Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI) or Navigational Display (ND): An HSI is a gyro-
magnetic compass display with a Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) bar, a series of dots
representing deviation in degrees (the scale varies with the type of display), a from/to pointer,
a selected course window and a DME display of range. A heading bug is also included. The 737
can have APP – VOR – MAP – PLAN. Of these VOR and ILS can be displayed as full or expanded
compass displays. When pushed in, WXR data is displayed during all modes except PLAN, or
when the VOR / ILS mode is selected to present the FULL compass rose.
Þ Flight Mode Annunciators (FMA) : These are a series of simple lights, magnetic indicators or a
small panel of illuminated indicators that show the pilot what mode or phase of a particular
mode the FDS / autopilot is in. In more basic systems the most common indications are during
an ILS approach. These panels are usually only powered with the FD switch on. It has three cells:
THRUST – LATERAL NAV -VERTICAL NAV (from left to right).
Þ Mode Control Panel (MCP) :The mode controller allows the pilot to change the mode of the
FDS, and switch the FDS display on or off as required. The modes available depend on the fit of
the aircraft.
Þ Indicated Airspeed (IAS) :IAS is airspeed as measured by the aircraft’s Airspeed Indicator
(ASI). It actually measures the dynamic pressure, or the pressure of the air moving over the
wings. However, the dynamic pressure varies at different altitudes, and is proportional to the
air density (Dynamic Pressure = half air density x velocity squared). Put more simply, the ASI
measures how many molecules of air move over the wing in a given time. The air is thinner at
altitude, so the dynamic pressure will be less for the same airspeed, which means IAS will
reduce as you climb, regardless of the rate of movement, if TAS is maintained costant. This
density varies with temperature and pressure and therefore with altitude. The ASI is calibrated
to read true airspeed for the air density of 1225 grams per cubic metre which would be
produced by the ISA MSL pressure of 1013.25 hPa and temperature + 15°C (dry air conditions).
No allowance is made in the calibration for the change in density which occurs with change of
altitude.
As the ASI is only calibrated at MSL, and ISA conditions, flight at any other height will cause
errors.
Þ Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) The pilot corrects the IAS for Instrument and Position Error from the
correction card to give Calibrated Airspeed (CAS).

-Instrument Error. Manufacturing imperfections and usage result in small errors which are
determined on the ground under laboratory conditions by reference to a datum instrument.
A correction card can be produced for the speed range of the instrument.

-Position Error: Position error depends mainly on the positioning of the pressure head, the
airspeed, and the aircraft attitude. Turbulence produced in the airstream by the pressure
head itself affects the value of static pressure sensed rather than the pitot pressure because
the turbulence is downstream of the pitot opening. As the speed increases, due to turbulent
airflow in the region of the pitot/static heads, this error becomes greater. Turbulence will
also affect the pitot reading. The error involved is called Position Error (or alternatively
‘pressure’ error). At large angles of attack (which are usually associated with lower
airspeeds) the pressure head is inclined at an angle to the airstream so that position error is
usually greater.

Þ Equivalent Airspeed (EAS): Equivalent Airspeed is CAS corrected for Compressibility Error
only. EAS is the most accurate value of dynamic pressure. It has been corrected for Instrument,
Pressure and Compressibility error, all of which are forms of measurement error. EAS is the
most accurate measure of the dynamic pressure over the wing. In practice the difference
between EAS and CAS is not great unless altitude becomes significant. However, at high
elevation airports, particularly with high-performance airliners which may have high take-off
and landing speeds, CAS (and therefore IAS) is higher for the same EAS. At constant weight,
regardless of altitude, an aircraft always lifts off at a constant EAS.

Þ True Airspeed (TAS): EAS + Density Error = TAS

Density Error. Unless the air round the aircraft is at the calibration density of 1225 grams per
cubic metre, which can only occur near sea level, the ASI cannot correctly indicate TAS. Dynamic
pressure is proportional to density, and so at altitude, where density is less, the dynamic
pressure generated by a given TAS will be less than for the same TAS in flight at sea level. ASI
capsule expansion will therefore be proportionately less and the speed indicated will be less
than the true speed. TAS=EAS/Örho

Summarizing, the ASI under-reads the true speed at altitude as density is less than 1225
grams/cu metre, this discrepancy being called ‘density error’. If the density is greater than ISA
at MSL, the ASI will over-read the true speed.
Þ What is the APU? An Auxiliary Power Unit or APU allows an aircraft to operate autonomously
without reliance on ground support equipment such as a ground power unit, an external air-
conditioning unit ecc. The APU is a small jet engine which is normally located in the tail cone of
the aircraft. It can be started utilizing only the aircraft battery(s) and, once running, will provide
electrical power to aircraft systems as well as bleed air for air conditioning and for engine start.
Þ What is TOGA: Take-off/Go Around (TO/GA) is an autopilot/autothrottle setting activating
take-off or go-around thrust. Depending upon aircraft type, it may be activated by depressing
a switch or by manually moving the thrust levers to the appropriate position. By pressing the
TO/GA switches when autothrottle is engaged, the thrust lever servo-actuators are activated
and they advance the thrust levers at a preset rate in order to reach the position for take-off or
go-around.

Þ What is the TCAS? Today’s higher traffic densities and greater speed differences have
generated a need for an Airborne Collision Avoidance System. Although ICAO named it ACAS,
the principle manufacturer in the US referred to its system as Traffic alert and Collision
Avoidance System (TCAS), and this name is now a widely accepted alternative. The system is
designed to provide an additional margin of safety and keep commercial aircraft clear of
conflict, independently of Air Traffic Control. An aircraft must carry a transponder and have the
facility to interrogate other aircraft transponders. Presently there are four systems in use, I, II,
III and IV, each with increasing levels of protection. All commercial air transport turbine
powered aircraft registered in Europe greater than 5700 kg MTOM or with more than 19
passenger seats must have at least ACAS II For aircraft to be visible to a TCAS equipped aircraft
they must have a minimum of a Mode “A” Transponder. If the transponder is switched off, or
is unserviceable, the intruding aircraft are invisible to the TCAS equipment and a collision risk
exists. Mode A transponders transmit no height information and therefore the information
available to the TCAS equipment is two dimensional only and therefore can only give traffic
advisories. Mode “C” Transponder equipped intruders broadcast height information to the
TCAS equipment and the system becomes three dimensional and can now give both TAs and
RAs. Mode “S” Transponder TCAS equipped intruders as well as broadcasting height
information allow a discrete data link to be established between them. The range of an intruder
is determined by measuring the time lapse between transmission of an interrogation, and
receiving the response (Radar Principle). An interrogation signal is sent out approximately once
a second; however in densely populated airspace, where many aircraft are being monitored, a
system of reduced surveillance is employed, where the interrogation period is extended to
every 5 seconds, with priority given to the closest. Normal detection range is approximately 30
NM, reducing to 5 NM when operating reduced surveillance. The bearing of an intruder is
determined by a directional antenna.
Þ What is an SRA?
Surveillance Radar Approach. ATC will provide you with information of altitude and heading
corrections.
Þ What kind of gas is used to inflate aircraft tires?

Large aircraft tires are filled with nitrogen not air. Air is a combination of gasses that at low
atmospheric temperatures and pressure can turn to ice inside the tires or under high
 temperatures and pressures even explode. Nitrogen is an inert gas meaning that it does not
react chemically with rubber and does not support combustion. Nitrogen is the much safer
choice to fill aircraft tires.

Þ What is a RAT? RAT is the RAM AIR TURBINE and is an emergency device fitted on the plane. It
automatically lowers into the airstream flow in the event of a system failure. Is has a turbine
attached to an auxiliary hydraulic pump, and is driven to rotate by the force of the airflow. A
speed sensor is used to adjust the blade pitch and control RPM.
Þ How does the elevator work? An elevator is a primary flight control surface that controls
movement about the lateral axis of an aircraft. This movement is referred to as "pitch". The
elevators respond to a forward or aft movement of the control column or control stick. When
the pilot moves the controls forward, the elevator surface is deflected downwards. This
increases the camber of the horizontal stabilizer resulting in an increase in lift. The additional
lift on the tail surface causes rotation around the lateral axis of the aircraft and results in a
nose down change in aircraft attitude. The opposite occurs with an aft movement of the flight
deck controls. The elevator produces a downforce that balances the upforce of the wing (lift).
Þ What is IDG? Integrated Drive Generator: The main source of A.C. (alternating current)
electrical power on the aircraft; it is a combination of a constant speed drive and an electrical
generator driven by the engine through the accessory gearbox.
Þ How do engines start? The electric motor spins the main shaft until there is enough air
blowing through the compressor and the combustion chamber to light the engine. Fuel starts
flowing and an igniter similar to a spark plug ignites the fuel. Then fuel flow is increased to spin
the engine up to its operating speed

Þ How do ailerons work? Ailerons are a primary flight control surface which control movement
about the longitudinal axis of an aircraft. This movement is referred to as "roll". The ailerons
are attached to the outboard trailing edge of each wing and, when a manual or autopilot
control input is made, move in opposite directions from one another, for instance: if the right
aileron goes down the left one will go up and the aircraft will turn left. On some high speed
aircraft inboard ailerons can be mounted to prevent overstress: during low speed ops the
outboard ailerons operates instead during high speed ops the inboard ailerons become active
(Moment = Force x balance arm).
There is also a a second effect which is called ADVERCED YAW which occurs because the lower
wing aileron produces more Lift and therefore more drag. The aircraft yaws to the opposite side
of the turn.
Induced roll is the second effect caused by the yawing movement due to higher speed on the
outer wing which produces therefore more Lift and the inside slows down and reduces lift

Þ How does an engine work:

Piston Engine: An aircraft piston engine, also commonly referred to as a reciprocating engine or
"recip", is an internal combustion engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert
pressure into a rotational motion, to the crankshaft, where the propeller is attached. Difference
between aircraft piston and car’s engine are dual ignition systems, to improve redundancy and
safety, and air cooling to reduce weight, have been incorporated into engines designed for
aviation use. Aircraft piston engines are most commonly fueled with avgas, but diesel fueled
engines are becoming more common, especially in light aircraft.
There are different types: in line, V-line, radial, horizontal opposed.

