Movement Difficulties Affect Children’s Learning:

An Overview of Developmental
Coordination Disorder (DCD)
Priscila Caçola

The study of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) has emerged as a vibrant line of inquiry
over the last three decades. DCD is defined as a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by poor motor proficiency
that interferes with a child’s activities of daily living (sometimes also known as dyspraxia). Common symptoms include
marked delays in achieving motor milestones and clumsiness, typically associated with poor balance, coordination,
and especially handwriting skills. The condition occurs in 5% to 6% of American school-aged children, implying
that most school classes have at least one affected child. The outcomes associated with DCD often extend beyond the
motor domain to include secondary mental health, emotional, and behavioral issues, with reports on higher anxiety
and depression, poor social communication, being bullied, lower global self-esteem, and less participation in typical
childhood activities. Because of those consequences, early diagnosis, treatment, and educational support are important.
The purpose of this review is to summarize the relevant evidence on the topic of DCD for professionals of the learning
disabilities field, providing specific information on its assessment, classification, treatment, learning implications, and
practical tips to assist school practitioners, educators, and administrators.

Keywords: Developmental Coordination Disorder; dyspraxia; motor skills; handwriting; accommodations

Introduction
The study of children with Developmental
Coordination Disorder (DCD) has emerged as a vibrant
line of inquiry over the last three decades. Currently, the
term DCD (also known as dyspraxia) is well known and
commonly used in the learning disabilities field. In fact,
DCD is considered to be one of the major health problems
among school-aged children worldwide (Cairney, Hay,
Faught, & Hawes, 2005, Green, Baird, & Sugden, 2006,
Henderson & Henderson, 2002; Polatajko & Cantin, 2005).
However, despite the growing interest in the field, little
is known about the specifics of this disorder, mainly in
regard to its assessment, classification, treatment, learning
implications, and effective teaching practices to aid school
practitioners. More importantly, to the field of special
education, is the fact that DCD has profound learning
implications and consequences, ranging from handwriting
deficits to serious social-emotional difficulties (Lingam
et al., 2012). The aim of this review is to summarize the
relevant information on the topic of DCD for learning
disabilities professionals.
DCD was categorized as a learning disability in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM), 4th edition (DSM-IV-TR) (APA, 2000) and is now
consideredamotordisorderundertheNeurodevelopmental
Disorder chapter of the newly released DSM-5 (APA, 2013).
This reclassification in the type of category, however, does
not change much of the scope of the condition; overall,
DCD can be defined as a “neurodevelopmental condition
characterized by poor motor proficiency that interferes
with a child’s activities of daily living” (Rivilis et al.,
2011). This disorder defines children who, for no medical
reasons, fail to acquire adequate motor skills despite their
intelligence levels (Zoia, Barnett, Wilson, & Hill, 2006).
Common symptoms of the disorder include marked
delays in achieving motor milestones and clumsiness,
typically associated with poor balance, coordination, and
handwriting skills. The movements of children with DCD
are often described as “clumsy” and “uncoordinated,” and
frequently lead to performance difficulties in activities of
daily living and sports that typically developing children
perform easily. Other general difficulties commonly
associated with DCD include poor fine and gross motor
control, speech fluency, abnormal muscle tone (hypo/
hypertonia), poor body awareness, and gross motor
sequencing. Those general complications can be observed
when children with DCD attempt to plan a motor task,
organize movements, perform a coordinated action, and

Learning Disabilities 98 2014, Volume 20, Number 2


adjust movements when demands change, such as moving
fast to catch a ball.
Gibbs, Appleton, and Appleton (2007) described DCD
as a ‘‘hidden problem,’’ with an estimated prevalence as high
as 10% in school-aged children. In general, estimates of 5%
to 6% are more likely (American Psychiatric Association,
2000), implying that most school classes have at least one
affected child. Estimates suggest it affects four times more
males than females, and according to Holsti, Grunau, and
Whitfield (2002), children born prematurely and/or with
extremely low birth weights are at a significantly increased
risk of demonstrating DCD.
In the United States, DCD tend to affect 5% to 6% of
the school-age population (estimated in 2012 to be as many
as 3 to 5 million children). However, it is hypothesized
that these prevalence estimates might increase as DCD
awareness becomes more widespread and actions are
taken by parents and practitioners to seek treatment for
students. Difficulties associated with motor learning and
control can last well into adolescence and adulthood (see
reviews by Bo & Lee, 2013 and Zwicker, Missiuna, Harris,
& Boyd, 2012). Thus, it is no surprise that the recognition
of poor short and long-term outcomes (e.g., health,
academic, psychosocial) for these children has attracted a
growing cadre of researchers to study this disorder (Clark
& Whitall, 2011).
