MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES

UNIT-1

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Unit -1
Casting and Moulding: Brief introduction to the classification
of different manufacturing processes; Introduction to sand
mold making procedure and related terminology; Patterns:
Pattern Materials, Allowances, Types of pattern; Classification
of moulding processes; Sand moulding: Composition,
Properties, Types of moulding sands; Brief description of
various casting and moulding processes: Permanent mould
casting, Die casting, Centrifugal casting, Shell moulding,
Precision investment casting, Continuous casting; Gating
system: Design, types of gates and risers, Directional
solidification; Casting defects and their remedies.

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Manufacturing Process
Manufacturing is the economic term for making goods and
services available to satisfy human wants. In fact,
manufacturing involves a series of related activities and
operations such as :
(i) Product design and development;
(ii) Material selection;
(iii) Process planning;
(iv) Inventory control;
(v) Quality assurance;
(vi) Marketing, etc.

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Classification of Manufacturing Processes

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Selection of a Manufacturing Process

For selecting a manufacturing process, the following points

should be given due consideration :
(i) Manufacturing cost ;
(ii) Production volume and production rate ;
(iii) Characteristics and properties of workpiece material;
(iv) Limitations on shape and size ;
(v) Surface finish and tolerance requirements ;
(vi) Functional requirements of the product.

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Casting Terms

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Casting Terms
Flask- A moulding flask is one which holds the sand mould intact. Depending
upon the position of the flask in the mould structure, it is referred to by
various names such as drag, cope and cheek. It is made up of wood for
temporary applications or more generally of metal for long term use.
Drag- Lower moulding flask.
Cope- Upper moulding flask.
Cheek - Intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.
Pattern -Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some
modifications. The mould cavity is made with the help of the pattern.
Parting line- This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that
makes up the sand mould. In split pattern it is also the dividing line between
the two halves of the pat tern.
Bottom board -This is a board which is normally made of wood and is used
at the start of the mould making. The pattern is first kept on the bottom board,
sand is sprinkled on it and then the ramming is done in the drag

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Casting Terms
Facing sand-The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner
surface of the mould ing cavity to give better surface finish to the castings.
Moulding sand -It is the freshly prepared refractory material used for making
the mould cavity. It is a mixture of silica, clay and moisture in appropriate
proportions to get the desired results and it surrounds the pattern while making
the mould.
Backing sand- It is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in the
mould. This is made up of used and burnt sand.
Core- It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.
Pouring basin- A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which
the molten metal is poured.
Sprue -The passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin
reaches the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the
mould.

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Casting Terms
Runner - The passageways in the parting plane through which molten metal
flow is regulated before they reach the mould cavity.
Gate - The actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity.
Chaplet -Chaplets are used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take
care of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic forces.
Chill -Chills are metallic objects which are placed in the mould to increase the
cooling rate of castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
Riser- It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot
metal can flow back into the mould cavity when there is a reduction in volume
of metal due to solidification.

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Sand Mould Making Procedure
A mould may be defined as the negative print of the part to be cast and is
obtained by the pattern in the moulding sand container (boxes) into which
molten metal is poured and allowed to solidify. Sand moulds are destroyed as
the casting is removed from the moulds.
Steps to make Sand Mould-
• Step 1-First a bottom board is placed either on the moulding plat form or on
the floor, making the surface even.

• Step 2 - Freshly prepared moulding sand of requisite quality is now poured

into the drag and uniformly rammed to compact the sand.
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Sand Mould Making Procedure
• Step 3 - After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is completely
scrapped using a flat bar to the level of the flask edges.
• Step 4-The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the bottom board exposing
the pattern.

• Step 5 – Now put cope half of the pattern is placed over the drag pattern,
aligning it with the help of dowel pins.

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Sand Mould Making Procedure
• Step 6- The cope is separated from the drag and any loose sand on the cope
and drag interface of the drag is blown off with the help of bellows.
• Step 7 -The runners and the gates are cut in the mould carefully without
spoiling the mould.
• The mould now is ready for pouring.

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Casting process

• Casting is perhaps the oldest method of

manufacturing
• It is the first step in the sequence of manufacturing a
product.
• In this process (casting) the raw material is melted,
heated to the desired temperature and poured into
the mould cavity where it takes the desired shape.
After the molten metal solidifies in the mould cavity
the product is taken out to get the casting.

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Basic features of casting process

(i) Pattern and mould.

(ii) Melting and pouring.
(iii) Solidification and cooling.
(iv) Removal, cleaning, finishing and inspection.

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Applications - Domestic

• Spoon
• Kadhai
• Ring
• Ear-ring
• Necklace
• Statues
• Water tap
• Door handle

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Applications - Industrial

• Water tap, pipe, manhole cover

• Door Handle
• Electric motor body
• Pulley
• Flywheel
• Machine tools, base, table, column, spindle
• Try Square base
• Surface Plate

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Steps involved in casting Process

• Prepare pattern
• Prepare mould
• Melt metal, metal alloy in furnace
• Pour molten metal into mould
• Remove solidified object from sand
• Fettling of castings
• Surface cleaning or finishing of castings
• Inspection of castings
• Repair of castings

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Advantages of metal casting process

• Molten material can flow into very small sections so

that intricate shapes can be made by this process. As
a result, many other operations, such as machining,
forging, and welding, can be minimized or
eliminated.
• It is possible to cast practically any material that is
ferrous or non-ferrous.
• As the metal can be placed exactly where it is
required, large saving in weight can be achieved.
• The necessary tools required for casting molds are
very simple and inexpensive.
• Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for
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the casting process.
Limitations of metal casting process

• Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the

castings made by sand casting processes are a
limitation to this technique.
• The metal casting process is a labor intensive
process.

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Pattern

• The pattern is the principal component in the casting

process.
• It is the replica of the object to be made by the casting
process, with some modifications.