During an engine’s combustion cycle, the piston moves up and down within the cylinder. The
terms “top dead center” (TDC) and “bottom dead center” (BDC) refer to the piston’s position
within the cylinder. TDC is its position nearest to the valves, and BDC is its position furthest from
them. A stroke is when the piston moves from TDC to BDC, or vice versa. A combustion revolution
or combustion cycle is the complete process of gas and air being sucked into the piston, igniting it,
and expelling the exhaust:

1. Intake: The piston moves down the cylinder allowing a mixture of furl and air into the
combustion chamber
2. Compression: The piston moves back up the cylinder; the intake valve is closed to
compress the gasses within
3. Combustion: A spark from the spark plug ignites the gas
4. Exhaust: The piston goes back up the cylinder and the exhaust valve is opened

Þ Difference Between A 2-Stroke & A 4-Stroke: The Difference between a 2-stroke and a 4-
stroke engine is how quickly this combustion cycle process occurs, based on the number of
times the piston moves up and down during each cycle.

4-Stroke: In a 4-stroke engine, the piston completes 2-strokes during each revolution: one
compression stroke and one exhaust stroke, each being followed by a return stroke. The spark
plugs fire only once every other revolution, and power is produced every 4-strokes of the piston.
These engines also do not require pre-mixing of fuel and oil, as they have a separate compartment
for the oil.
-2 Stroke: In a 2-stroke engine, the entire combustion cycle is completed with just one piston
stroke: a compression stroke followed by the explosion of the compressed fuel. During the return
stroke, the exhaust is let out and a fresh fuel mixture enters the cylinder. The spark plugs fire once
every single revolution, and power is produced once every 2-strokes of the piston. Two-stroke
engines also require the oil to be pre-mixed in with the fuel.

Because 2-stroke engines are designed to run at a higher RPM, they also tend to wear out faster; a
4-stroke engine is generally more durable. That being said, 2-stroke engines are more powerful.
Two-stroke engines are a much simpler design, making them easier to fix. They do not have valves,
but rather ports. Four-stroke engines have more parts, therefore they are more expensive and
repairs cost more.

Þ Explain carburettor icing?

Ice formation can occur in the engine induction system and in the carburetor of piston engines,
particularly in the venturi and around the throttle valve, where acceleration of the air can produce
a temperature fall. This combined with the heat absorbed as the fuel evaporates, can cause
serious icing, even where there is no visible moisture present. It is more likely to occur with low
power settings when the partially closed butterfly creates its own venturi cooling effect.
Carburetor icing should be expected in a piston engine
when the outside temperature is between -10°C and +30°C with a high humidity and or visible
moisture present in the air.
Þ What is propulsive efficiency?
Propulsive efficiency is the efficiency, in percent, with which the energy contained in a vehicle’s
propellant is converted into useful energy, to replace losses due to air drag, gravity and
acceleration.
Þ What is Fadec?
Fadec is full authority digital engine control and is a system that automatically controls engine
functions. Fadec is a system consisting of digital computer, called ECU (engine control unit) and its
related accessories that control all aspects of aircraft engine performance. Fadec works by
receiving multiple input variables of the current flight condition. The inputs are received by ECU
and analyzed up to 70 times per second. The fadec basic purpose is to provide optimum engine
efficiency for a given flight condition.
Þ Explain high bypass engine?
The bypass engine involves a division of the airflow. All the air entering into the engine is given to
an initial low compression, and a percentage is then ducted to bypass the engine core. The
remainder of the air is delivered to the combustion chamber. The bypass air is then either mixed
with the hot airflow from the engine core in the jet pipe exhaust or after it has been discharged to
atmosphere to generate a resulting forward thrust force. The high bypass ratio is 5:1.

Þ Does a jet aircraft have a critical engine? Why?

There is no critical engine for gas turbine engines if the engines are positioned symmetrically with
opposing revolution revolution direction. However, aerodynamically, crosswind effect can result
as a critical engine effect: a crosswind coming from the same side of the failed engine.

Þ What is a Supercharger? What is the difference between Turbo and Supercharger?

A supercharger increases the air delivered to the engine cylinder above its normal aspirated
capacity by compressing the intake air, which in turn requires more fuel to be delivered to the
carburetor to maintain the correct mixture ratio, which in turn produces a greater power output.
The difference between turbo and supercharger is that superchargers are not powered by exhaust
gases but are connected directly or indirectly to an engine. A superchargers uses mechanical
energy from the engine to drive the supercharger. In comparison a turbochargers does not place a
direct mechanical load on an engine, it is more efficient because it converts the waste heat of the
exhaust gas into horsepower used to drive the compressor.

Þ Jet Engine: All jet engines, which are also called gas turbines, work on the same principle. The
engine sucks air in at the front with a fan. A compressor raises the pressure of the air. The
compressor is made with many blades attached to a shaft. The blades spin at high speed and
compress or squeeze the air. The compressed air is then sprayed with fuel and an electric
spark lights the mixture. The burning gases expand and blast out through the nozzle, at the
back of the engine. As the jets of gas shoot backward, the engine and the aircraft are thrust
forward. As the hot air is going to the nozzle, it passes through another group of blades called
the turbine. The turbine is attached to the same shaft as the compressor. Spinning the turbine
causes the compressor to spin. Thrust is the forward force that pushes the engine and,
therefore, the airplane forward. Sir Isaac Newton discovered that for "every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction." (third law).An engine uses this principle. The engine takes in a
large volume of air. The air is heated and compressed and slowed down. The air is forced
 through many spinning blades. By mixing this air with jet fuel, the temperature of the air can
be as high as three thousand degrees. The power of the air is used to turn the turbine. Finally,
when the air leaves, it pushes backward out of the engine. This causes the plane to move
forward.

The parts:

Fan - The fan is the first component in a turbofan. The large spinning fan sucks in large quantities
of air. Most blades of the fan are made of titanium. It then speeds this air up and splits it into two
parts. One part continues through the "core" or center of the engine, where it is acted upon by the
other engine components.

The second part "bypasses" the core of the engine. It goes through a duct that surrounds the core
to the back of the engine where it produces much of the force that propels the airplane forward.
This cooler air helps to quiet the engine as well as adding thrust to the engine.

Compressor - The compressor is the first component in the engine core. The compressor is made
up of fans with many blades and attached to a shaft. The compressor squeezes the air that enters
it into progressively smaller areas, resulting in an increase in the air pressure. This results in an
increase in the energy potential of the air. The squashed air is forced into the combustion
chamber.

Combustor - In the combustor the air is mixed with fuel and then ignited. There are as many as 20
nozzles to spray fuel into the airstream. The mixture of air and fuel catches fire. This provides a
high temperature, high-energy airflow. The fuel burns with the oxygen in the compressed air,
producing hot expanding gases. The inside of the combustor is often made of ceramic materials to
provide a heat-resistant chamber. The heat can reach 2700°.

Turbine - The high-energy airflow coming out of the combustor goes into the turbine, causing the
turbine blades to rotate. The turbines are linked by a shaft to turn the blades in the compressor
and to spin the intake fan at the front. This rotation takes some energy from the high-energy flow
that is used to drive the fan and the compressor. The gases produced in the combustion chamber
move through the turbine and spin its blades. The turbines of the jet spin around thousands of
times. They are fixed on shafts which have several sets of ball-bearing in between them.

Nozzle - The nozzle is the exhaust duct of the engine. This is the engine part which actually
produces the thrust for the plane. The energy depleted airflow that passed the turbine, in addition
to the colder air that bypassed the engine core, produces a force when exiting the nozzle that acts
to propel the engine, and therefore the airplane, forward. The combination of the hot air and cold
air are expelled and produce an exhaust, which causes a forward thrust. The nozzle may be
preceded by a mixer, which combines the high temperature air coming from the engine core with
the lower temperature air that was bypassed in the fan. The mixer helps to make the engine
quieter.