Children with DCD experience numerous functional
difficulties related to dysfunctional motor skill coordination
at home, at school, and in the community (Jarus, Lourie-
Gelberg, Engel-Yeger, & Bart, 2011). These include struggles
with everyday activities at home, such as dressing or using
utensils, academic activities, handwriting, or physical and
leisure activities such as riding a bike or painting (Polatajko
& Cantin, 2005). In the classroom, teachers observe
significant issues with academic tasks, such as handwriting,
organization, and attention/behavioral problems. Physical
education teachers, because they work with students in
more complex movement situations, are typically able to
identify students who are at risk for DCD when asked to.
Perhaps the biggest difficulty in recognizing DCD lies
in its heterogeneous nature. DCD often co-occurs with
other developmental disorders, most commonly attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Watemberg,
Waiserberg, Zuk, & Lerman-Sagie, 2007; Dewey, Cantell,
& Crawford, 2007; Martin, Piek, & Hay, 2006; Piek, Dyck,
Francis, & Conwell, 2007; Piek, Rigoli, et al., 2007; Pitcher,
Piek, & Hay, 2003). Kopp, Beckung, and Gillberg (2010)
report that DCD is present in about half of all individuals
with ADHD, and that about half of all individuals with
DCD have ADHD. In addition to ADHD, children with
DCD have shown co-morbidities with other learning
disabilities (Iversen, Berg, Ellertsen, & Tønnessen, 2005)
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and speech impairments (Cheng, Chen, Tsai, Chen,
& Cherng, 2009). Up to 50% of children with dyslexia
showed motor problems that were very similar to DCD
(e.g., Iversen et al., 2005). Over half of children with
DCD perform similarly to children with specific language
impairment in measures of expressive language (Archibald
& Alloway, 2008). Moreover, some individuals with DCD
may have more than one co-morbid disorder (Lingam et
al., 2010; Tseng, Howe, Chuang, & Hsieh, 2007). The issues
of co-morbidities can significantly impact the recognition,
research findings, symptom presentations, severity, and
prognosis of DCD. In addition, it will highly influence
the learning difficulties the child will display and what
accommodations are needed in the school environment.
In an attempt to identify the primary of the
characteristics related to DCD, this review is divided
into six major sections: Assessment and Diagnostic
Criteria, Consequences, Learning Implications and
Accommodations, Intervention, Resources, and Associated
Labels. Once again, the goal of this review is to provide
a summary of the condition’s current state and, more
importantly, to provide resources to enable recognition
and management of the condition.
Assessment and Diagnostic Criteria
Approximately 25% of children with DCD are referred
and diagnosed before starting school. Parents who have
a specific list of concerns, and those parents in higher
social economic classes, are more likely to secure an
assessment and identification of their child (McGovern,
1991). The remaining 75% are referred during the first few
years in primary school. Presentation at this age includes
persistence of the problems noted in the preschool years,
such as slow, immature and laborious handwriting and
difficulties in copying from the blackboard. According
to Missiuna, Rivard, and Pollock (2004), handwriting
problems are readily apparent to classroom teachers, but
might be only the tip of the iceberg for children who have
significant DCD, indicating that other motor coordination
difficulties are present. Consequently, there will often be
a considerable delay before these children are referred for
specialist advice.
Teachers can have a significant participation in
identifying children with varying degrees of clumsiness
since they have the opportunity to observe children in a
variety of environments and contexts(Faught et al., 2008;
Peens, Pienaar, & Nienaber, 2008; Rivard, Missiuna,
Hanna, & Wishart, 2007; Schoemaker, Flapper, Reinders-
Messelink, & Kloet, 2008). When teachers see children with
consistent problems with printing, cutting with scissors,
opening lunch containers, and playing games at recess, it
is very likely that the parent has noticed those difficulties
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as well. Furthermore, the child is probably able to identify
his/her own motor difficulties, including the negative
social and emotional impact of his or her clumsiness.
Even though accommodations to support a child that
consistently show those difficulties are recommended prior
to an official diagnosis, it is essential to assess the child
fully to perhaps diagnose a child that has been identified
with probable DCD.