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Functions of the Pattern

A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of

making a casting.
A pattern may contain projections known as core
prints if the casting requires a core and need to be
made hollow.
Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten
metal in the mold cavity may form a part of the
pattern.
Patterns properly made and having finished and
smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall
cost of the castings.
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Requirements of Pattern Material

• Easily worked, shaped and joined

• Light in weight
• Strong, hard and durable
• Resistant to wear and abrasion
• Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
• Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in
temperature and humidity
• Available at low cost

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Selection of Pattern Material

• Design of casting
• No. of casting
• Quality of casting
• Shape of casting
• Types of moulding process
• Possibility of design changes
• Chances of repeat orders

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Types of Pattern Material

Wood
Advantages Disadvantages
• Cheap • Susceptible to
• Easily worked moisture
• Light in weight • Wears out quickly
• Easy available • Weaker than
• Easy to join metallic patterns
• Easy to obtain the
surface finish
• Can be easily
repaired

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Metals (Cast Iron)

Advantages Disadvantages
• Cheap • Heavy
• Strong • Rust
• Good resistance • Brittleness
against sand
abrasion
• Good surface
finish

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Metals (Brass)
Advantages Disadvantages
• Strong, tough • Costly
• Does not rust • Heavier than cast
• Better surface iron
finish than cast
iron
• Very thin sections
can be cast

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Metals (Aluminum)

Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to cast • Softer than brass
• Light in weight and cast iron
• Easily machined • Easily damaged by
• Does not rust sharp edges

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Plaster
Advantages Disadvantages
• Cheap • Expands on
• Easy available solidification
• Easily worked • Strength is not so
• Light in weight much as that of
• Good surface metals
finish

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Plastic
Advantages Disadvantages
• Easily castable • Can not be reused
• High strength to • Not too much
weight ratio strong
• Low cost of
working
• Good resistance to
wear and abrasion
• Low cost of
material

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Types of patterns

1. Solid or Single piece pattern

• Patterns made without joints, partings or loose pieces
in its construction is called solid pattern.

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2. Split pattern
• Sometimes pattern can not be made in single piece
because of the difficulties encountered in moulding or
difficulty in withdrawal from the mould.

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3. Multi-piece pattern
• Sometimes patterns are made in more than two parts,
if the shape is complex.

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4. Match plate pattern
• When split patterns are mounted with one half on one
side of a plate and other half directly opposite to the
other side of plate, the pattern is called match plate
pattern.
• Patterns are used in machine moulding, mass
production, greater dimensional accuracy.

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5. Gated pattern
• To produce good casting, it is necessary to ensure
that full supply of molten metal flows into every part
of the mould. Provision for easy passage of the
flowing metal in the mould is called gating and is
provided in gated pattern.

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6. Skeleton pattern
• Patterns for very large castings would require a large
amount of pattern material. In such cases, skeleton
pattern is used.

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7. Sweep pattern
• Sweep pattern is just a form of wooden board sweeps
the shape of casting into the sand. The sweep pattern
rotates about the post.

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8. Pattern with loose pieces
• Certain patterns can not be withdrawn once, they are
embedded in the moulding sand. Such patterns are
usually made in one or more pieces for facilitating
their removal from the moulding box and are known
as loose piece pattern.

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9. Follow board pattern
• A follow board is a wooden pattern and is used for
supporting a pattern which is very thin and which
may collapse under the pressure when the sand
above the pattern is being rammed.

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Pattern Allowances

• Shrinkage or contraction allowance

• Draft or taper allowance
• Machining or finish allowance
• Distortion or camber allowance
• Rapping allowance

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Shrinkage or contraction allowance
All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically
on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of two types:
• Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in
volume when the metal changes from liquid state to
solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for
this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to
the casting, are provided in the mold.
• Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume
caused when metal loses temperature in solid state.
To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided
on the patterns.
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Table : Rate of Contraction of Various Metals

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Double Shrinkage allowance

Double shrinkage allowance is to be provided on the

pattern dimensions, if it is to be used for casting the
metallic pattern, which would ultimately be used for
moulding to take care of the shrinkage of the actual
metal cast as well as the shrinkage of the pattern metal.

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Machining or Finish Allowance
The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are
generally poor and therefore when the casting is
functionally required to be of good surface finish or
dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by
subsequent machining.
Machining or finish allowances are therefore added in
the pattern dimension.

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Table: Machining Allowances of Various Metals

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Draft or Taper Allowance
By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern
maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it
can be removed from the sand without tearing away the
sides of the sand mold and without excessive rapping by
the molder.

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Table : Draft Allowances of Various Metals

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Distortion or Camber Allowance
Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification,
due to their typical shape. For example, if the casting has
the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to
contract at the closed end causing the vertical legs to
look slightly inclined. This can be prevented by making
the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge
slightly (inward) so that the casting after distortion will
have its sides vertical.

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• The distortion in casting may occur due to internal
stresses. These internal stresses are caused on
account of unequal cooling of different section of the
casting and hindered contraction.
Measure taken to prevent the distortion in casting
include:
• Modification of casting design
• Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the
distortion affect
• Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called
camber or distortion allowance

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Rapping or shake Allowance
Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern
is rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge the
mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. Since it
enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the
original pattern dimension should be reduced to
account for this increase.

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Mould: A mould can be described as a cavity created in
compact sand with the help of pattern.
Moulding: The process of making mould in compact
sand is known as moulding.

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Mould materials

• Permanent moulds: These moulds are made up of

ferrous metals and alloys. These are employed for
casting low melting point alloys.
• Temporary refractory moulds: These are made up
of refractory sands. These are used for casting high
melting point materials.

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Properties of moulding sand

• Porosity: Molten metal always contains a certain

amount of dissolved gases which are evolved when
the metal freezes. Molten metal also comes in contact
with moist sand, generates steam or water vapours.
Thus to provide a path for free escape of gases, the
moulding sand should be porous.
• Flowability: It is the ability of moulding sand to get
compacted to a uniform density.
• Refractoriness: It is the ability of moulding sand to
withstand high temperature of molten metal without
cracking.