Bypass Ratio: The bypass ratio (BPR) of a turbofan engine is the ratio between the mass flow rate
of the bypass stream to the mass flow rate entering the core. The cold air accelerates through the
bypass duct and goes around the engine. This makes the engine more fuel efficient and quiter
High Bypass ratio is when is more than 5:1.
Other type:

A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propeller. The turbine at the back is turned by the
hot gases, and this turns a shaft that drives the propeller. Some small airliners and transport
aircraft are powered by turboprops.

Þ Where do you see what the AFDS is doing? In the FMA and not on the MCP because the can
be different. For example VORLOC in the MCP but HDG SEL with VORLOC Armed on the FMA.

Þ Why do we have turbo chargers? And how do they work?

A turbocharger is a centrifugal compressor powered by a high speed turbine that is driven
by an engine’s exhaust gases. Its benefit lies with the compressor increasing the mass of air
entering the engine (forced induction), resulting in greater performance.

Þ Difference between piston engine ad turbine engine? piston engine convert pressure into
rotating motion using pistons, while gas turbine or use the pressure from the exploding fuel to
turn a turbine and produce thrust with the 3rd law of newton

Þ Mixture and Throttle: Piston aircraft with a fixed-pitch propeller have two basic engine
controls: a throttle control—which has the most direct effect on power—and a red mixture
control to adjust the air/fuel mixture as the airplane climbs and descends.
The throttle moves the throttle valve: The amount of suction on the nozzle is regulated by the
mass airflow going across the nozzle. The amount of airflow is controlled by the throttle valve (aka
a “butterfly” valve) located downstream of the venturi and discharge nozzle. As the throttle valve
is closed by the pilot moving the throttle cable, the airflow is reduced. As the pilot pushes the
throttle cable in, the butterfly valve is opened and airflow and suction on the discharge nozzle are
increased. When the throttle cable is pushed in all the way, the butterfly valve is “wide open.” Air
enters the carburetor and travels through a venturi. The venturi accelerates the airflow and causes
the pressure of the air to drop. A nozzle is placed in this area of low pressure and is connected to
the fuel bowl. The low pressure creates suction on the nozzle and fuel is discharged into the air
stream. As the fuel is discharged it also vaporizes.

Mixture: As altitude increases, the weight of air drawn into the cylinder decreases because the air
density decreases. For a given intake velocity, the pressure drop in the Venturi will decrease as
ambient density decreases. However, the fuel flow due to the pressure drop will not decrease by
the same amount and so the mixture will become richer. This progressive richness with increased
altitude is unacceptable for economic operation.

A slightly rich mixture does not have much effect on power since all the oxygen is still consumed
and the excess of fuel simply serves to slightly reduce the effective volumetric efficiency, in fact its
cooling effect can be to some extent beneficial.

Weak mixtures, however, rapidly reduce power since some of the inspired oxygen is not being
utilized, and this power reduction is much greater than that resulting from slight richness. It is,
therefore, quite common to run engines (when maximum power rather than best fuel economy is
the objective) at somewhat richer than chemically-correct mixtures (e.g. about 12.5 : 1) to ensure
that no cylinder is left running at severely reduced power from being unduly weak.

Þ Icing conditions: when temperature is less than 10°Celcius TAT and flying in visible moisture.
The most severe hazard is airframe icing which happens if liquid water hits a part of the
airframe which has a temperature below freezing. Water droplets in cloud with a temperature
below freezing do not always turn into ice. If there are no particles around which they can
form ice, water droplets can remain supercooled in liquid form down to –40°C. Therefore
below -40°C there is no need of anti icing.
Þ SAT — Static air temperature (sometimes called true air temperature) is the temperature of
undisturbed air; that is, the temperature you would read if you could suspend a thermometer
out in the air.
Þ TAT — Total air temperature is the SAT (actual OAT) plus the temperature rise associated with
high-speed flight. This temperature increase is called "ram rise" and is the result of heating of
the air due to compression. From a practical standpoint, TAT (or RAT) is the temperature the
airplane's skin feels, while SAT is the free air's temperature (aka OAT). TAT is greater than SAT
due to the ram rise in temperature that occurs because of dynamic heating. Ram air
temperature rise is proportional to the speed of the aircraft. At 0.8 Mach or higher, a ram rise
of 30 degrees C can be expected. This rise in temperature may be enough to prevent ice
from forming.

Þ Fly-by-Wire (FBW) is the generally accepted term for those flight control systems which use
computers to process the flight control inputs made by the pilot or autopilot, and send
corresponding electrical signals to the flight control surface actuators. This arrangement
replaces mechanical linkage and means that the pilot inputs do not directly move the control
surfaces. The advantages of reduced weight, improved reliability, damage tolerance, and more
effective control of a necessarily highly manoeuverable aircraft. Artificial Feedback can be set
in order to increase stick force as airspeed increases, such as the 777 has. The 737 is not and
never has been a fly-by-wire aircraft. The stick and the rudder pedals are connected directly to
the flight control surfaces by 12mm wires. First a/c with FBW was the F16 in 1973.
Þ What is the trim runaway?
Trim runaway is one of the most hazardous malfunctions. Runaway trim occurs when the
Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer (THS) or other trim device on the aircraft tail fails to stop at
the desired position and continues to deflect up or down. Runaway trim can have several
causes, including, but not limited to, a bad switch, a short circuit, or a software failure
Because runaway trim is a well-understood failure mode for aircraft, pilots prepare for this
occurrence and extensively practice corrective procedures during flight training. Aircraft
operators and pilots are also continuing to change the way they prepare for trim runaway
occurrence as well as other types of failures

Trim switches which operate in pairs. These are usually on the control wheel and there may be
a pair of levers mounted on the centre console. One switch or lever controls the power, the
other controls the direction of movement of the trimming device. Both must be moved
simultaneously in order to trim the aircraft. This is to prevent inadvertent operation of the
longitudinal trim system known as ‘Trim-runaway’.
Þ Antiskid: The anti-skid is system to prevent the wheels to lock and skid. Through various
mechanisms, compares the speed of the aircraft with the rotational speed of each main wheel.
If the speed of any wheel is too slow for the existing aircraft speed, the brake on that wheel (or
wheels) is released momentarily to allow the wheel speed to increase and prevent the wheel
from skidding. The system is fully automatic and is active from immediately after initial wheel
spin up on landing down to a design limited minimum speed; usually about 15 knots. Anti-skid
systems are designed to minimise aquaplanning and the potential tyre damage which can
occur when a wheel is locked or rotating at a speed which does not correspond to the speed of
the aircraft. An anti-skid system also greatly improves stopping distance on substandard
surfaces such as gravel or grass and is particularly effective on surfaces contaminated with
frozen contaminants such as ice or slush by ensuring maximum effective breaking. An antiskid
is mandatory for contaminated runways.

Þ What is electricity? electricity is defined as the flow of electric charge. An electric current is
created when electrons are caused to move through a conductor. Current can be maintained
as long as there is a complete circuit.
Þ AC vs DC:

Electricity or "current" is nothing but the movement of electrons through a conductor, like a
wire. The difference between AC and DC lies in the direction in which the electrons flow. In
DC, the electrons flow steadily in a single direction, or "forward." In AC, electrons keep
switching directions, sometimes going "forward" and then going "backward." Alternating
current is the best way to transmit electricity over large distances also because is easy to
transform from high voltage to lower voltage. AC voltage has the alternating shape of a sine
wave that changes its value (amplitude) periodically across time. To convert DC to AC, we
use an inverter. To convert AC to DC we use a rectifier.
Most of the digital electronics that you build will use DC.

Advantages of AC over DC

.1AC generators are simpler and more robust in construction than the dc
machines. 2. The power-to-weight ratio of AC machines is much better than DC’s.
3. The supply voltage can be converted to a higher or lower value with great
efficiency using transformers. 4. Any required DC voltage can be obtained simply
and efficiently by using transformer-rectifier units. 5. Three-phase ac motors can
be operated from a constant frequency source (alternator). 6. AC generators do
not suffer from communication problems associated with DC machines and
consequently are more reliable, especially at hich altitudes. 7. High-voltage AC
systems require less cable weight than comparable power low-voltage dc
systems.

Þ Alternator

1. Produces AC power at specified frequency by eletromagnetic induction

2. Coil rotate with respective magnetic field // magnetic field with respect to the
coil
 3. ROTOR rotating magnetic flux (induce electricity in) ARMATURE coils are
stationnary

Þ What is a Stick Pusher and on which a/c? An aircraft design which exhibits super stall
characteristics must be fitted with a device to prevent it from ever stalling. This device is a stick
pusher. Once such an aircraft begins to stall it is too late; the progression to super stall is too
fast for a human to respond, and the aircraft cannot then be un-stalled.