In addition to this marked impairment in the
development of motor coordination, the following criteria
have been established on the newly released DSM-5:
A. Motor performance that is substantially below
expected levels, given the person’s chronologic age and
previous opportunities for skill acquisition. The poor
motor performance may manifest as coordination
problems, poor balance, clumsiness, dropping or
bumping into things; marked delays in achieving
developmental motor milestones (e.g., walking,
crawling, sitting) or in the acquisition of basic motor
skills (e.g., catching, throwing, kicking, running,
jumping, hopping, cutting, coloring, printing, writing)
B. The disturbance in Criterion A, without
accommodations, significantly interferes with
activities of daily living or academic achievement.
C. The disturbance is not due to a general medical
condition (e.g., cerebral palsy, hemiplegia, or muscular
dystrophy).
Interestingly, many young students are referred for
assessment during kindergarten or first grade as a result
of handwriting difficulties experienced at school and
in the home when it comes to school-related activities
and homework. Parents may notice their children’s
handwriting is a bit slower and perhaps more “messy” than
other children’s, but teachers more often easily recognize
when a young student’s performance is significantly
“different” from classroom peers. Sitting upright and for
long periods of time can also be a challenge for DCD
children, because of low muscle tone, decreased postural
control, and moving to maintain movement activity or
hold themselves up (CanChild website). Teachers might
also notice organizational issues, attention difficulties,
and behavioral problems, which are indicators of a child’s
frustration, as their finished work does not reflect their
abilities (Missiuna, Rivard, & Pollock, 2004).
With so many indicators of the condition, one may
wonder who is actually suited to diagnose DCD. While
diagnosis of DCD can only be made by a pediatrician,
most cases of DCD are assessed by occupational therapists,
educational diagnosticians, and psychologists, who cannot
diagnose the condition but can make recommendations
Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal
to see a medical doctor for diagnosis. In fact, team
effort is required because a diagnosis is not only focused
on motor skill difficulties but rather on ruling out all
other conditions that might be the cause of movement
difficulties (see Whyatt & Craig, 2012, for an example of
movement difficulties associated with autism). First, it is
necessary to rule out neurological conditions (e.g., cerebral
palsy, minor neurological dysfunction), and later ensure
movement difficulties (not only handwriting) and typical
cognitive ability. While a variety of cognitive assessments
have been used, the Movement Assessment Battery for
Children, 2nd ed. (MABC-2, Henderson, Sugden, & Barnett,
2007) is currently the gold-standard assessment to detect
movement difficulties. A score below the 5th percentile is a
strong indicator of DCD.
Consequences
For many parents, it is difficult to learn that their
child has a learning disability. For example, although
DCD is categorized as a disorder of motor difficulties,
the biggest impact of the condition is extended to other
developmental domains. These can include secondary
mental health, emotional, and behavioral issues (Missiuna,
Moll, King, King, & Law, 2007; Green, Chambers, &
Sugden, 2008). For example, children and adolescents with
motor difficulties often experience difficulty participating
in typical childhood activities (e.g., riding a bike), thus
are more sedentary (Mandich, Polatajko, & Rodger, 2003)
and tend to be more overweight/obese than their typically
developing peers (Fong, Lee, & Pang, 2011). They are also
at a higher risk for coronary vascular disease (Faught, Hay,
Cairney, & Flouris, 2005) and have lower cardiorespiratory
and physical fitness (Chia, Guelfi, & Licari, 2010;) in
comparison to typically developing children, with
differences in fitness levels increasing with age (Schott,
Alof, Hultsch, & Meermann, 2007). Furthermore,
emotional and mental health issues in later childhood and
adolescence have also been reported (Missiuna et al., 2007;
Lingam et al., 2012), with reports on higher anxiety and
depression, poor social communication, being bullied, and
lower global self-esteem.
Piek, Baynam, and Barrett (2006) have found that
types of self-perceptions, such as perceived motor
competence, are highly dependent on their level of motor
ability, and because of their low motor ability, children and
adolescents tend to have lower self-perceptions. Faught
and colleagues (2008) reported that children with DCD
demonstrate lower self-efficacy, including enjoyment,
adequacy, and predilection for physical activity compared
to their counterparts. Children with DCD have also
been reported to avoid physical activity due to poor self-
100 2014, Volume 20, Number 2

efficacy (Cairney et al., 2005; Engel-Yeger, Hanna-Kassis,
& Rosenblum, 2012).
