UNIT-VI

TRANSDUCERS
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSDUCERS
 A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy
to other form. It converts the measurand to a usable
electrical signal.
 In other word it is a device that is capable of converting
the physical quantity into a proportional electrical
quantity such as voltage or current.

Pressure Voltage
 NEED OF TRANSDUCERS

 Transducer is a device which converts a physical quantity to be measured

into an equivalent electrical signal (voltage or current).
 The physical quantity to be measured can be temperature, pressure,
displacement, flow, vibration.etc.
 The electrical signal obtained from the transducer is then used to control
the physical quantity automatically and/or to display the same, as shown
in above Fig.
 A transducer is also called as a pick up element. It contains two parts
that are closely related to each other i.e the sensing or detecting
element and the transduction element.
 The sensing or detecting element is called as the sensor. It is a device
producing measurable response to change in physical conditions.
 The transduction element converts the sensor output to suitable
electrical form. Fig. 1.2.2 shows block diagram of a transducer.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS :
 A transducer is a device that receives energy from one system
and transmits it to the other system in different form.
 The transducers are broadly classified as electrical transducers
and mechanical transducers.
 The mechanical transducers are transducers that respond to
changes in the physical condition of the system and gives output
in other form. e.g. when a spring is subjected to force then the
output is mechanical displacement of the spring.
 The mechanical transducers generate an output signal that is
mechanical by nature.
 Depending on the nature of output signal generated they are
distinguished from the electrical transducers.
 The electrical transducers convert the non-electrical quantity like
force, pressure, temp etc. to an electrical quantity.
 For the measurement of a parameter both the mechanical and
electrical transducers can be used. The electrical transducers are
however preferred to be used due to their advantages.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
 1. Ruggedness : It is the ability of a transducer to withstand
overloads. A good transducer must have a high degree of
ruggedness.
 2. Linearity : The relation between the output and input of a
transducer should be linear Linearity is a very important
characteristics while selecting a transducer.
 3. Repeatability : It is the ability of a transducer to reproduce the
output signal exactly when the same input is applied repeatedly
under the same environmental conditions.
 4. Accuracy : It is defined as closeness of the actual output
produced by a transducer, to the ideal or true value of the
quantity being measured. For any transducer the accuracy
should be as high as possible.
 5. High stability and reliability : There should be a minimum
amount of error in measurement and it should be unaffected by
temperature, vibrations and other environmental variations.
 6. Speed of response : It shows how quickly a transducer
responds to the changes in the quantity being measured. The
speed of response should be as high as possible.
 7. Sensitivity : The sensitivity of a transducer is defined as the
output produced per unit change in the input quantity being
measured. For example the sensitivity of a thermocouple is
expressed in mV/degC. The sensitivity should be as high as
possible.
 8. Small size : A transducer must have small size, proper shape
and minimum volume so that it can be placed at any location for
measurements.
 TRANSDUCER SELECTION FACTORS :
 Nature of measurement : The selection of a transducer depends on the
nature of quantity to be measured e.g. for measuring capacitance the
capacitance sensors need to be used.
 Cost and availability : The factors involved in the transducer selection
are availability of component, simplicity of transducer, reliability, low
maintenance.
 Measuring system compatibility : The transducer selected must be
compatible with the electrical system used. The output impedance of the
transducer and the measuring system must not affect each other.
 Loading effect : If the transducer affects the value to be measured,
errors may be introduced in the measured. Hence, in order to minimize
the errors the loading effect should be minimum.
 Environmental considerations : . In order to achieve desired output a
careful study is to be made of the transducer conditions as its output may
be affected due to electromagnetic interference. shock, vibration and
temperature changes. • While selecting the transducers, we must select a
transducer that is simple in operation and has less number of moving
parts. • Also the transducers should not require continuous calibration
checking and repairing.
 Operating range : The transducer must be selected such that it
provides good resolution and range.
 Sensitivity : The sensitivity if the transducer should be as high as
possible.
GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF TRANSDUCERS :
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER(LVDT)

 It is a passive differential inductive transducer.