A stick pusher is a device, attached to the elevator control system, which physically pushes
the control column forward, reducing the angle of attack before super stall can occur.

The force of the push is typically about 80 lb. This is regarded as being high enough to be
effective but not too high to hold in a runaway situation. Provision is made to “dump” the
stick pusher system in the event of a malfunction. Once dumped, the pusher cannot normally
be reset in flight. Once actuated, the stick pusher will automatically disengage once the angle
of attack reduces below a suitable value.

Þ A Deep Stall, sometimes referred to as a Super Stall, is a particularly dangerous form of stall
that results in a substantial reduction or loss of elevator authority making normal stall recovery
actions ineffective. In many cases, an aircraft in a Deep Stall might be unrecoverable. This
phenomenon affects certain aircraft designs, most notably those with a T-tail configuration.

Þ What is Hertz?
Frequency. The number of cycles occurring each second is the frequency of the supply. The
frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). One cycle per second is equal to one hertz.
Cycle. A cycle is one complete series of values

Þ Resistance within a cable: The longer a wire is the more resistance it has due to the longer
path the electrons have to flow along to get from one end to the other. The larger the cross
sectional area, the lower the resistance since the electrons have a larger area to flow through

Þ Great Circle: A circle on the surface of the Earth whose centre and radius are those of the
Earth itself is called a Great Circle. It is called ‘great’ because a disc cut through the Earth in the
plane of the Great Circle would have the largest area that can be achieved. The shortest
distance between two points on the Earth’s surface is the shorter arc of the Great Circle joining
the two points, but the pilot would continuously change the track. Changing track direction as
a result of convergence.
The first example of a great circle that come up to my mind is a meridian.
Or just one parallel: The Equator.

Þ A Rhumb Line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the Earth which cuts all meridians at
the same angle - a line of constant direction. The route is concave to the neared pole.
Þ Convergency or as Earth Convergence. Convergency is defined as the angle of inclination
between two selected meridians measured at a given latitude. The change in great circle track
direction is the angle of inclination of the meridians at the 2 points where the track is
measured. Thus, Convergency is the amount by which a great circle track direction changes.

convergency = ch.long × sin mid lat

Þ Conversion angle is the angle between the great circle track and the rhumb line track.

Conversion angle is 1⁄2 convergency.

Conversion angle = 1⁄2 change of longitude × sin mean latitude

Þ What is Departure? It’s the difference between two meridians along a parallel of latitude. It is
measured in Nm. For the same change of long. The distance between two meridians decreases
the closer to the poles. It’s maximum at the equator and zero at the poles:

Dep= Ch of Long * Cos (lat)

Þ What routing would you fly from Hong Kong to New York? - How long would it take? New
York longitude is around 75° West. Hong Kong is around 115°East therefore it’s almost the
complemtary. The route it’s probabily going through the north pole and flown through a Great
Circle. To calculate how long it would take we use the formula of dep. and our Ground Speed.
Þ Clearway: This is a defined rectangular area on the ground under the control of the
appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane may
make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height. The origin of a clearway should be at
the end of the take-off run available (TORA). The length should not exceed half the length of
TORA, and the width should extend laterally to a distance of at least 75 m on each side of the
extended centre line of the runway.
Þ Stopways. A stopway is a defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of the take-off
run available (TORA), prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the
case of an abandoned/rejected take-off. It is to have the same width as the runway with which
it is associated.
Þ TORA. Definition: The distance between the point at which an aeroplane can commence the
take-off run to the nearest point in the direction of take-off at which the surface is incapable of
bearing the mass of the aeroplane under normal operating conditions
Þ TODA. Definition: The distance from the start of TORA to the nearest obstacle in the direction
of take-off projecting above the surface of the aerodrome and capable of affecting the safety
of an aeroplane in flight (up to a maximum distance of 1.5 × TORA). Usually, TODA is TORA plus
clearway if a clearway exists.
Þ ASDA. Definition: The distance from the start of the take-off run to the nearest point in the
direction of take-off at which the aircraft cannot roll over the surface and be brought to rest in
an emergency without risk of accident. ASDA used to be called EDA (Emergency Distance
Available). Usually ASDA consists of TORA plus the stopway if available.
Þ LDA. Definition: The distance from the point where an aeroplane can commence its landing to
the point where the surface is incapable of bearing the mass of the aircraft under normal
 operating conditions. Usually this is the full length of the runway, but may include a paved
stopway (if available) where the threshold is displaced.
Þ RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS: White but a caution zone may be established over the last 600 m (or
1/3 of the runway whichever is least) where the lights are yellow. When the runway edge
lights are intended to provide circling guidance, they shall show all round (omni-directional).
Þ RUNWAY CENTRELINE: Runway centreline lights are fixed, variable intensity white. Over the
last 900 m from the runway end, the lights show alternate red and white from 900 m to 300 m
from the runway end; and all red from 300 m to the runway end.
Þ Spacing between lights: Runway edge lights are usually spaced 60m. Touch down zone lights
are 30m and centerline lights are 15m.

Þ COMM FAILURE IN IFR:

-VFR conditions: If the failure occurs in VFR conditions, or if VFR conditions are
encountered after the failure, each pilot must continue the flight under VFR and land as
soon as practicable.
-IFR Conditions:
-unless otherwise prescribed on the basis of a regional air navigation agreement, in
airspace where radar is not used in the provision of air traffic control, maintain the last
assigned speed and level, or minimum flight level if higher, for a period of 20 minutes
following the aircraft’s failure to report its position over a compulsory reporting point and
thereafter adjust level in accordance with the filed flight plan;
or
in airspace where radar is used in the provision of air traffic control, maintain the last
speed and level, or minimum flight level if higher, for a period of 7 minutes following: the
time the last assigned level or minimum flight altitude is reached; or
the time the transponder is set to code 7600; or
the aircraft’s failure to report its position over a compulsory reporting point;
whichever is later and thereafter adjust level and speed in accordance with the filed flight
plan;
When being radar vectored, or having been directed by ATC to proceed offset using RNAV
without a specified limit, proceed in the most direct manner possible to rejoin the current
flight plan route no later than the next significant point, taking into consideration the
applicable minimum flight altitude; proceed according to the current flight plan route to
the appropriate designated navigation aid or fix serving the destination aerodrome and,
when required, hold over this aid or fix until commencement of descent;
-commence descent at, or as close possible to, the expected approach time (EAT) last
received and acknowledged; or, if no EAT has been received and acknowledged, at, or as
close as possible to, the estimated time of arrival resulting from the current flight
plan;
-complete a normal instrument approach procedure as specified for the designated
navigation aid or fix; and
-land, if possible, within 30 minutes after the estimated time of arrival or the last
acknowledged EAT.

Þ Low visibility procedures (LVP) means procedures applied at an aerodrome for the purpose of
ensuring safe operations during lower than standard category I, other than standard category
II, category II and III approaches and low visibility take-offs. (IR-OPS Annex I) .Low visibility
 take-off (LVTO) means a take-off with a Runway Visual Range (RVR) lower than 400 m but not
less than 75 m. (IR-OPS Annex I). Note that ICAO requires LVP for all departures below 550m
RVR, or a cloud base below 200 ft aal. A big hazard also is on the ground due to a/c taxing and
maybe also do a runway incursion.

Þ What is MSA?
Minimum Sector Altitude The Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA) is the lowest altitude which
may be used which will provide a minimum clearance of 300 m (1 000 ft) above all objects
located in the area contained within a sector of a circle of 46 km (25 NM) radius centred on
a radio navigation aid.

Þ Transponder mode S:
Gives selected altitude, airspeed, HDG, Vertical Rate, Tas, GS. Differently from mode C
which has 4096 codes, mode S have more than 16 millions. Every a/c with mode S has been
given a code by ICAO.

Þ Segments of Instrument Apporach:

-Arrivial: It takes the airplane from an enroute point (airway or transition) to the IAF
-Initial: From IAF to IF (intercept the procedure, not the final) It’s where the approach
starts.
-Intermediate: From IF to FAF. Part of the approach to adjust configuration and speed.
-Final. From FAF to MAPt: it’s where the a/c starts to descend to land.
-Missed Apprach: From Mapt
Þ Missed Apprach:
-Initial: from mapt to established climb.
-Intermediate: From climb to 30MOC
-Final: From 50MOC

Þ Wake Turb Classifications:

-Super (just a380)
-Heavy: 136.000 or higher
-Medium: higher than 7000 but lower than 136.000
-Light: 7000 or lower

>Lnd
Separation with no Radar: Heavy -Med. Is 2 minutes, all other 3 min
Separation with Radar: Same category 4 min
One cat higher: 5 miin
Two cat higher: 6 min

>Departure always 2 min

Þ MOCA (Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude)

MOCA will give you a minimum altitude above terrain and guarantee VOR reception within 22 nm
from the beacon. MOCA will give you 1000 ft separation from terrain when terrain is less than
5001 ft and 2000 ft separation when terrain is more than 5000 ft.