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• Adhesiveness: It is that property of sand due to
which it adhere or cling to another body.
• Cohesiveness: This is the ability of sand particles to
stick together.
• Green strength: The strength of a sand in its
green or moist state is known as green strength.
• Dry strength: The strength of a sand that has been

dried is known as dry strength.

• Hot strength: After the moisture has evaporated,

the sand may be required to possess strength at

some elevated temperatures. The strength of sand
at elevated temperatures is known as hot strength.
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• Collapsibility: It is that property of sand due to
which the sand mould breaks automatically after the
solidification of the casting occurs.
• Durability: The moulding sand should possess the
capacity to withstand repeated cycles of heating and
cooling during casting processes. This ability of sand
is known as durability
• Low coefficient of expansion
• Chemically neutral
• Reusable, cheap and easy available

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Main constituents of moulding sand

1. Silica sand:
• Silica sand is the main portion of moulding sand (80
to 82%).
• Silica sand contains (80 to 90%) silicon dioxide.
• It is characterized by high temperature and thermal
stability.
• It is generally found on the bottom and banks of
rivers, lakes and large bodies of water.

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2. Binder:
• The purpose of adding binder is to impart the
sufficient strength and cohesiveness.
• The binder are of 2 types:
• Organic binders: These binders find their specific

use in core making.

• Examples are: Dextrin, Linseed oil, Molasses,
pitch etc.
• Inorganic binders: The common binders are clay,

sodium silicate and portland cement. Out of all

these, clay binders are commonly used.
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3. Additives:
• Additives are those materials which are added to the
moulding sand to improve the existing properties of
sand.
i. Sea coal: It is added (1%) to moulding sand for
casting of cast iron to improve the surface
appearance of cast iron.
ii. Pitch and asphalt: (0.2 to 2%) It improves hot
strength and surface finish on ferrous castings.

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iii. Silica Flour: (up to 35%) It improves hot
strength, surface finish, resists metal
penetration, minimizes sand expansion defects.
iv. Wood Flour: (0.5 to 2%) It minimizes sand
expansion defects, improve flowability and
collapsibility.
v. Corn Flour: (0.25 to 2%) It improves
collapsibility, increases the green strength
and dry strength of moulding sand. It
minimizes sand expansion defects.

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4. Water:
• The clay added to foundry sand will not give the
required strength and bond until a suitable quantity
of water is added to it.
• Quantity of water varies from 2 to 8%.

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Classification of moulding sand

1. Natural sand:
• Also known as green sand.
• These sands are taken from river beds and are purely
natural.
• Due to their low cost and easy availability, these are
used for most of the ferrous-non ferrous castings.

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2. Synthetic sand:
• It is an artificial sand obtained by mixing relatively
clay free sand, binder and other material as required.
• It is a better moulding sand as its properties can be
easily controlled by varying the mixture content.

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3. Special sand:
• It contains the mixture of inorganic compunds.
• Cost of these sands are more but they offer high
temperature stability, better cast surfaces.

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Classification of moulding sand (based om
according to their use)
1. Green sand:
• The sand in its natural or moist state is called green
sand.
• It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30% clay,
having total amount of water 6 to 8%.
• The molten metal is poured in green sand moulds
without any prior baking.
• It is used for simple, small and medium sized castings.

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2. Dry sand:
• Green sand moulds are baked or dried before pouring
the molten metal are called dry sand mould. The sand
in this condition is known as dry sand.
• Dry sand has more strength, rigidity and thermal
stability as compared to dry sand.
• These moulds are used for large and heavy castings.

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3. Loam sand:
• Loam sand contains much more clay as compared to
ordinary moulding sand.
• The clay content is order of 50%.
• Sweep or skeleton patterns may be used for loam
moulding.
• It is used for large grey iron castings.

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4. Facing sand:
• This sand is used directly next to the surface of the
pattern and comes in contact with the molten metal
when it is poured into mould.
• It is fresh sand i.e. without addition of used sand.
• It must possess high strength and refractoriness.
• The layer of facing sand in mould usually ranges from
20 to 30 mm.

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5. Backing sand:
• It is the sand which backs up the facing sand.
• It is the floor sand which is repeatedly used.
• Backing sand has black colour due to the addition of
coal dust.
6. System sand:
• System sand is one which is used in a mechanical
sand preparation and handling system.
• In mechanized foundries, no facing sand is used.

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7. Parting sand:
• This sand is clay free and consists of dried silica sand,
sea sand.
• It is used to keep green sand from sticking to the
pattern and also used on parting surface of cope and
drag to separate out.
8. Core sand:
• The sand which is used for the preparation of core is
known as core sand.
• It is also known as oil sand.
• It is the silica sand mixed with linseed oil or any other
oil as binder. 68
Preparation of moulding sand

1. Mixing of sand:
• Sand is mixed with clay, lime, magnesia, potash and
soda.
2. Tempering of sand:
• The process by which adequate amount of moisture is
added to the moulding sand to make it workable is
known as tempering of sand.
3. Sand conditioning:
• Proper sand conditioning means uniform distribution
of binder around the sand grains.
• It can be done either manually or by machines.
• Mullers are used to mix the sand properly.
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4. Testing of sand
Methods of moulding

1. Bench moulding:
• Moulding is carried out on a bench.
• It is suitable for small and light moulds.
2. Floor moulding:
• The moulding done on the foundry floor is called as
floor moulding.
• The foundry floor acts as a drag and it may be
covered with a cope.
• It is used for all medium and large castings.