 This is a variable inductance displacement transducer.
 The construction of LVDT is as shown in Fig. (a).
 The LVDT consists of a primary winding and two identical secondary windings. These
windings are axially spaced and wound on a cylindrical coil former.
 A rod shaped magnetic core is positioned centrally inside the coil assembly.
 This rod provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux linking the coils
 The moving object, displacement of which is to be measured is coupled to this movable rod.
 The two secondary winding are connected in series opposition as shown in Fig.(b).
 Hence the voltages induced into these windings are of opposite polarities The output voltage
is given by
 Vo = Vl — V2
 Working of an LVDT
 The working of LVDT circuit diagram can
be divided into three cases based on the
position of the iron core in the insulated
former.

 Case-1: When the core of the LVDT

is at the null location, then both the minor
windings flux will equal, so the induced
e.m.f is similar in the windings. So for no
dislocation, the output value (eout) is zero
because both the el & e2 are equivalent.
Thus, it illustrates that no dislocation
took place.
 Case-2: When the core
of the LVDT is shifted to
S1 point. In this case, the
flux involving with minor
winding Si is more as
compared to flux connecting
with the S 2 winding. Due to
this reason, e1 will be more
than that of e2. Due to this
eout (output voltage) is
positive.
 Case-3: When the core
of the LVDT is shifted to S2 .
In this case, the amount of
e2 will be more as that of el.
Due to this eout output
voltage will be negative.
20/10/2016
APPLICATIONS OF LVDT
 In addition to displacement measurement, the
LVDT is used in measurement of acceleration,
force, weight etc
 Measurement of displacement ranging from a
fraction of a mm to a few cm
 As a secondary transducer for measurement of
force, pressure weight.
 Measurement of liquid level in the tank.
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTD)
 RTD commonly use platinum, nickel or any resistance
wire whose resistance varies with temperature &
which has a high intrinsic accuracy.
 The relationship between temp. & resistance of
conductors in the temp. can be calculated using the
equation:
Rt = Rref (1 + αΔt)
Where
Rt= resistance of conductor at temp. t°C
Rref= resistance of the reference temp. , usually 0°C
α = temp. Coefficient of resistance
Δt = diff. Between operating & reference temp.
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
 Resistance of conductor changes when its temp.
changed. This property is used for measurement of
temp.
 Resistance thermometer uses change in electrical
resistance of conductor to determine temp.
 Resistance of metal increase with increases in
 temperature. Therefore metals are said to have a
positive temperature coefficient of resistivity.
 Fig. shows the simplest type of open wire
construction of platinum résistance thermometer.
 Sensing element is actual temp. sensing unit which
located at the tip of temp. sensor.
 Sensing element which is constructed of metals like
Platinum, nickel, copper or tungsten respond to process
temp. by generating measurable resistance.
 Lead wires are attached to sensing element & then passed through sensor sheath. Lead wires
connect sensing element to a temp. transmitter.
 Sensor sheath constructed of metal & house most of component parts of temp. sensor.
 Threaded is welded over rear housing of sensor sheath. One end of thread directly into process
piping & other end into temp. sensor.
 WORKING OF RESISTANCE THERMOMETER

 Suppose we want to monitor temp. of an oven. To do this work probe of of an thermometer

inserted into oven.
 Due to temp. of oven, resistance of sensing element varies correspondingly. It gives o/p of
resistance in ohms but that is not a standard signal that can be transmitted into controller.
 So, we have to convert that change in resistance to a change in voltage & this can be done using
Wheatstone bridge.
 In balance bridge R1& R2 are known & R3 adjustable resistor. R3 is initially adjusted in order to
obtain 0 volt in voltmeter.
 As resistance thermometer inserted into oven , thermometer temp. increases & correspondingly
voltage indicated by voltmeter also increases.
THERMOCOUPLES
See beck Effect

When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end, and there
is a temperature difference between the joined ends and the open
ends, thermal emf is generated, which can be measured in the
open ends.
This forms the basis of thermocouples.
 Construction & Working