Þ MORA (Minimum Off-Route Altitude)

MORA will give you separation from terrain up to 10 nm off the route center line and 10 nm radius
around the ends of the route. MORA will give you 1000 ft separation from terrain in non
mountainous areas and 2000 ft separation in mountainous areas.

Þ MEA (Minimum En-Route Altitude)

MEA is the minimum altitude that will guarantee signal of navigation aids along the route, give you
two way communication with ATC and provide obstacle clearance.

Þ Minimun grid altitude? MGA represents the lowest safe altitude which can be flown off-track.
The MGA is calculated by rounding up the elevation of the highest obstruction within the
respective grid area to the next 100ft and adding an increment of.

Þ The Automatic Brake System (ABS): It automatically applies brake pressure during landing.
Basically, it does the braking work for you immediately after touchdown, so you don't have to
press the brakes down yourself. Not too early and not too late. Max brakes (or any of the
brake settings, for that matter) need anti-skid in order for them to work. That's because when
MAX auto brakes engage, they apply the maximum braking effort they can. When you press
down to about 25% of the travel of the pedals, the auto brakes disengage. At that point, you
are in full control of the brake pressure applied to the wheels
Þ FIR Boundary: In aviation, a flight information region (FIR) is a specified region of airspace in
which a flight information service and an alerting service (ALRS) are provided.

Þ Approach ban point: Approach ban point. The point from which an instrument approach shall
not be continued below 300 m (1 000 ft) above the aerodrome elevation or into the final
approach segment unless the reported visibility or controlling RVR is above the aerodrome
operating minima.
Þ What are the CAT I/II/IIIa/b/c minimums?
CAT I, DH not lower than 200ft and RVR not less than 550m or visibility 800m
CAT II DH 200ft or lower, but no lower than 100ft and RVR 300m at touchdown zone or 150m mid.
CAT IIIA DH 100ft or lower, but no lower than 50ft and RVR 200m or 150m mid.
CAT IIIB DH 50ft and RVR 50m
CAT IIIC DH 0ft and RVR 0m
 Þ Atmosphere levels: Earth's atmosphere has a series of layers, each with its own specific
traits. Moving upward from ground level, these layers are named the
-Troposphere (3/4 of atmpshere mass and where t decreases with altitude),
-Stratosphere (temp first stable, then icreases)
-mesosphere,
-thermosphere
-and exosphere.

Þ why do we have a higher min for NON ILS app ?

Non precision approach have different minima +50ft respect of precision approach because it
take in counts of inertia. For a NPA, use should start the GA in order not to go below MDA
while performing it. For PA is possible to go below DA if a go around ha been initiated.

Þ Holdings: A standard holding pattern is depicted in the following diagram which shows the
ground track as it would appear in still-air conditions. The holding "fix" can be any of a VOR, a
NDB, a radial/DME fix, a specified waypoint or, in some circumstances, the current aircraft
position as generated by the Flight Management System (FMS). Turns are with an average
bank angle of at least 25˚ or a rate of turn of 3˚ per second, whichever requires the lesser
bank. The outbound leg is flown for the appropriate time interval to achieve the regulated
inbound timing. Inbound timing for a standard hold is one minute when at or below 14,000'
and one and a half minutes when above 14,000'.

• Sector 1 procedures (parallel entry):

o Upon reaching the fix, turn onto the outbound heading of the holding pattern for
the appropriate period of time
o Turn left to intercept the inbound track or to return directly to the fix
o On the second arrival over the fix, turn right and follow the holding pattern
• Sector 2 procedures (offset entry):
o Upon reaching the fix, turn to a heading that results in a track having an angle of
30˚ or less from the inbound track reciprocal on the holding side
o Continue for the appropriate period of time, then turn right to intercept the
inbound track and follow the holding pattern
• Sector 3 procedure (direct entry):
o Upon reaching the fix, turn right and follow the holding pattern

In holding the maximum holding speeds are as follows:

• Holding altitude 14000' or below - 230 KIAS

• Holding altitude above 14000' to 20000' - 240 KIAS
• Holding altitude above 20000' to 34000' - 265 KIAS
• Holding altitude above 34000' - Mach .83
• Holding patterns restricted to Category A and B aircraft only - 170 KIAS
•
Þ Fuel emergency: Only when the pilot declares an emergency, radio call prefixed by MAYDAY
(3x) for distress or PAN PAN (3x) for urgency, priority handling will be provided. Calls such as
“low on fuel” have no status .
Þ Tell me about ELT’s? (emergency locator transmitters) ELT’s are small, battery-powered
devices that broadcast a distinct sound on a dedicated emergency frequency, older units
broadcast on 121.5 MHz, while newer units broadcast on 406 MHz, a group of dedicated
officials listen for signals, which are captured by satellites and then sent to a command centre
(ELT must first begin transmitting),Accelerometers in the units are designed to activate the
emergency signal once a certain force threshold is reached.
Þ Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temperature. he higher the density altitude,
the lower the aircraft performance, and vice versa. Density is directly proportional to pressure
and indirectly proportional to temperature. Water vapour is less dense than dry air. Therefore
with increasing amounts of water vapour in air, with pressure and temperature constant, the
air's density is decreased.

Þ Vref: Is the regulatory speed at the landing screen height, for Class B aeroplane it had to be no
less than 1.3 times the stall speed in the landing configuration, (1.3VS0), and for Class A
1,23Vso. A pilot must adhere to the VREF speeds because they are the speeds which have
been used to construct the landing graphs or table in the aeroplane flight manual. If a pilot
were to deviate from these speeds, the required aircraft performance would not be achieved.

Þ Vmcg: Minimum Ground Control Speed: VMCG is the minimum speed on the ground at which
the take-off can be safely continued, when the critical engine suddenly becomes inoperative
with the remaining engine(s) at take-off thrust. It is determined without the use of the
nosewheel and without crosswind. The amount of yaw is a function of the amount of thrust the
live engine is generating. Greater thrust from the live engine would generate more yaw. for the
rudder to be effective enough at controlling the yaw, there must be sufficient airflow over it to
ensure it has the required aerodynamic force. This minimum airflow speed over the rudder is
VMCG. If the engine were to fail below this speed, then there is insufficient flow over the rudder
to counteract the asymmetric yaw and therefore it is not possible to continue the take-off.

The only factor that controls the value of VMCG is thrust, and since take-off thrust is more or
less constant, then the only variable on the amount of take-off thrust generated is air density.
The higher the air density, the more thrust that can be generated and therefore the more yaw
that is generated when the engine fails, therefore the airflow over the rudder must be faster to
make the rudder effective enough to counteract the yaw. at low temperatures and low pressure
altitudes where the air density would be high, the value of VMCG is also high. Therefore, we
can say that as density increases, VMCG increases.

Þ Screen Height:
-The take-off part of the flight is the distance from the brake release point (BRP) to the point
at which the aircraft reaches a defined height. This defined height is termed the “screen
height”. The screen height varies from 35 ft for Class A aeroplanes (15ft if runway is
contaminated) to 50 ft for Class B aeroplanes.
-For landing, the screen height is the commencement of the declared landing distance - point
at which the calculated aircraft flight path passes 50ft height. The a/c should pass above it
with a speed higher than 1,23 Vsro for Class A, and 1,3Vsro for Class B.
Þ V1 Decision Speed: V1 is called the decision speed. It is so called because V1 determines the
outcome of a critical decision that must be made following an engine failure or other major
critical systems failure.

V1 is defined as being the maximum speed at which the pilot must take the first action in order to
stop the aeroplane within the remaining accelerate-stop distance. V1 is also the minimum speed
following engine failure that the pilot is able to continue the take-off within the remaining take-off
distance.

If the engine were to fail before V1, then the decision would be to abort the take-off. The reason is
because, with only one engine operating, there would be insufficient take-off distance left to
accelerate the aeroplane to the screen height. If the engine were to fail after V1, the decision is to
continue the take-off. The reason is because the aeroplane is travelling too fast to be able to stop
within the remaining accelerate-stop distance available

Looking at the graph you can see that a V1 at the intersection point of the graph is the best V1 to
use, simply because a V1 at that speed requires the least amount of field required or the least
amount of runway. The V1 at the intersection point of the curves is sometimes called the
“Idealized V1”. It is also the V1 which makes the take-off distance required be the same length as
the accelerate-stop distance required, and therefore, this V1 speed is also called the “Balanced
V1” since it balances the required distances for the aeroplane. What this graph is also useful for is
to see the effect of using a higher or lower V1.

For example, if for whatever reason V1 was increased, notice that the accelerate-stop distance
required increases, the take-off distance required decreases and the total field required increases.
However, should V1 be reduced from the intersection point, the accelerate-stop distance
decreases, the take-off distance increases, and the total field required increases.