A touching and accurate description of a child with
DCD is provided by Missiuna and colleagues (2004):
In many classrooms there is one, or even two,
student(s) who are a real puzzle. They seem to
be bright enough and are good readers. They
participate actively in class discussions, and yet
they are struggling. They are slow to finish any
written work and the end product of their efforts is
usually messy and illegible. Although they can tell
interesting and complex stories, they never seem
to get around to writing anything down. They are
the last to get ready to go outside for recess and,
once there, wander the playground aimlessly.
Clumsy and awkward, they are often isolated by
their peers and are rarely chosen for competitive
games. Their homework is usually incomplete
because it never seems to make it from their desk
to their backpacks. At the end of the day, they
often go home frustrated and in tears (p. 2).
Overall, it is extremely important to understand and
promote awareness of the consequences associated with
having DCD. Because these consequences involve many
domains of a child’s development, preventing the secondary
issues (emotional and social problems) is a priority.
Early diagnosis, treatment, and educational support are
important. Furthermore, longitudinal studies demonstrate
deficits in motor skills persisting into adolescence and
adulthood (Cermak, Trimble, Coryell, & Drake, 1990; Losse
et al., 1991). Failure to diagnose and address the motor
and other commonly associated (co-morbid) features seen
in children with DCD may have major consequences in
adult life, including unemployment, psychiatric disorders,
substance misuse, poor interpersonal skills and criminality
(Hellgren, Gillberg, & Bågenholm, & Gillberg, 1994;
Rasmussen & Gillberg, 2000).
Associated Labels
According to Polatajko and Cantin (2005), although
children with mild motor coordination deficits and clumsy
movements have been discussed in the literature since
1937, the use of the term DCD is fairly recent. The term
was first introduced in the DSM-III in 1987. Historically,
a number of labels have been used in describing specific
developmental disorders of motor function, such as
clumsiness, physical awkwardness, minimal cerebral
dysfunction, motor learning impairment, motor delay,
motor control impairment, sensory integrative dysfunction,
and hand-eye coordination impairment. Although the
London Consensus of 1994 endorsed the term DCD for
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use as a keyword in the literature, other terms may still be
used to refer to the symptoms of DCD.
The most common label used interchangeably with
DCD is dyspraxia. Dyspraxia has been defined as ‘‘a
breakdown of praxis [action]’’ and ‘‘the inability to utilize
voluntary motor abilities effectively in all aspects of life
from play to structured skilled tasks,” as cited in Gibbs,
Gibbs, & Appleton (2006). While there may be debate in
the pediatrics field regarding whether those two terms
are synonymous, DCD is probably a more useful term
for both classification and practical reasons, since it is the
only condition recognized in the DSM. It recommended
that professionals and parents to adopt a single term
when describing these children to avoid confusion and
to facilitate a consistent understanding of approaches to
management and research. Undoubtedly, a consensus has
been (and continues) developing in favor of the term DCD.
In addition, another common term used by
practitioners to define children that have problems specific
to handwriting is dysgraphia. The Learning Disabilities
Association (LDA) website defines dysgraphia as a
“writing or fine motor skills deficit,” and suggests strategies
to help children that show signs of dysgraphia. Despite
the familiarity of the term among professionals, it is
recommended that children suspected to have Dysgraphia
be assessed for DCD, as the handwriting difficulties might
be associated to other motor coordination deficits.
Intervention
Even though there is no known “cure” for DCD,
intervention has been showed as beneficial for developing
skills and strategies to cope with the consequences
associated with DCD. In general, interventions seem to
be more like an accommodation rather than a treatment.
Motor difficulties typically do not just disappear, but with
the right intervention, children can learn strategies to
execute many motor tasks required in daily living activities.
According to the CanChild webpage, the “overall objective
of most intervention approaches is not to change the child’s
motor abilities, but rather to emphasize the development of
specific skills in order to promote successful participation
in the typical activities of childhood, and to prevent
the onset of secondary academic, social and emotional
problems.” A recent meta-analysis by Smits-Engelsman
and colleagues (2012) demonstrated that intervention
produces benefit for motor performance of children with
DCD over and above no intervention.