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3. Pit moulding:
• The moulding is done in a pit is called pit moulding.
• It is used for extremely large sized castings.
• The mould has its drag part in pit and a separate cope
is rammed and is used about the pit.
4. Machine moulding:
• The moulding done by machine is called machine
moulding.
• The ramming of sand, forming the gate and drawing
out of pattern is done by machines.
• It is preferred for mass production.
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Cores

Core is defined as a body of sand which is used to form

the hollow interior of the casting.

Essential characteristics of Good core

• High permeability
• High refractoriness
• Smooth surface
• High collapsibility
• Sufficient strength to support itself

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Functions of core
• Cores are used to form the internal cavities
• Cores are used to form a part of green sand mould
• Cores are used to strengthen the moulds
• Cores are used as a part of the gating system

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Types of Cores

1. Horizontal core:
• It is placed horizontally at the parting line of the
mould such that one half remains in cope and the
other half in the drag.

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2. Vertical core:
• It is placed in vertical position both in cope and drag
halves of the mould.

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3. Balanced core:
• A balanced core is one which is supported and
balanced from its one end only.

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4. Hanging core or cover core:
• Hanging core hangs from the cope and does not have
any support at the bottom of the drag.

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5. Drop core or stop off core or wing core:
• This core is used when a hole, recess or cavity
required in a casting is not in line with the parting
surface.

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6. Ram-up core:
• It is placed with the pattern before the mould is
rammed up.

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7. Kiss core:
• This core does not require core seats for getting
supported.
• These are held in position between drag and cope due
to the pressure exerted by cope on drag.

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Core making

1. Mixing of core sand:

• Core binders are added to sand to improve various
properties of sand.
• Mixing of core sand is done manually or with the help
of machine.
2. Ramming of core sand:
• Ramming of core sand is done manually or with the
help of machine.
3. Venting of core :
• In order to increase permeability, vent holes are
created in the cores with the help of vent wires for
the escape of gases. 81
4. Reinforcing of core :
• In order to increase the strength of core, these are
reinforced with the help of metal wires.
5. Baking of core :
• Core baking is done at temperatures up to 650°F to
improve the strength.
• Ovens, dielectric bakers or radiant bakers are used.
6. Finishing of cores :
• Cores are finished to bring them to correct
dimensions
• Finishing is done by rubbing or filling.
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7. Joining of cores :
• Sometimes cores are made in two or more pieces
before they can be used.
• They are held together by pasting, bolting.
8. Setting of cores :
• Now, cores are ready for placing in moulds.
• Cores should be accurately and securely positioned in
the mould.

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Core Prints

• For all those castings, where coring is required,

provisions should be made to support the core inside
the mould cavity.
• This provision is provided by the pattern. Pattern is
made larger so that it can produce the cavity in the
sand for core supporting along with the cavity for the
product.
• The extra portion is called core prints.

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85
Core Chaplets

• Chaplets are the metal shapes used for supporting

large and odd shaped cores which can not be
adequately supported by their own core-prints.
• When the molten metal is poured, chaplets melts and
becomes a part of the casting so chaplets should be of
same material which is being cast.
• Dirty, rusty, greasy or wet chaplets should be
properly cleaned and dried before use.
• If possible, use of chaplets should be avoided because
sometimes these are not completely fused and create
problem in further machining of the casting.

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87
Gating System

• Gating system means all the passages through which

the molten metal enters the mould cavity.
• Basically includes pouring basin, gate and riser etc.

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Requirements of a gating System

• The velocity of molten metal entering the mould

cavity should be as low as possible so that there is no
erosion of mould.
• It should ensure the complete filling of mould cavity.
• It should prevent molten metal from absorbing air or
other gases while flowing through it.
• It should prevent the formation of oxides.
• It should prevent the entry of oxides, slag etc.
• It should assist in directional solidification of the
casting.
• Gating system design should be practicable and
economical. 89
Elements of a gating System

• Pouring Basin
• Sprue
• Sprue base well
• Runner
• Gate
• Riser

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Pouring Basin

• Molten metal is poured into a pouring basin which

acts as a reservoir from which it moves smoothly in
sprue.
• The pouring basin is also able to stop the slag from
entering the mould cavity by means of a skimmer.
• Role of pouring basin is (a) to regulate the flow of
molten metal entry in sprue (b) to ensure smooth
flow by minimizing splash, turbulence.

91
Sprue

• It is the channel through which the molten metal is

brought into the parting plane where it enters the
runner and then gates.
• Sprue is conical in shape because (a) the molten metal
while moving from the top of cope to parting plane
gains velocity so requires a smaller cross-section for
the same amount of molten to flow at the bottom.

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• (b) Liquid tries to attain the minimum area at the
bottom so that there is an air gap between the liquid
jet and sprue wall so air inspiration will be there
which causes problem.
Sprue base well
• This is a reservoir for metal at the bottom of the
sprue to reduce the momentum of the molten metal.
Role of sprue well:
• Molten metal pool formed at the sprue base serves to
prevent excessive sand erosion when the molten
metal impinges on the runner at the sprue base.
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Runner

• It is generally located in the horizontal plane which

connects the sprue to ingates.

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Gates

• These are the openings through which the molten

metal enters the mould cavity.

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Gating ratio

• It describes the relative cross-section areas of the

components of a gating system.
• Gating ratio = Sprue area: Total runner area : Total
Gate area

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Example

• A gating system has a sprue of 1 sq.cm cross-section,

a runner of 2.5 sq.cm cross-section and two gates of
1.5 sq.cm and cross-section each. Find the gating
ratio.

• Gating ratio = Sprue area: Total runner area : Total

Gate area
• Gating ratio = 1 : 2.5: 3

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Types of gates

Top gate: Molten metal enters the mould cavity from

the top.
Merits:
• Mould is quickly filled
• Moulding is simple
• Casting yield is high
• Top gate may serve as riser

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Demerits:
• Since the metal falls directly into the mould cavity
through height, it may cause erosion.
• Due to air entrapment and turbulence metal
oxidizes resulting in dross formation.