V1: - must not exceed VR -must not exceed VMBE -must not be less than VMCG

V1: -Increases with an increase in weight, because with a higher W the distance needed to
accelerate with OEO is longer than the one to stop. -Downslope and Headwind reduces V1,
because it helps reducing TODR for takeoff.

Þ V1 in contaminated runways: V1 must be reduced because, slush, snow or standing water on

the runway will affect both the take-off distance required and the accelerate-stop distance
 required. The take-off distance required will increase because of the additional wheel drag and
impingement drag. The accelerate-stop distance will increase because of the increased
distance to accelerate and the increased distance to stop resulting from the reduced runway
coefficient of braking friction. For given distances available, the maximum take-off mass and
V1 will therefore be reduced compared to the dry runway.

Þ VMBE - Maximum Brake Energy Speed: Above this speed brakes are not efficient enough and
would probably melt. This speed lowers (negative) with higher Pressure Alt, Temperature and
Weight.

Þ VR - Rotation Speed
Rotation speed, VR, is the speed at which the pilot initiates action to raise the nose gear off the
ground, with the intention of becoming airborne.

VR may not be less than: -V1 -1.05VMC -a speed such that V2 may be attained before
35 ft.

The higher the W the higher VR. Both a greater flap or lower density results in lower VR

Þ Aircraft category are set because for regulations and rectrictions such as minima on the
plate must meet aircraft manoeuvrability. In fact they are based on the Vat (1.30 Vso)
Therefore they are related to the MTOM. The 737 cat C

Category A: Speed 90 knots or less.

Category B: Between 91 and 120 knots.

Category C: Between 121 and 140 knots.

Category D: Between 141 knots and 165 knots.

Category E: Speed 166 knots or more.

Þ What is the drift down procedure?

Most transport category turbojet aeroplanes cruise at altitudes of 30 000 to 40 000 ft. In the event
of an engine failure while in cruise it will most frequently be impossible to maintain this relatively
high altitude on 1 operating engine only => a shallow descent will have to be made to a lower
altitude in which the aeroplane will be able to maintain a level flight (maximum operating altitude
with one engine inoperative). This is called a drift down. It has to be considered when overflying
high mountains and provisions have to be made that a safe drift down can be performed from any
point along the route of flight. The driftdown path is based on 95% wind regularity and a
temperature of ISA +15.
Þ V2: What is it and how is it calculated? V2 in a balanced field.

It is the target speed to be attained at the screen height with one engine inoperative. Therefore, it
must be reached before the screen height. It is called safe because it gives a safety margin. There
are two main speeds which when flying close to, may be unsafe. The first of these is stall speed
and the second is the minimum control speed. Therefore, in order for V2 to be called a safe speed
it must be faster than these speeds. There is another reason why V2 is called the take-off safety
speed. In the event of engine failure, V2 must be flown until the aeroplane reaches 400 ft.
Therefore, the other safe feature about V2 is that the aeroplane is able to achieve a positive climb.
In fact, V2 is the slowest speed which will enable the aeroplane to have sufficient excess thrust to
climb above the minimum acceptable climb gradients.

V2 may not be less than:

1. V2MIN
V2MIN may not be less than:
• 1.13VSR for 2 and 3 engine turboprops and all turbojets without provision for
obtaining a significant reduction in the one engine inoperative power-on
stalling speed OR 1.08VSR for turboprops with more than 3 engines and
turbojets with provision for obtaining a significant reduction in the one
engine inoperative power-on stalling speed.
• 1.1VMC

Vmc increases with a decrease in density, but Vsr does not. V2MIN could be limited by Vmc
if at high altitudes (low density), with a larger flap setting (lowers the Vs), or a lower weight
(lowers the Vs). To decrease V2MIN therefore low weight, large flap, low altitude (high
pressure lowers Vmc).

2. VR , plus the speed increment attained up to 35 ft.

VMCA / VMC - Air Minimum Control Speed The minimum flight speed at which the aeroplane is
controllable, with a maximum of 5° bank, when the critical engine suddenly becomes inoperative
with the remaining engine(s) at take-off thrust.

Þ calculate a rate of descent required from one altitude to another one :

difference in altitude : time available
Þ How does temperature, altitude and pressure effect these speeds VMCG/VMCA/V1/VR/V2?

How temperature, pressure and altitude influence Vmca Vmcg

Density altitude + Vmca -

CG AFT Vmca +
Mass + Vmca -

Gear Down Vmca -

Flaps Down Vmca -

Bank + Vmca -

Both altitude and high temperature reduce thrust available of the live engine, therefore Vmca
decreases.

Þ T/O Segments and why do we use them:

The take-off flight path is designed for an airplane flown following an engine failure and a
continued take-off. During T/O configuration and speed change and these segments define regions
and minimum requirement where this happens. herefore the segments are only for multi engine
aircrafts. The profile assumes the failure of the critical engine at VEF. Each segment is defined by a
We have the segments to establish thrust or configuration changes and also because the
certification requirements demand a minimum gradient and obstacle clearances. There are
generally 4 take off climb segments. The take-off climb or take-off flight path extends from 35 ft
above the take-off surface to 1500 ft above the take-off surface. However, with a contaminated
runway take-off, the take-off climb begins at 15 ft and not 35 ft.
Segment 1: The take-off flight path starts once the take-off is complete, in other words at 35 ft with
the aeroplane at V2 with one engine inoperative. The 35 ft screen marks the start point of segment.
Once the gear is up and locked then the first segment is finished. During this segment the steady
gradient of climb must be positive.

Segment 2 :The second segment starts at the end of the first segment, i.e. when the gear is up. The
objective now is to retract the flaps. However, flap retraction is not permitted below 400 ft,
therefore the action by the pilot is simply to climb, at no less than V2, until 400 ft is reached. Once
400 ft is reached and flap retract can commence, segment 2 ends. Since the aeroplane has had the
main source of drag removed, the minimum gradient requirement is more severe at no less than
2.4%. No turn with bank greater than 15° up to 400ft.

Segment 3
Segment three starts at or above 400 ft and is the flap retraction and acceleration segment.
However, retracting the flaps will increase the stall speed. This reduces the aeroplane’s safety
margin. Therefore, the aeroplane must accelerate during flap retraction from V2 to the zero flap
speed and then to the final take-off speed. The final take-off speed is also called the final segment
speed and is intended to be the one engine inoperative best angle of climb speed. Once this has
happened, thrust can be reduced from maximum take-off thrust, TOGA, to maximum continuous
thrust, MCT. We require excess thrust to enable us to climb or accelerate and as our priority in this
segment is to accelerate there is no minimum climb gradient required. (excess thrust available
would be equivalent to a minimum climb gradient of 1.2%).
Segment 4
The fourth segment starts when the flaps are retracted, the final segment speed is achieved and
the thrust is set to maximum continuous thrust. From this point the aeroplane is climbed to above
1500 ft where the take-off flight path ends. No turn with bank greater than 25° up to 1500ft.
 Þ What is flex thrust?
A reduced thrust takeoff is a takeoff that is accomplished utilising less thrust than the engines
are capable of producing under the existing conditions of temperature and pressure
altitude.
The primary advantage to a reduced thrust takeoff is reduced engine wear andthus cost
savings. A secondary advantage include fuel savings. Speeds, such has V1 don’t change.
Maximum reducation is 25%. It is possibile when ATOM is less than the Regulated TOM. TODR
and ASDR increase. It cannot be used if runway is contaminated, antiskid is inoperative, no
reverses.
Procedure: Assumed temperature: Singe engine are flat rated, above a certain temp they
provide less thrust. By selecting a higher T, the engine gives the exact value of Thrust that is
needed.
Þ Derated Thrust: The purpose is to decrease the V speed if V1 is limited by Vmcgs AND TOM
limited by ASDA: less thrust>less Mmcg>less V1>Shorter asdr>higher TOM
Þ Why is there a MLM?
This restriction is based on the strength of the landing gear and overall structural fuselage
integrity.

Þ smart probe Air data: With this probe computer can derive airspeed, altitude, air temp and
possibly other air data such as angle of attack. (embraer 175)

Þ Angle of Attack Vane

The simplest form of system, and one which is adopted in several types of small aircraft, consists
of a hinged-vane-type sensor mounted in the leading edge of a wing so that the vane protrudes
into the airstream. In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains the vane in line with
the relative air flow. If the aircraft’s attitude changes such that the angle of attack (AoA) increases,
then, by definition, the airflow will meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, and so cause the
vane to be deflected. When it reaches the angle at which the warning unit has been preset, the
vane activates a switch to complete a circuit to an aural warning unit in the cockpit.
On the 737 are on the nose

Þ How does radar work?