Two broad definitions of therapeutic approaches
commonly used by therapists include process-oriented
approaches and task-oriented approaches (Smits-
Engelsman et al., 2012). Process-oriented approaches
focus on addressing deficits and impairments in body
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structure and function (Polatajko & Cantin, 2005),
whereas task-oriented approaches focus on addressing
problems in motor learning, motor control and cognitive
processes (Wilson, 2005). A review of the literature
specific to interventions for treating DCD suggests that
task-based approaches, which focus on finding solutions
for tasks at hand, yielded stronger effects in improving
functional outcomes when compared to process-based
approaches, which practice a variety of abilities and skills
(Smits-Engelsman et al., 2012). Examples of task-oriented
approaches include Neuromotor Task Training (Niemeijer,
Smits-Engelsman, & Schoemaker, 2007), Cognitive
Orientation to daily Occupational Performance approach
(Miller, Polatajko, Missiuna, Mandich, & Macnab, 2001),
Motor Imagery Training (Wilson, Thomas, & Maruff,
2002) and Virtual Reality or Active Video Gaming (Levac,
Rivard, & Missiuna, 2012). These interventions have each
shown positive effects on improving functional outcomes
in children with DCD, adding to the host of effective
therapy options available to therapists working with these
populations.
Individualized occupational therapy that has a task-
specific approach, as previously mentioned, can successfully
aid a child in overcoming some of the difficulties associated
with DCD. School counseling is also recommended, and
there must be a strong effort by the school personnel,
along with the family, to monitor the progress of a child
with DCD in relation to mental health and social issues.
Bullying is also a major concern for children with DCD.
Kalverboer (1990) found that children with low motor
ability scored significantly higher than control children
on the “Often Teased Scale.” Besag (1989) also found that
these children were verbally victimized, citing a student/
child named Mark who was nicknamed “Martian” because
of his uncoordinated movements.
Learning Implications and Accommodations
Even though the diagnostic criteria for DCD include
the assurance of typical cognitive ability, the condition
may cause learning and academic issues (Piek at al., 2007).
Unfortunately, comprehension of concepts in most school
environments and activities usually requires handwriting.
When no accommodations are implemented, DCD
children may receive lower grades due to incomplete
classroom work. In many cases, the lack of cognitive
difficulties can hinder or delay the recognition of the
condition, which might cause more frustration. Moreover,
children with DCD tend to be well aware of their motor
difficulties, most likely because of the absence of cognitive
impairments.
It is important for teachers and other professionals
within the learning disabilities field to be aware that
Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal
movements in children with DCD have three main
characteristics: (1) They are slower. Overall, in comparison
with typically developing children, children will perform
movements at a slower pace. If facing time constraints,
DCD children will be even slower (the anxiety and pressure
can take over, slowing down the movement even more)
then when they are not in timed situations. Giving them
more time (or not focus on the time it takes to perform
a movement task at all, e.g., handwriting) can help; (2)
Movements are less accurate. In general, movements
of children with DCD are more variable, which makes
difficult for children to perform tasks that require a high
degree of precision; and (3) Movements typically take
more “effort.” Children with DCD use a greater rate of their
capacity in order to perform than typically developing
children. These three characteristics are always present
in movements performed in children with DCD, and it
is crucial to remember those three features (slower, less
accurate, more effort) in order to understand and help
children accomplish tasks.
Moreover, children with DCD are said to have
difficulties with representing actions, as in planning and
generating an accurate visuospatial representation of an
intended action (Maruff, Wilson, Trebilcock, & Currie,
1999). In addition, they have problems coupling sensory
information with appropriate motor actions (Mackenzie
et al., 2008), resulting in struggles with the planning and
completions of movement actions. As expected, children
with motor impairments lack the normal redundancy in
movements and, consequently, are less flexible at adapting
to task constraints (Smits-Engelsman, deJong, Schoemaker,
& Van Galen, 1995). Not surprisingly, writing problems are
frequently mentioned symptoms in children with DCD.
Impaired visual spatial processing has also been
demonstrated in children with DCD (Wilson & McKenzie,
1998), and it is assumed that information processing
deficits could influence understanding of certain academic
concepts (although no intelligence deficit is detected).
More recently, a study using the Rivermead Behavioral
Memory Test for Children (Chen, Tsai, Hsu, Ma, & Lai,
2013) suggests that everyday memory deficits in children
with DCD are fully mediated through verbal intelligence.
According to Magnussen and Helstrup (2007), “everyday
memory” refers to the day-to day application of memory
skills to meet the challenges of daily life. In that study, it
was demonstrated that almost half (47.4%) of the DCD-
group children had everyday memory scores within the
normal range. Therefore, it seems that everyday memory
deficits are not a general feature of children with DCD.
Interestingly, although both the verbal and nonverbal
IQs of the DCD group were within normal ranges, their
verbal intelligence was significantly lower than that of the
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age-matched controls, which statistically influenced their
everyday memory performance. The overall everyday
memory scores of the DCD group were significantly lower
than those of the controls, particularly in the verbal and
visual memory domains (Chen et al., 2013).