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Parting line gate: Molten metal enters the mould
cavity at the parting plane.
• It is compromise between top and bottom gate and
mostly used.

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Bottom gate: Molten metal enters the mould cavity at
or near the bottom of mould cavity.
Merits:
• It prevents the mould erosion.
• It minimizes the metal turbulence and hence
provides smooth flow of metal into mould.

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Demerits:
• In this, hottest metal remains at the bottom and
coolest at the top which causes problem in
directional solidification.

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 Risers
• Most of the foundry alloys shrink during solidification.
• As a result of this volumetric shrinkage during
solidification, voids are likely to form in the castings.
• These voids needs the additional molten metal.
• Hence, a reservoir of molten metal is to be maintained
from which molten metal can flow into casting when
needs arises. This reservoirs are known as risers.

103
Functions of risers

• To ensure the metal pourer to see the molten metal

filling the mould cavity.
• To provide easy exit for gases and air from the mould
cavity.
• To serve as a reservoir of molten metal and feed it into
the main casting when metal is freezing.

104
Types of risers

• Open riser: The top surface of riser is exposed to

atmosphere.
Drawbacks of open riser:
• As soon as certain thickness of metal solidifies at the
risers top, atmospheric pressure becomes ineffective
and the flow of metal from the riser to the casting
becomes difficult and eventually stops.

105
Overcoming drawbacks of open riser:
• Exothermic materials may be spread over the top of
riser to heat up the riser and keep top open for
atmospheric temperature.
• Exothermic material may also be used with moulding
sand for the sides of the riser.

106
• Blind riser: Blind riser is a mould cavity formed either
on the top or side of a casting and is surrounded from
all sides by the moulding sand.
Merits of blind riser:
• Molten metal remains molten for long time.
• It can be removed more easily from the casting.

107
Drawbacks of blind riser:
• Difficult to mould round cavity.
• The atmospheric pressure is totally cut-off, slowing
down flow of molten metal downward into casting.

108
Shape and size of riser

• The risers are designed to solidify last so as to feed

enough metal to heavy sections of the casting to make
up for shrinkage before and during solidification.
• For this, they should loose heat at slower rate.

109
• The freezing time or solidification time of a casting
depends upon the amount of the heat in casting and
surface area of casting.
1. Chvorinov’s rule: 2
V 
Freezing time or solidification time t = c  
 SA 
Where V=volume of casting
SA= surface area of casting
C = constant of proportionately

110
Constant of proportionately depends upon
composition/properties of cast metal, pouring
temperature and mould material etc.
Since the metal in the riser must be last to solidify, to
achieve solidification
V  V 
   
 SA  Riser  SA Casting
Since V and SA for casting are known, V/SA for riser can be
determined.

111
This formula is not accurate because it does not take into
account the solidification shrinkage.
2. Caine’s method
It is based on an experimentally determined relationship.
Relative freezing time or Freezing ratio is defined as
 SA 
 
 V Casting
X=
 SA 
 
 V  Riser

112
Volume ratio is given by Y = Volume of riser
Volume of casting
Then, Caine’s formula is given as
a
X= +c
Y-b
Where a = freezing characteristic constant
b = Liquid-solid solidification contraction
c= relative freezing rate of riser and casting

113
Values of a, b and c are to be taken from following table

Cast metals a b c
Steel 0.12 0.05 1
Aluminum 0.1 0.06 1.08
Grey cast iron 0.33 0.03 1
Cast iron, Brass 0.04 0.017 1
Aluminum Bronze 0.24 0.017 1
Silicon Bronze 0.24 0.017 1

114
115
Problem:
In the casting of steel under certain mold conditions, the
mold constant in Chvorinov's rule is known to be 4.0
min/cm2, based on previous experience. The casting is a
flat plate whose length = 30 cm, width = 10 cm, and
thickness = 20 mm. Determine how long it will take for
the casting to solidify.
Solution:
Volume V = 30 x 10 x 2 = 600 cm3
Area A = 2(30 x 10 + 30 x 2 + 10 x 2) = 760 cm2
Chvorinov’s rule: TTS = Cm (V/A)2 = 4(600/760)2 = 2.49
min
116
Chill

• In a casting, metallic chills are used in order to provide

directional solidification or to avoid the shrinkage
cavities.
• Chills are essentially heat sinks.

117
Types of chills

1. External chills:
• These are rammed up in the mould at the mould-metal
interface at appropriate locations to suck heat and
accelerate the freezing rate of the metal at these points.
• These are effectively used at those parts of casting that
are difficult to feed by risers.
• They may be used again and again.

Chill material:
• Normally made of cast iron or steel
• Copper can also be used but have high cost
118
2. Internal chills:
• They extend into the mould cavity and then fuse into
the casting, becoming its part.

119
Gravity Die or Permanent Mould
Casting
This casting is called gravity die casting
because molten metal is poured into the
mould under gravity only.
No external pressure is applied to force the
liquid metal into the mould cavity.
This casting is called permanent mould
casting because it uses the mould which is
permanent i.e. the mould can be reused
many times before it is discarded or
rebuilt.
120
Permanent Moulds
Permanent moulds are made of grey cast
iron, alloy steels or non ferrous alloys.
Inner surface of the moulds are coated
first with a refractory and then with lamp
black or core oil.
This is done in order to facilitate the
removal of casting and prevent the
adherence of the molten metal to the
mould.

121
A permanent mould is made in two halves
in order to facilitate the removal of casting
from the mould.
Pouring cups, sprue, gates and riser are
built in the mould halves itself.

122
Cores for Permanent Moulds
The cores may be either fixed type (which
are fastened to the mould body and can be
withdrawn with the mould) or movable
type (which are separated from the mould
and these are drawn before parting the
mould).
For hollow castings, either metal cores or
dry sand cores can be used.
For complicated shapes, the dry sand core
is used.
123
Advantages :
Closer dimensional tolerance and accuracy.
Smoother surface and better appearances.
Mass production is more economical.
Less labour work and time.
Require less skilled labour.
Good quality of casting (high density, less
porosity etc.).
Requires less space.