Radar stands for Radio Detection and Ranging. It’s a directional antenna used for both
transmissions and reception of pulses of know duration which is reflected by a surface or
an object. The radar calculates the distance by using the time taken for the pulse to come
back. Radars use the SHF because the radio waves are narrower and therefore more
precise when locating the object. Also because they are less affected by atmospheric noise.
The negative effect is that the radar is affected by the line of sight (NM=1,23 (rad H1 + rad
H2)).
Primary radar receive back the echoes that it sent (weather radar). The secondary instead
interrogates the target and it replies on a different frequency (ssr).
Þ How does the cabin get pressurised? Bleed air from the engines. (the cabin needs high
pressure air because air at 30,000ft is at too low of pressure, bleed air is a very hot high-
pressure air)
Þ What regulates cabin pressure? Outflow valves
Þ What is the position of the outflow valve at cruising altitude? Slightly open
Þ Effects of high altitude on the human body? Heartrate and respiratory rate increases as
altitude increases, dehydration due to low humidity, dry air.
Þ Symptoms of hypoxia on the human body? (hypoxia is a condition or state in which the supply
of oxygen is insufficient for normal life functions)
• Blue Lips
• Confusion
• Rapid breathing, and a fast heart rate
• Shortness of breath
• Sweating
• Inability to communicate

Þ RNAV

Area Navigation (RNAV) is a key enabler of Performance Based Navigation (PBN). It is a

navigation specification which permits the operation of aircraft on any desired flight path.
RNAV allows aircraft positions to be continuously determined wherever the aircraft are
within the coverage of navigation aids or within the limits of a self-contained system
capability (or a combination of these) rather than only along the tracks between individual
ground navigation aids.

RNAV is enabled through the use of a navigation computer. Waypoints are input into the
computer either manually or automatically with an integrated database. The flight crew
then creates a route as a series of waypoints in accordance with the flight plan. The
computer estimates the aircraft position using the fitted navigation sensors and compares
the estimation to the defined route. Deviation between the estimated position and the
defined path creates guidance information. In order to perform RNAV, aircraft must be
equipped with an RNAV system. RNAV 1 is the RNAV specification for Precision Area
Navigation (P-RNAV). It requires a minimum navigational accuracy of +/- 1nm for 95% of
the time. Qualifying systems must have the ability to fly accurate tactical offsets; P-RNAV
routes must be extracted directly from the FMS database and must be flown by linking the
R-NAV system to the FMS/autopilot. In addition, flight crews are restricted from manually
adding waypoints to the route. This level of navigation accuracy can be achieved using
DME/DME, VOR/DME or GNSS. P-RNAV is used to provide more routes and terminal area
procedures and may be used down to the final approach fix (FAF) on designated approach
procedures.For approach and missed approach rnav 0.3 is used.

Þ What is RVSM?
Reduced Vertical Separation Minima is the reduction of the standard vertical separation of
2000ft to 1000ft between flight level 290 and FL410. This increases the number of aircraft
capable to fly within this altitude range at the same time.
To fly RVSM the aircraft has to be equipped with a sensitive pressure altimeter, airline
must also receive the approval.
Þ HYDROPLANNIG: A runway is said to be contaminated if more than 25% of the surface area
(whether in isolated patches or not) is covered by any of the following:

• Surface water more than 3 mm deep (0.125 in), or by slush or loose snow equivalent to 3
mm of water.
• Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further compression and
will hold together or break into lumps if picked up (compacted snow).
• Ice, including wet ice.

During take-off and landing operations from contaminated runways (3 mm or more water),
aquaplaning (hydroplaning) is a hazard that must be considered. During take-off runs, as water (or
any other liquid contaminant) is displaced by the tyres, a ‘bow wave’ effect is created in front of
the tyre. By a factor of the specific gravity of the contaminant and the tyre pressure, a speed will
exist at which the tyre will ride up over the ‘bow wave’ and friction with the runway will rapidly
reduce.

Any application of the brakes may result in severe loss of friction between the tyre and the runway
surface, thus drastically reducing braking. The aquaplaning speed is given by the formula:

V = 9*ÖPSI

- What is ETOPS?
An ETOPS (Extended Twin OPerationS) certification timing is to mean that the aircraft should be able
to make it to its alternate airport within that timeframe in the case of an engine failure. ETOPS
typically take place where landing is impossible, such as long oceanic flights, or during flights over
areas with few regional airfields. ETOPS timings started as 60 minutes, then extended to 90, 120,
138, 180. Today, an ETOPS rule of 240 minutes is approved in certain circumstances for three and
four-engine jets. Boeing was the first to obtain ETOPS-240 certification for its Boeing 777 aircraft.
737 RELATED QUESTIONS:
What do you know about 737-800?

Boeing 737 is a mid-size, short to medium range flights. The first 737-100 flew in 1967 and entered
into service in 1968. In the 1980s Boeing launched the versions: -300 -400 -500, and in the 1990s
launched the Next Generation Boeing 737-700. Boeing 737-800 is also called Next Generation,
because is an evolution of the Boeing 737 Classic. It has new wings, with optional winglets, full efis
cockpit and new interiors. The wing was redesigned with a new airfoil, greater chord, increased
wing span and area of 25% that increases of the 30% the fuel capacity. The range is increased of
900 NM, now permitting transcontinental service. High MTOW, and a redesigned vertical
stabilizer, and winglets were available on most models. The flight deck was upgraded with modern
avionics, and passenger cabin improvements similar to those on the Boeing 777.

How is the landing gear operated in a 737 NG? The B737 has two main gear and a nose gear. Each
main gear is a two-wheel landing gear unit. The nose gear is a steerable two-wheel unit. Hydraulic
power for retraction, extension, and nose wheel steering is normally supplied by hydraulic system
A. A manual landing gear extensions system and an alternate source of hydraulic power for nose
wheel steering is also provided. The normal brake system is powered by hydraulic system B. The
alternate brake system is powered by hydraulic system A. Antiskid protection is provided on both
brake systems, but auto brake system is available only with the normal brake system. The landing
gear are controlled by the landing gear level.

What is wingspan on Boeing 737-800?

The wingspan is 35,79 meters.

- How many seats are on our 737-800s?

189 on the 7378 and on the max: 200 seats

-What is the typical psi of the tires?

a 737 has around 200 psi, a general aviation tourer 50/70 psi

-Cruise Speed :

It’s around 850km/h. It depends on altitude and weight. Around .78/.80 mach

-How many hydraulics systems on board?

A, B and Standby.
The standby system is used if system A and/or B pressure is lost.
Hydraulic systems power the following airplane systems:
Flight Controls
Leading edge flaps and slats
Trailing edge flaps
Landing gear
Wheel brakes
Nose wheel steering
Thrust reversers
Autopilots
Either A and B can power all flight controls with no decrease in airplane controllability.

Standby power:
Thrust revers
Rudder
Leading edge flaps and slats
Standby yaw damper

The hydraulic sys works at 3000psi.

2 pumps electrical and 2 at the gearbox of the engine.

-How are controls operated in the 737? They are mechanically linked and assisted with hydraulic
pressure, with a dynamic feel system.
-What is the VMO / MMO for the 737-800? 340 CAS/.82 Mach
-What is N1? It’s the number of the rotation of the front fan, and it’s displayed in the cockpit.
-Which engines? Two CFM56-7B Engines. French-American. Twin spool axel. They have 26 tons
of maximum thrust.
-737-8 vs max: Max has 15% more efficient engienes, split winglets, more seats. Max only up on
gear and not off. More higher from the ground for bigger engine.
-How many emergencies exits? 8 emergency exits. 2 located in the forward part of passenger’s
cabin. 2 in the rear on the cabin. 4 are located on the wings. In total 4 each side of the

-sweep angle del 737: 25.2

-Range: Maximum 3,200nm/5,950km

How much voltage does the engine produces? And how much hertz?
115V and 400 HZ.

What altitude and psi is the cabin normally pressurized to at cruise:

Around 8 psi and 8,000 feet

What is the G limit of the 737-800:

With flaps up: +2.5G / -1.0G
With flaps : +2.0G / 0.0G

What kind of elevator system the 737 has?

The elevators in the 737 are hydraulically powered. The elevators need only one hydraulic system
(A or B) to work. In the event of failure of both hydraulic system, elevators can be moved
electrically. Elevator feel is created by a computer that with the input of the airspeed and the
stabilizer position enable the computer to simulate the aerodynamic force. Also a Mach trim
provides speed stability above Mach .615.
The elevators are adjusted nose up in a programmed manner with respect to the stabilizer position.
Engagement and disengagement is automatic.

Does the engine on the 737 rotate in the same direction?

Yes, clockwise.

Anti-ice system of B737-800

The systems provided for ice and rain protection are Thermal Anti-icing (TAI) and electrical anti-
icing. Pitot probes, the Total Air Temperature probe, alpha vanes and cockpit windows are
electrically heated to prevent the formation of ice. Engine bleed air thermal anti-icing is provided
for ice protection of the wing leading edge slats and engine cowl lip. On 737-800, the outboard
leading edge slats are not anti-iced. Bleed air is obtained from the 5th or 9th stage of the compressor
section of the engine.

Emergency exits available to pilots? #2 window on each side, there is also an escape rope.

How many passengers did we carry last month? 10.8 million customers.