Similarly, a study exploring mathematical problems
in children with DCD reported no evidence for a deficit,
but suggested differences exist between in DCD and
typically developing children’s performance (Pieters,
Desoete, Van Waelvelde, Vanderswalmen, & Roeyers,
2012). The findings showed that children with DCD
performed significantly worse for number fact retrieval
and procedural calculation in comparison with age-
matched control children. Moreover, children with mild
DCD differed significantly from children with severe DCD
on both number fact retrieval and procedural calculation.
In addition, the authors found a developmental delay of 1
year for number fact retrieval in children with mild DCD
and a developmental delay of 2 years in children with
severe DCD.
Overall, it is well known that students who qualify
for accommodations associated with learning disabilities/
difficulties are entitled to a formal plan describing how
the school will support your child’s educational needs (as
mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act [IDEA]). Because movement difficulties and the
diagnostic criteria for DCD involve a disturbance in
activities of daily living and academic achievement, children
with DCD typically qualify for a 504 accommodation
plan or an Individualized Education Program (IEP),
depending on the severity of the condition and also
associated co-morbidities. An accommodation plan will
typically describe all the changes that need to be made to
ensure that a child with DCD will be able to accomplish
classroom tasks and homework activities, such as having
more time to complete assignments, reducing the amount
of handwriting and using a keyboard, being provided more
time for testing situations, permission to dictate stories or
assignments, possible release from PE, creating strategies
to help with the various organizational issues, among many
others. The most effective modification, however, involves
reducing the amount of writing required and allowing
extra time to complete written assignments (Missiuna et
al., 2004).
Resources
Despite the relative novelty of the condition, there are
a variety of (free) resources to guide professionals in the
learning disabilities field when working with a student
who has DCD. The International Society for Research into
DCD was created in 2005 and encourages collaboration,
information, promotion, dissemination of information,
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and work to translate research knowledge in the practical
field. At its 10th conference (July, 2013), the ISR launched
the dcdsociety.org, a website aimed to increase the
understanding and management of DCD, with reports on
recent research, events, discussion topics, and information
about projects all over the world.
To date, perhaps the best and most complete free
online resource for DCD is the Centre for Childhood
Disability Research (CanChild) website (www.canchild.
ca/en). With a specific section on Developmental
Coordination Disorder, the Centre uses simple language
to provide all kinds of information on the condition,
including sections on educational materials and resources
that range from flyers for educators/teachers by school
grade, online workshops, and discussions on very
important (and controversial topics) on DCD, such as “To
write or to type, that’s the question!” The materials also
include great practical tips regarding every aspect in the
classroom (seating/positioning, tools, technology, time,
and so on) and even include specific suggestions by grade.
In addition, the website offers handouts translated in many
other languages.
It is worth noting that most social media networks
also have discussion groups and pages about DCD. The
website pinterest.com has several boards and pins on the
condition, including ideas for activities and tips for how
classroom teachers can help DCD children. The Dyspraxia
Foundation USA manages a Facebook page where parents
and teachers post questions and answers on a daily basis.
Those are just examples of the large network and amount
of information that is available in DCD. It is important
that school districts, teachers, and the community in
general seek out information and promote awareness of
the condition. In addition, researchers in the field must
serve as experts and resources in providing information
and answering questions on the topic.
Final Considerations
Children with DCD represent a significant portion
of the school-aged population. They experience motor-
based performance problems that can have significant
negative effects on their ability to participate fully in the
daily activities of home, school, and play. Even though
this review attempts to shed light on what DCD is, it is
important to understand that there are no single causes, no
single profile, and no known cure for the condition. DCD
can be difficult to identify and manage, mostly because of
its heterogeneity. Any professional working with children,
and especially professionals in the learning disabilities
field, can have a significant and active role in preventing
the secondary consequences of having DCD. As stated,
movement difficulties can affect learning in many ways,
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and many times, focusing on a child’s “misbehavior,” as
sometimes is done in the school environment will not help.
What helps, in those cases, is understanding, accepting,
and working with parents and therapists to provide the
best accommodations for the child. Finally, it is important
to remember that, given the right accommodations, a child
with DCD can be extremely successful academically.
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Priscila Caçola is an assistant professor in the
Department of Kinesiology at the University of Texas at
Arlington.
Please send correspondence to Priscila Caçola,
cacola@uta.edu
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