Satellites Part7.fr - en

Translated from French to English - www.onlinedoctranslator.
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Satellites
Lebanese University
Faculty of Engineering-Branch III
Teacher. Youssef Harkouss

2020-2021
Summary
- Introduction
- Kepler's laws
- Earth orbits
- Satellite architecture
- Earth stations
- Satellite communication: frequency bands and services
- Assessment of a link via satellite (terrestrial-satellite station and terrestrial
satellite test)
- Transponders
Teacher. Y. Harkouss-Satellites-2020 2
References
-D. Roddy, “Satellite communications”, 4rdEdition, The

McGraw Hill Companies, 2006.
- Intelsat Earth station technology. Revision 5, 1999.
-Tri T. Ha, “Digital satellite communications”, 2n/aEdition,

McGraw Hill, 1990.
- Roger L. Freeman, “Radio system design for

telecommunications”. 3rdEdition, Wiley-Interscience, 2007.
Introduction: definition of a satellite
● A natural satelliteis a celestial body that revolves around

another body of significantly greater mass. A
telecommunications satellite is an artificial satellite positioned in
space for telecommunications purposes and which revolves
around the earth.
● Communication satellites originated in long-distance

communications. They made it possible to overcome natural
obstacles such as oceans or mountain ranges. They also made
it possible to remove the administrative difficulties linked to
crossing politically hostile countries. The basic principle of
satellite communication is to use the satellite as aradio relay
orbited around the earth.
Introduction: first missions
● First missions:The first satellite equipped with an on-board

radio transmitter was theSputnik-I Russian (93 days of life),
launched on October 4, 1957. The first American satellite to
relay communications was calledProject SCORE (Signal
Communications Orbit Relay Equipment), launched on
December 18, 1958. NASA then sent the satelliteEchoin 1960. The
Mail 1B, manufactured by the American firm Philco, launched on
October 4, 1960, will go down in history as being the first satellite
with an active repeater on board.
Introduction: some definitions
● Two earth stations use a satellite as a relay (or repeater)

for communication.
● An earth station sends data to the satellite through the
uplink (uplink).
● The satellite converts the signal (into frequency) and
sends the data to an earth station through the
downlink (downlink).
Uplink Downlink
frequency
fu-fd frequency
Introduction: advantages and disadvantages
●Advantages of satellites over cables:

- Coverage of large geographical areas,
- Multiple access,
- Robust at distances,
- Very precise satellite-to-satellite communication,
- Availability of a large frequency band,
- Allowing rapid deployment of services,
- Adaptation to regions without telecom infrastructure.
●Advantages of cables:
Physical layer: better signal quality, fewer errors.
●Disadvantages of satellites:
- The satellite launch procedure is very expensive,
- Satellite communication imposes a large propagation delay when
comparing it to terrestrial communication.
Introduction: natural/artificial satellites
●The moon is a satellite of the earth:

Distance = 384400 km Revolution
period = 29.5 days.
●The earth is a satellite of the sun:

Distance≈145 Million km Revolution
period = 365.25 days
●The GEO satellite is a satellite of the earth:

Distance = 36000 km
Revolution period = 23h 56mn 4s
Kepler's laws: Kepler's first law
The orbit of each planet is an ellipse of which the sun is one of the foci.
- Fireplaces:F(vs,0) andF'(-vs,0) withvs-has2-b2

Johannes Kepler
- Eccentricity defined bye-vs/has
(1571-1630)
- Rope law:PF-PF'-2has
Kepler's laws: Kepler's second law
The area swept by a sun-planet ray during a unit of time is constant
planet
Sun
Kepler's laws: Kepler's third law
The ratio between the square of the period of revolution T
of a planet and the cube of the semi-major axis a of the elliptical orbit is constant
T2
-constant
has3
The value of the constant only depends on the sun (not on the planet considered).
For a circular orbit (r:radius of the circle) :
T2
-constant
r3
Kepler's laws (continued)
● the orbit of the artificial satellite therefore has the shape of an ellipse;
one of the two foci is located at the center of the earth around which it
orbits; a circular orbit is a particular case of the ellipse whose two foci
coincide at the center of the earth.
● The artificial satellite moves faster the closer it is to the

earth.
● The square of the period of rotation of the artificial satellite around

the earth varies like the cube of the length of the semi-major axis of the
ellipse. If the orbit is circular, then the semi-major axis is the radius of
the circle.
Orbital elements
HASpogue,Perected, NOT
eggsHASscending and
Dascending.
Apogee:the highest
point on the satellite at
which its speed is slowest.
Perigee:The lowest
point on the satellite at
which its speed is fastest.
Different orbits and Van Allen belt (1)
There are 3 types of orbits, depending on the altitude:
(1) LEO(Low earth orbit) below 1500 Km (low orbit, 500-1500