124
Disadvantages :
A permanent mould costs much more than a
sand mould.
It is suitable for small and medium sized non-
ferrous casting only.
Several defects like stress and surface
hardness may be produced due to surface
chilling effect.
Since the gating system is cut in the mould
halves, once machined, it cannot be changed.
125
Applications :
Carburetor bodies
Refrigeration castings
Oil pump bodies
Connecting rods and automotive pistons
Typewriter segments etc.

126
Investment Casting or Lost Wax
Process or Precision Casting
This process uses wax pattern which is
subsequently melted from the mould, leaving
a cavity having all the details of the original
pattern (required casting).

127
Pattern wax is injected into metal die to form a
dispensable pattern.
Gating Patterns are gated to a sprue to form a
tree or cluster, and base of the pattern material is
attached to the tree.
(a) Solid Pattern: A metal flask is put over the cluster
of pattern and sealed to a base plate to form a
container. A hard setting moulding material is then
poured into the flask, completing the pattern cluster
completely. 128
(b) Shell Pattern: The ceramic shell is formed by
dipped the clustered patterns in a ceramic slurry and
then sprinkling them with a refractory grain. This
procedure is repeated until the required thickness of
the shell is achieved.
Pattern Removal: The flask and shells are then placed
in ovens to bake at a moderate temperature in order
to slowly melt the embedded patterns. The cavity left
in the mould will receive the poured molten metal.
Casting: The flask or shell is inverted and the metal129is
poured into the hot mould.
Advantages of Investment Casting
High dimensional accuracy of the order of ±
0.08 mm can be attained.
Machining can be eliminated.
Very thin sections can be cast easily (0.76
mm).
Complex contours and intricate shapes can be
easily cast.

130
Disadvantages of Investment
Casting
The process is suitable for small size parts.
This is a more expensive process.
Process is relatively slow.
The use of cores make the process more
difficult.

131
Application of Investment Casting
Parts for sewing machines, locks, rifles,
burner nozzles, milling cutters and other type
of tools, jewellery and art casting.
In dentistry and surgical implants.
Parts of gas turbines.

132
Shell Moulding
It is a process in which, the sand mixed with a
thermosetting resin is allowed to come into
contact with a heated metallic pattern plate,
so that a thin and strong shell of mould is
formed around the pattern.
Then the shell is removed from the pattern
and the cope and drag are removed together
and kept in a flask with the necessary back up
material. After that the molten metal is
poured into this mould.

133
Procedure
A metal pattern, heated to about 175°C to
350°C, is clamped over a box containing sand
mixed with thermosetting resin such as
phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde or
polyesters.
The box and pattern are inverted for a short
time. The mixture when comes in contact with
hot pattern, it causes an initial set and builds
up a coherent sand shell next to the pattern.
The thickness of this shell is about 6 mm to
18 mm and is dependent on the pattern
temperature and the sand mixture. This takes
134
5 to 20 seconds only.
The box and pattern are brought in its original
position.
The shell of resin bonded sand is retained on
the pattern surface, while the unaffected sand
falls into box.
The shell, still on the pattern is cured by
heating it in an oven from 250°C to 350°C for
1 to 3 minutes.
The assembly is removed from the oven and
the shell is stripped from the pattern by
ejector pins.
135
The shell halves are assembled with clamps
and supported in a flask with backing
material.
The shell mould is now ready for pouring.

136
Advantages of Shell Moulding
Suitable for thin sections.
Surface finish obtained is excellent.
Good dimensional accuracy (Tolerance =
0.002 to 0.003 mm per mm).
Less floor space.
Machining and cleaning cost is negligible.
The total sand used is only 5 to 10% that of
green sand mould.
Less skilled labour is required.

137
Disadvantages of Shell Moulding
Initial cost of pattern and sand is high.
Special equipment's are to be used.
Reuse of sand is difficult.
Maximum size of casting is limited.
Minimum thickness of the section that can be
cast is 4 mm.
Certain casting shapes are unsuitable when
proper parting and gating is not available.

138
Applications of Shell Moulding
It is well suited to ferrous and non-ferrous
alloys castings in the range of 0.1 to 10 kg.
Small pipes, cam shafts, bushings, valve
bodies, brackets, bearing caps, shafts and
gears, automotive rocker arms and valves etc.

139
Continuous Casting
In this process the molten metal is
continuously poured into a mould around
which there are facilities for rapidly chilling
the metal to the point of solidification.
The solidified metal is then continuously
removed from the mould at the calculated
rate.
The following two processes are
commonly used for continuous casting of
various metals and alloys :
Asarco process
Reciprocating process 140
141
Advantages of Continuous Casting
100 percent casting yield (0% waste).
The process is cheaper than rolling.
Casting surfaces are better.
Grain size and structure of the casting can be
easily controlled.

142
Applications of Continuous Casting
Materials such as brass, zinc, copper,
aluminium and its alloys, magnesium, carbon
and alloys etc.
Production of blooms, billets, slabs, sheets,
copper bar etc.

143
Die Casting (Pressure Die Casting)
Unlike gravity die casting, in this molten metal
is forced into permanent mould (die) cavity
under pressure.
The pressure varies from 20 to 2000 kgf/cm2
and is maintained till solidification stage is
reached.
The pressure is generally obtained by
compressed air or hydraulically.

144
Die Casting Machines
Die casting machines perform the following
functions:
◼ Holding two die halves firmly together.

◼ Closing the die.

◼ Injecting molten metal into die.

◼ Opening the die.

◼ Ejecting the casting out of the die.

Die casting machines are of two types:

◼ Hot chamber die casting machines.