What leading edge devices are on a 737-800? 4 Krueger flaps inboard of the engines, and 8 slats
outside of the engines (the flaps and slats are high lift devices that increase wing lift and decrease
stall speed during take-off, low speed maneuvering and landing.)
What trailing edge devices are on a 737-800? The trailing edge devices consist of double slotted
flaps inboard and outboard of each engine.

-- What is the cross wind limit? 33 with winglets

-- Does the nose wheel have brakes? no

-fuel crusie consumption is around 2000kg an hours.

- How many flight crew operate the aircraft? 2

- How many 737-800 aircraft do we have in service?

Ryanair operates a fleet of over 480 Boeing 737-800 series aircraft, with orders of up to 210 new
Boeing 737 aircraft, this includes 135 new Boeing 737 MAX 200s, and options for 75 more MAX
200s, which will enable Ryanair to grow its fleet to 585 by 2024,

- Why do we operate a single aircraft fleet? What are the advantages of this?
Ryanair only use Boeing 737-800 aircraft. This helps us to keep costs down because there is no
need for different type rated pilot, mechanics, cabin crew etc. The same maintenance for all the a/c.
Also spare parts will be easier to manage. But there are also disadvantages such as if a 737-800 was
to be grounded Ryanair doesn’t jhave a backup plan. There is lauda but 30 aircraft can’t do the job
of 485 a/c.
- What is the maximum cruising altitude of the 737-800?
41.000 of service ceiling
-What is the fuel capacity of the 737-800?
3900 kg in each wing – 13000 kg in centre
-MTOW of 737?
79 tons
-MLW of 737?
65 tons
-MZFW of 737?
62 tons
-Fire extiguesher?
3 (61-200)

-Full power limitations: max 5’of full thrust.

-Pressurization 737: takes from the 5 e 9 stage, it’s controlled in the overheads panel> important
of the sops.
.ressurization of hydraulic sys: There is an electrical as standby. 3000psi

- How many cabin crew do we have and why? 4 because there must 1 cabin crew for each 50
passenger seats. It is a regulation made by ICAO and it is written in the Annex 6 (operation of
aircrafts)
-Voltage of electrical system?
115 volts 400 hz supplied by Integrated drive generator. one for each engine.

-PTU (In aviation, a power transfer unit (PTU) is a device that transfers hydraulic power from one
of an aircraft's hydraulic systems to another in the event that second system has failed or been
turned off > activates autoslat and leading edge flap when sys B does have )

If HYD system B fails, can you actuate the flaps?

Only with the electrical backup

What powers flaps on B737-800?

Flaps on B737 are operated hydraulically by the hydraulic system B in normal operation mode.
PREVIOUS AIRCRAFT FLOWN
DA42NG:

Engine: Austro Engine E4-B

Engine power: Max. take-off power: 100% (123.5 kW) max. 5 minutes.
Max. continuous power: 92% (114 kW)
Maximum take-off mass 1900 kg
Maximum zero fuel mass1765 kg
Maximum landing mass 1805 kg
G-load: +3.8 -1.52 , with Flap +2
Fuel:
Usable fuel Main tanks: 2 x 25.02
Auxiliary 2x 13.22
Total 2 x 38.2
Unusable 1 Usg for wing tank
Max permissible difference 5Usgal
Consumption: Cruise Average 13UsGall/h
Vso:62
Vs1: 69
Vmca: 76, red line
Vr: 80
Vyse: 85, blue line
Vy: 90
Vo:122
Vfe 113/133
Vne: 188

Max. demonstrated crosswind component:

25 kts with flaps UP and and 20 kts with flaps APP

The left engine is the critical engine on the DA42. Because prop turn clockwise. This is due to the p
factor. Also known as the asymmetric blade effect, normally occurring in propeller aircraft, the
shift in location of the centre of thrust will exert a yawing moment on the aircraft, causing it to
yaw to one side. (propellers ascending will have a decreased relative wind velocity and
therefore decreased thrust).

Þ Electrical Sys: It has a main battery of 24 volts which lasts 1hour. 2 alternators (charges the
battery). It has an emergency battery which feeds the pilot map .
- Where is the main battery located? The main battery is located rear-right side of front
baggage compartment.
- How is electrical power generated and stored on the DA42? -It is generated via 2 60amp,
28volt DC alternators;
-It is stored via 1 10Amp-Hour, 24Vold DC lead-acid battery; -It's connected to the hot
battery bus and the battery bus -The battery relay controlled with electric master switch
on the instrument panel.
 1 emergency power pack that consists of 10 lithium manganese 3V batteries; and 2 backup
ECU batteries.
-Comm1, Nav1, Gps 1 gear control, oxygen sys, pfd, SSr ARE ON THE LEFT MAIN BUS
-Avionic Bus (COMM2, NAV2), MFD, horizont, A/P, landing lights, stall and flaps ARE ON
THE RIGHT MAIN BUS.
Þ Anti-ice da42: Lowers the freezing point of water. The name of the liquid is TKS. It has
three operational modes:
-Normal: 2 pumps working simultaneously. 30sec on/90sec OFF__-lasts 2.5hours
-High mode: use 1 pump continuously ON, lasts 1h
-Maximum mode: Uses two pumps continuously for 2 minutes and last 30min
Max 30 liters of fluid. To dispatch the a/c 22 liters at least.
Þ Oxygen Sys: It is a continuos flow system which allows operations up to 18.000. It’s made
up of 4 cannulas + 1 mask. It’s in the left forward baggage.
Þ Landing Gear: Hydraulically operated within 7 seconds. It has a free fall extension lever for
emergency operation> yaw to lock it.

Mr. Battistoni Luca

Diamond DA42

WEIGHTS
EMPTY WEIGHT: 1450 KG
MAX TAKEOFF: 1900 KG
USEFUL LOAD 450 KG
MAX LANDING 1805 KG
(A PIENO CARICO 2:25 PER RAGGIUNGERE LA MLM)

FUEL
JET A1: SG 0,84 KG/LT
TANKS: 2 TANKS (left + right ) each has 3 chambers
Each tank has 26 USG total capacity, 25 USG usable : total 50 USG usable, 152 KG
PUMPS: 1 ENGINE DRIVEN THAT FEEDS THE COMMON RAILS + 2 parallele ELECTRIC PUMPS per
engine
Crossfeed operation
Fuel cooler

TURBO
Wastegates controlled electrically

HYDRAULIC LANDING GEAR

Þ Hydraulically operated
Þ Electrically powered hydraulic pump
Þ Electrically actuated hydraulic valves operated by gear selector switch
Þ Squat switch prevents retraction on ground (SQUAT SWITCH IS ON THE LG)
Þ HYDRAULIC PRESSURE RETRACTS THE GEAR AND KEEPS THE GEAR UP
Þ EMERGENCY: FREE FALL BY RELEASING HYDRAULIC PRESSURE

FEATHERING:
OPERATED BY ENGINE MASTER OFF – FEATHERS ALSO WHEN GEAR OIL PRESSURE IS LOST

FLIGHT CONTROLS:
AILERON AND ELEVATOR CONTROL RODS
RUDDER: CABLES
FLAPS: ELECTRICAL
TRIM: ELEVATOR + RUDDER = MANUAL WITH BOWDEN CABLES

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM (DC ONLY)

24 V SYSTEM
2 ALTERNATORS (1X ENGINE)
1 MAIN BATTERY
1 STAND-ALONE EMERGENCY BATTERY FOR THE ARTIFICIAL HORIZION AND THE INSTRUMENTS
FLOODLIGHTS FOR 1.5 HOURS)
2 ECU BACKUP BATTERIES In the event of a main battery failure the field of each alternator is
energized by two 12 V, 7.2 Ah sealed lead acid batteries (ECU backup battery) connected in series,
which are installed under the passengers' seats. The ECU backup batteries provide also electrical
power for the ECU for a time of 30 minutes (condition).

1 BATTERY BUS + 1 LH BUS + 1 RH BUS +1 AVIONIC BUS

OXYGEN SYSTEM:
CONTINUOUS FLOW UP TO 18.000

ICE PROTECTION SYSTEM- ANTI-ICE (prima che si formi) even if it is called de ice
USES A FREEZING POINT DEPRESSANT THAT CREATES A MIXTURE (tks)
THROUGHT SPRAY NOZZLES IN WINDSHIELD AND PROP AND POROUS SKIN PANELS
30 LITERS- 2 PUMPS – 2,5 HRS IN NORMAL MODE
THREE OPERATIONAL MODES: NORM 2.5h – HIGH 1h– MAX 0.5h
MIN OPERATING TEMPERATURE -30°

START
LEFT ENGINE FIRST

YAW DAMPER
AUTOPILOT MODE. YAW DAMPER MINIMIZES MOTION ABOUT THE VERTICAL AXIS CAUSED BY
TURBULENCE. OFF IN TAKE OFF-LANDING -SINGLE ENGINE OPERATIONS