 Consider fig.a two dissimilar metals x & y joined together to form two junctions J1 &
J2.
 If these two junctions are kept at temp. T1 & T2 , thermal emf is produced
which is proportional to temp. diff. T1-T2, e = k(T1-T2).
 In measurement system, one of the two junctions can be maintained at a known
temp. is called reference junction while other junction is called sensing junction. Ref.
junction temp. generally used as 0 degree Celsius.
 Temperature diff. exists between sensing & reference, an emf produced that causes
current in circuit.
 Mill voltmeter used to measure thermally generated emf as shown in fig.b,
 The magnitude of emf depends on temp. diff. between reference junction & sensing
junction.
 Metals used for Thermocouples

Advantages of thermocouple:
1) Temp. Range -270°C to 2700°C
2) External dc source is not required
3) Good sensitivity.
4) Speed of response is high
5) Measurement accuracy is quite good
Disadvantages of thermocouple:
1) Cold junction compensation is essential
2) Thermally generated emf is small, the signals need to be amplified
3) Temperature characteristics are nonlinear.
Applications
1) Thermocouples have small capacity. Hence they are suitable for indication of rapidly changing temp.
2) Measurement of surface temp.
 FORCE TRANSDUCER
 Strain Gauge Load Cell
 A load cell is a type of transducer, which is a device that converts energy from one form
to another.
 Specifically, load cells are force transducers, converting the kinetic energy of a force
such as tension, compression, pressure, or torque into a measurable electrical signal.
 The strength of the signal changes in proportion to the force applied.
 The most commonly used type of load cell in industrial applications is the strain gauge
load cell. This type of load cell is accurate and cost-effective.
 A strain gauge load cell is comprised of a solid metal body (or “spring element”) on
which strain gauges have been secured. The body is usually made of aluminum, alloy
steel, or stainless steel which makes it very sturdy but also minimally elastic.
 When a load is applied, the body of the load cell is slightly deformed, but, unless
overloaded, always returns to its original shape. In response to the body shape
changes, the strain gauges also change shape.
 This, in turn, causes a change in the electrical resistance of the strain gauge which can
then be measured as a voltage change. Since this change in output is proportional to
the amount of weight applied, the weight of the object can then be determined from the
change in voltage.
 Working
 A strain gauge is a device that measures change in electrical
resistance when a force is applied. A typical strain gauge is
made up of very fine wire, or foil, set up in a grid pattern in a
way that produces a linear change in resistance when strain is
applied along one axis.
 Normally a steel bar is used as an active element.
The weight of the load produces stress, onto the steel bar.
 The strain gauge resistance changes differ in tension load
cells vs. compression load cells. Tension force causes the
strain gauge to get thinner and longer, increasing the resistance
 Compression force causes the strain gauge to get thicker and
shorter, decreasing resistance.
 As the stress is applied to the load cell, the steel bar will
experience a compression along that axis. The steel bar will
expand along the X and Y axes.
 The resistance of strain gauge A will decrease, while the resistance of strain gauge B will increase.

 If the two strain gauges A and B and the strain gauges on the other two sides of the steel bar are
connected, such that they form a bridge.
 Wheatstone Bridge
 A Wheatstone bridge is a configuration of four balanced resistors with a known excitation voltage
applied as shown below:

 VEX is a known constant voltage and VO is measured. If all resistors are balanced, meaning
R1/R2 = R3/R4 then VO is zero. If there is a change in the value of one of the resistors then
VO will have a resulting change that can be measured .

 In a load cell, these resistors are replaced by strain gauges in alternating tension and compression
measurements. When a force is applied to the load cell, the resistance in each strain gauge
changes and VO is measured.
 ADVANTAGES OF A LOAD CELL
 Load Cells have rugged & robust construction along with outstanding
reliability and long term stability
 They are specially designed to suit the harsh & severe industrial
environment.
 Load Cells are temperature compensated.
 They have a stable system with no moving parts and linkages.
APPLICATIONS OF LOAD CELLS
 To determine the load in rock bolts, tiebacks,
foundation anchors, cables or struts.
 Roof testing and long term performance monitoring of
different kinds of anchor systems.
 Compressive load measurement between structural
members i.e. tunnel supports or at the junction
between a beam and the top of a pile strut.
 To determine the load in experimental research, pile
testing and measurement of the thrust of rocks.
 Compressive load measurement between structural
members.
 Load testing in piles.
 Determination of roof convergence in underground
mines.
 Proximity Devices
 Proximity devices are sensors that detect movement or presence of an
objects without making physical contact with object & converts that
information captured into an electrical signal.
 The principles that are used for developing the proximity devices include
electromagnetic, capacitive, inductive or reluctance principles.
 Proximity sensors detect the presence of an object without touching it.
 As these sensors non contact type sensors they do not cause any damage to
object.
 Proximity sensors do not use any type of physical moving parts.
 There are many types of proximity sensors & they each sense presence of
an object in their own distinct way.
 Two most commonly used Proximity sensors Capacitive Proximity sensors,
Inductive Proximity sensors.
 Capacitive Proximity sensor

 Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect changes in the capacitance between the sensing object and
the Sensor. As per the name, capacitive proximity sensors operate by noting a change in the
capacitance read by the sensor.
 One of the plates is the object being measured (with an imaginary ground), and the other is the
Sensor’s sensing surface. It detectes the changes in the capacity generated between these two
poles. The detection of the object depends on their dielectric constant, but they include resin and
water in addition to metals.
 The capacitive proximity sensor consist a high-frequency oscillator along with a sensing surface
formed by two metal electrodes. When an object comes near the sensing surface, it enters the
electrostatic field of the electrodes and changes the capacitance of the oscillator.
 As a result, the oscillator circuit starts oscillating and changes the output state of the sensor
when it reaches certain amplitude. As the object moves away from the sensor, the oscillator’s
amplitude decreases, switching the sensor back to its initial state.
 A typical sensing range for capacitive proximity sensors is from a few millimeters up to about 1
inch. (or 25 mm), and some sensors have an extended range up to 2 inch.
 Advantages :
 i) Proximity devices are compact in size.

 ii)Contactless detection

 iii) No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life

 iv) They have a high resolution.

OPTICAL SENSORS
 An optical sensor is a light sensor or it is a transducer that
produces an electrical output signal in response to the light input.
 The different optical transducers are :
(i) Photo emissive cells or transducers.
(ii) Semiconductor photoelectric transducers.
i) Photoemissive Transducers
 When the photons of light with sufficient energy incident on the
surface, the electrons break their atomic bond and forces of
material lattice. This effect is called as photo emissive effect.
 The commonly used photoemissive material is caesium antimony.
The photoemissive material is housed in a glass tube. The
photoemissive devices are called phototubes.
 There are three types of phototubes :
• Vacuum phototube • Photo multiplier tube
• Gas filled phototube
 Vacuum Phototube
 Cathode is coated with photo emissive material
is housed in a scaled glass tube along with a other
electrode called anode.
 Vacuum exists in the glass tube. A voltage is
created between the photo cathode and the anode.
The anode has a positive voltage level and the
photo cathode has a negative voltage level.
 When light strikes the surface of photo cathode,
photons supply sufficient energy to the electrons.
The electrons are then emitted from the
photocathode and are collected by the anode.
 If the light intensity is more, large number of
electrons are emitted. The amount of current
flowing in the circuit is proportional to the light
incident on the photo cathode.
 They are used in applications where we need to observe light pulses of short
duration.
 Photo Multiplier Tube

 They are used to measure extremely low levels of luminous intensity.

 The photo multiplier tube is shown in Fig. 1.20.2. It uses secondary emission to provide current
amplification in excess of factor 10^9.
 It comprises of an evacuated glass envelope containing a photo cathode, an anode and several
additional electrodes called dynode.
 Whenever light strikes the photo cathode, electrons are emitted. These electrons are accelerated
by a voltage and focused onto next electrode, called dynode. Each dynode has a voltage that is
higher than the previous dynode.
 When appropriate voltage is applied to the dynode, for every electron that strikes the dynode
three to six secondary electrons are emitted. This process is called secondary emission.
 SEMICONDUCTOR PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
 These devices operate on the principle that
(i) Whenever a material is illuminated its resistance
changes or
 (ii) Depending on the radiation intensity an output
voltage is generated. The radiations that is incident
can be x-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet, infrared or
visible light
 The different semiconductor photoelectric transducers
are :
(i) Photo cells (iii) Phototransistors
(ii) Photo diode (iv) Photovoltaic cell
 Photodiode