◼ Cold chamber die casting machines. 145

Hot Chamber Die Casting
In hot chamber die casting machines, the
melting unit is in the machine itself that is
why it is called hot chamber die casting
machine.
It has further two types of arrangements :
Goose neck or air injection type (or direct air
pressure).
Submerged plunger type.

146
Goose neck or air injection type

147
Submerged plunger type

148
Cold Chamber Die Casting

149
Advantages of Die casting
It requires less floor space.
Die casting provides for precision manufacture
with a subsequent reduction in machining
cost.
Thin sections of the complex shape are
possible (0.4 mm).
High production rate.
Greater surface finish.

150
Limitations of Die Casting
The cost of die and equipment is high.
The life of die decreases rapidly if metal
temperature is high.
Ferrous alloys are not cast and moreover a
limited number of non-ferrous alloys can be
economically die-cast.
The size of the casting is limited.

151
Applications of Die Casting
Die casting process has been used for many
non-ferrous metals and alloys such as zinc,
aluminium, copper, magnesium, lead and tin.
Automobile parts.
Marine uses.
Domestic appliances.

152
Centrifugal casting
In centrifugal casting, centrifugal force plays a
major role in shaping and feeding of the
casting.
In this process mould is rotated rapidly about
its central axis as the metal is poured into it.

153
The centrifugal force is utilized in two ways:
It is utilised to distribute liquid metal over the
outer surface of a mould. Hollow cylinders and
other annular shapes are formed in this way.
Centrifugal force tends the poured metal and
the freezing metal to fly outward, away from
the axis of rotation, and this tendency creates
high pressure on the metal or casting while it
is freezing the lighter slag, oxides and other
inclusions being lighter, gets separated from
the metal and segregates towards the centre.
154
There are three main types of centrifugal
casting processes. They are:
True centrifugal casting.
Semi centrifugal casting.
Centrifuge casting.

155
True Centrifugal Casting
In this process, the casting is made in a
hollow, cylindrical mould rotated about an axis
common to both casting and mould.
The axis may be horizontal, vertical or
inclined.
Casting cools and solidifies from outside
towards the axis of rotation; so it results in
good directional solidification. Hence castings
are free from shrinkage.
True centrifugal casting may be produced in
metal or sand lined mould, depending largely
upon the quantity desired. 156
True Centrifugal Casting

157
Advantages of True Centrifugal
Casting
There is no need of core to make a pipe or
tube.
No gates or risers are used so no material is
wasted.
Proper directional solidification is obtained.
Dense and fine grained metal casting.
It is a quick and economical method.
The impurities segregate towards the centre
from where they can be easily machined.

158
Disadvantages of True Centrifugal
Casting
It is limited to symmetrical shaped objects
such as pipes, rolls, cylinders etc.
Equipment costs are high.
Skilled workers are required.

159
Applications
Liners for I.C. engines.
Pipes, rolls, cylinder sleeves, piston ring
stocks, bearings, bushing etc.

160
Semi Centrifugal Casting
Unlike true centrifugal casting, a (sand) core is
used to form the central cavity (as in the hub of
the wheel). So internal shapes are controlled
which is not possible in true centrifugal casting.
Semi-centrifugal casting are normally made in
vertical machines. The mould axis is concentric
with the axis of rotation.
Spinning speeds need not be as high as
required in true centrifugal castings.
Directional solidification can be obtained by
proper gating of the casting, and selective
chilling. 161
Casting shapes, more complicated than those
possible for true centrifugal casting can be
made.
Parts produced are gears, flywheels and track
wheels etc.

162
Centrifuge Casting
In this casting, the axis of the mould and that
of the rotation don’t coincide with each other.
Parts are not symmetrical about any axis of
rotation and cast in a group of moulds arranged
in a circle. The setup is revolved around the
centre of the circle to induce pressure on the
metal in the mould.
Mould cavities are fed by a central sprue under
the action of the centrifugal force. The metal is
introduced at the centre and fed into the mould
through radial ingates.
163
Parts produced are valve bodies, valve bonnets,
plugs, yokes, pillow blocks etc.

164
Advantages of Centrifuge Casting
Methods
Produce casting more economically.
Better quality.
It can cast parts which cannot be satisfactorily
produced by other methods.
Casting shape imposes no special limitation in
this process and an almost unlimited variety of
smaller shapes can be cast.

165
Casting defects

(i) Gas defects

(ii) Shrinkage cavities
(iii) Moulding material defects
(iv) Pouring metal defects
(v) Metallurgical defects

166
Gas defects

• Blow holes and open blows

• Air inclusion
• Pin hole porosity
Cause: Lower gas passing tendency of the mould
Reason for lower gas passing tendency of the mould: (i)
lower venting, (ii) lower permeability of the mould (iii)
improper design of the casting.
• The lower permeability of the mould is, in turn
caused by finer grain size of the sand, higher clay,
higher moisture, or by excessive ramming of the
moulds.
167
Blow holes and open blows
• These are the spherical, flattened or elongated
cavities present inside the casting or on the surface.
• On the surface they are called open blows and inside,
they are called blow holes.
• These are caused by the moisture left in the mould
and the core.
• Because of the heat in the molten metal, the moisture
is converted into steam, part of which when
entrapped in the casting ends up as blow hole or
ends up as open blow when it reaches the surface.
168
• The main reason for this is the low permeability of
the sand mould.
• Low permeability is caused by the use of too fine
sand grains, higher amount of binder or over
ramming of the mould.
• This can also be caused by insufficient venting
practice.
• In green sand moulds it is very difficult to get rid of
the blow holes, unless proper ven ting and high
permeability is provided.