 Photodiode is a two terminal electronic device which, when exposed to

light the current starts flowing in the diode. It is operated in reverse
biased mode only. It converts light energy into electrical energy.
 When the ordinary diode is reverse biased the reverse current starts
increasing with reverse voltage the same can be applied to the photodiode.
 But in the case of photodiode the current can flow without application of
reverse voltage, the P-N junction of the photodiode is illuminated by light
and light energy dislodge valence electrons and the diode starts
conducting.
 The photodiode is made up of two layers of P-type and N-type
semiconductor. In this, the P-type material is formed from diffusion of the
lightly doped P-type substrate.
 Operation

 When the conventional diode is reverse biased, the depletion region starts
expanding and the current starts flowing due to minority charge carriers.
With the increase of reverse voltage, the reverse current also starts
increasing. The same condition can be obtained in Photodiode without
applying reverse voltage.
 The junction of Photodiode is illuminated by the light source, the photons
strike the junction surface. The photons impart their enrgy in the form of
light to the junction. Due to which electrons from valence band get the
energy to jump into the conduction band and contribute to current. In this
way, the photodiode converts light energy into electrical energy.
 PHOTOTRANSISTORS

 The phototransistor is a semiconductor device that is able to sense light levels

and alter the current flowing between emitter and collector according to the
level of light it receives.
 The result N-P-N device is called as a phototransistor. Fig. 1.20.7(a) shows the
construction a phototransistor and Fig. 1.20.7(b) shows its symbol.
 The phototransistor effectively converts light energy to an electrical signal. In a
phototransistor the base current is produced when light strikes the
photosensitive semiconductor base region. The collector-base pn junction is
exposed to incident light through a lens opening in the transistor package.
 when light falls on the central region (i.e. on the base) the electron hole pairs are
released. Due to this the barrier potential across the junctions lowers, increasing
the flow of electrons from the left to centre to right.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

 The photovoltaic cells generate a voltage that is proportional to the electromagnetic

radiation intensity. The name photovoltaic is because of the voltage generation
characteristic.
 The photovoltaic cell is also called as solar cell. It produces an electric current when
connected to load.
 The materials that are used for photovoltaic cell arc Silicon (Si) and Selenium (Se)
 The silicon solar cell converts solar energy into radiant power. It consists of a thin
sheet of p type of silicon to which a n type material is diffused. The conversion
efficiency is depends on the spectral content and illumination intensity.
 When the semiconductor is exposed to light, it absorbs the light’s energy and
transfers it to negatively charged particles in the material called electrons. This
extra energy allows the electrons to flow through the material as an electrical
current. This current is extracted through conductive metal contacts – the grid-like
lines on a solar cells – and can then be used to power your home and the rest of the
electric grid.
 Piezo electric transducer
 A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) is a
device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure changes in
acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force by converting
this energy into an electrical charge.
 When we squeeze this piezoelectric material or apply any force or
pressure, the transducer converts this energy into voltage. This
voltage is a function of the force or pressure applied to it.
 The electric voltage produced by a piezoelectric transducer can be
easily measured by the voltage measuring instruments. Since this
voltage will be a function of the force or pressure applied to it, we
can infer what the force/pressure was by the voltage reading. In this
way, physical quantities like mechanical stress or force can be
measured directly by using a piezoelectric transducer.
 A piezoelectric transducer consists of quartz crystal which is made from silicon and
oxygen arranged in crystalline structure (SiO2). Generally, unit cell (basic repeating
unit) of all crystal is symmetrical but in piezoelectric quartz crystal, it is not.
Piezoelectric crystals are electrically neutral.
 The atoms inside them may not be symmetrically arranged but their electrical
charges are balanced means positive charges cancel out negative charge. The quartz
crystal has the unique property of generating electrical polarity when mechanical
stress applied to it along a certain plane. Basically, There are two types of stress.
One is compressive stress and the other is tensile stress.
 When there is unstressed quartz no charges induce on it. In the case of compressive
stress, positive charges are induced on one side and negative charges are induced in
the opposite side. The crystal size gets thinner and longer due to compressive stress.
In the case of tensile stress, charges are induced in reverse as compare to
compressive stress and quartz crystal gets shorter and fatter.