169
Air inclusions
• The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the
molten metal in the furnace, in the ladle, and during
the flow in the mould, when not allowed to escape,
would be trapped inside the casting and weaken it.
• The main reasons for this defect are:
(i) The higher pouring temperatures, which increase
the amount of gas absorbed,
(ii) Poor gating design such as straight sprues in
unpressurised gating, abrupt bends and other
turbulence causing practices in the gating and
increasing the air aspiration and finally the low
170
permeability of the mould itself.
• The remedies would be to choose the appropriate
pouring temperature and improve gating practices
by reducing the turbulence.

171
Pin hole porosity
• This is caused by hydrogen in the molten metal.
• This could have been picked up in the furnace or by
the dissociation of water inside the mould cavity.
• As the molten metal gets solidified, it loses the
temperature which decreases the solubility of gases
and there by expelling the dissolved gases.
• The hydrogen while leaving the solidifying metal
would cause very small diameter and long pin holes
showing the path of escape.

172
• These series of pin holes cause leakage of fluids
under high operating pressures.
• The main reason for this is the high pouring
temperature which increases the gas pick up.
• This is particularly severe in aluminium alloys or
steels and irons having aluminium.
• The remedies would be to choose the appropriate
pouring temperature and improve gating practices
by reducing the turbulence.

173
Shrinkage cavities:
• These are caused by the liquid shrinkage occurring
during the solidification of the casting.
• To compensate this, proper feeding of liquid metal is
required as also proper casting design.

174
Moulding Material Defects

• Under this category are those defects which are caused

because of the characteristics of the moulding materials.
• The defects that can be put in this category are:
✓ Cuts and washes
✓ Metal penetration
✓ Fusion
✓ Run out
✓ Rat tails and buckles
✓ Swell
✓ Drop
• These defects occur essentially because the moulding
materials are not of requisite properties or due to
improper ramming. 175
Cuts and washes:
• These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal,
and are caused by the erosion of moulding sand by the
flowing molten metal.
• This may be caused by the moulding sand not having
enough strength or the molten metal flowing at high
velocity.
• The former can be remedied by proper choice of
moulding sand and using ap propriate moulding
method.
• The latter can be taken care of by altering the gating
design to reduce the turbulence in the metal, by
176
increasing the size of gates or by using multiple in-gates.
Metal penetration:
• When the molten metal enters the gaps between the
sand grains, the result would be a rough casting surface.
• The main reason for this is that, either the grain size of
the sand is too coarse or no mould wash has been
applied to the mould cavity.
• This can also be caused by higher pouring temperatures.
• Choosing appropriate grain size, together with a proper
mould wash should be able to eliminate this defect.

177
Fusion:
• This is caused by the fusion of sand grains with the
molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the
casting surface.
• The main reason for this defect is that the clay in the
moulding sand is of lower refractoriness or that the
pouring temperature is too high.
• The choice of an appropriate type and amount of
bentonite would cure this defect.

178
Run out:
• A run out is caused when the molten metal leaks out of
the mould.
• This may be caused either due to faulty mould making
or because of the faulty moulding flask.

179
Rat tails and buckles:
• Rat tail is caused by the compression failure of the skin
of the mould cavity because of the excessive heat in the
molten metal.
• Under the influence of the heat, the sand expands,
thereby moving the mould wall backwards and in the
process when the wall gives away, the casting surface
may have this marked as a small line.
• Buckles are the rat tails which are severe.

180
• The main cause for these defects are: the moulding sand
has got poor expansion properties and hot strength or
the heat in the pouring metal is too high.
• Also the facing sand applied does not have enough
carbonaceous material to provide the necessary
cushioning effect.
• Proper choice of facing sand ingredients and the
pouring temperature are the measures to reduce the
incidence of these defects.

181
Swell:
• Under the influence of the metallostatic forces, the
mould wall may move back causing a swell in the
dimensions of the casting.
• As a result of the swell, the feeding requirements of
castings increase which should be taken care of by the
proper choice of risering.
• The main cause of this is the faulty mould making
procedure adopted.
• A proper ramming of the mould should correct this
defect.
182
Drop:
• The dropping of loose moulding sand or lumps normally
from the cope surface into the mould cavity is
responsible for this defect.
• This is essentially due to improper ramming of the cope
flask.

183
Pouring Metal Defects

• The likely defects in this category are mis runs, cold

shuts and slag inclusions.

184
Mis runs and cold shuts:
• Mis run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the
mould cavity completely and thus leaving unfilled
cavities.
• A cold shut is caused when two metal streams, while
meeting in the mould cavity, do not fuse together
properly thus causing a discontinuity or weak spot in
the casting.
• These defects are caused essentially by the lower
fluidity of the molten metal or that the section thickness
of the casting is too small.

185
• The latter can be rectified by proper casting design.
• The remedy available is to increase the fluidity of the
metal by changing the composition or raising the
pouring temperature.
• This defect can also be caused when the heat removal
capacity is increased such as in case of green sand
moulds.
• The castings with large surface area to volume ratio are
more likely to be prone to these defects.
• This defect is also caused in moulds which are not
properly vented because of the back pressure of the
gases.
186
• The remedies are basically improving the mould design.
Slag inclusions:
• During the melting process, flux is added to remove the
undesirable oxides and impurities present in the metal.
• At the time of tapping, the slag should be properly
removed from the ladle before pouring the metal into
the mould.
• Otherwise any slag entering the mould cavity will
weaken the casting and also spoil the surface of the
casting.
• This can be eliminated by some of the slag trapping
methods such as pouring basin screens or runner
extensions.
187
Metallurgical Defects

• The defects that can be grouped under this category are

hot tears and hot spots.
Hot tears:
• Since metal has low strength at higher tempera tures,
any unwanted cooling stress may cause the rupture of
the casting.
• The main cause for this is the poor casting design.

188
Hot spots:
• These are caused by the chilling of the casting. For
example, with gray cast iron having small amounts of
silicon, very hard white cast iron may result at the
chilled surface.
• This hot spot will interfere with the subsequent
machining of this region.
• Proper metallurgical control and chilling practices are
essential for eliminating the hot spots.

189