Km)
(2) MOE(Medium earth orbit) between 5000 km and 13000 km
(3) HEO(High earth orbit) beyond 20,000 Km (contains the
GEOs)
GEO(geostationary orbit orGeostationary earth orbit): orbit

35,786 km above the equator.
The duration of a revolution (T) depends on altitude and

varies from 100 minutes at low altitude to 24 hours at 35,786
km.
Different orbits and Van Allen belt (2)
James Van Allen

(1914-2006)
The Van Allen belts, between 1500 and 5000 km then between 13,000 and 20,000
km, make these altitudes unusable (the belts are areas which contain a high
density of energetic particles coming from the solar wind).
Orbit classifications
Equatorial orbit Inclined orbit Polar orbit
Geostationary orbit (GEO) (1)
The geostationary satellite has the particularity of remaining fixed in relation to a

terrestrial observer. To do this, the orbit will have several characteristics:
- Circular orbit:the focus of the orbit is the center of the earth. The satellite is still
atsame speed and to thesame distance relative to the earth. In this case,the
notion of perigee and apogee no longer exists .
- Equatorial orbit:a satellite in equatorial orbit gravitates directlyabove

the equator and its inclination is zero.
- Synchronous orbit:the satellite is at35786 km (≈36,000 km) altitude. Its

orbital period represents the sidereal period of the earth, i.e.23 hours 56
minutes and 4 seconds (the geostationary satellite is a geosynchronous
satellite). The speed of the satellite is3075 m/s .
Geostationary orbit (GEO) (2)
- Three satellites
can cover the
world !!!
- Only one GEO

satellite is visible by
-1/3 of the earth's
surface excluding the
polar zones
extremes.
- The position of the orbit

is regulated by the ITU
(International
Telecommunications
Union)
Period of revolution of a satellite (1)
● Circular orbit: T2 4-2

-
R3 GM
T:period of revolution; R:
orbit radius; G:
gravitational constant; M:
mass of the earth.
G-6.67-10-11Nm2/Kg2 R-h-RT
M-5.97-1024kg
Altitude Radius of the earth
RT-6400 km
(RT=6378.12 Km: equatorial radius)
Relationship between speed and period of revolution of a satellite:
2-R And v-
GM
T-
v R
GEO orbit radius = 42164 km.
Example : Calculate the speed and period of revolution of a satellite in low

orbit (circular orbit) whereh=600 km.
6.67-10-11-5.97-1024
v- -7540 m/s
-600-6400--103
2-R 2--R T -h-2----6400 - 600--103

T- - - -5830 s -1h 37 min
v v 7540
For a geostationary orbit: -GMT2-1/ 3 ≈ the moon is10

R- -- - -42200 km times further
-4-2 - -
T-23h 56min 4s
h-R-RT-42200 - 6400 - 35800 Km
The period increases as the orbit rises.
● Elliptical orbit:
VM:maximum satellite speed (perigee); V M:mass of the earth;

m:minimum satellite speed (apogee); m:satellite mass;
r : maximum approach distance to the satellite (apogee);
M
F:Newtonian force of attraction;

r :minimum approach distance to the satellite (perigee).
m
● Period of revolution: T2 4-2

-
has:semi-major axis; has3 GM
G:gravitational constant; M:
mass of the earth.
● Speed of a satellite (case of an elliptical orbit): -2 1-

v-2GM--r -
has--
r =h+RT(h:satellite altitude)
(ris variable). -2 1-
VM- GM-- -
-rm has---
-2 1-
Vm- GM-- -
-rM has---
● Speed of a satellite (case of a circular orbit):

GM
v 2-
R
Comparison of different orbits
(advantages and disadvantages) (1)
A big
LEO MEO GEO
deadline
Round trip delay 10ms-20ms 50ms-100ms 240ms

Power 1/400-1/2000 1/10-1/20 1
required % GEO Signal received
Number of 50 10 3 very weak

satellites
Need for a network of go-back-ct-

LEO satellites for High cost go-back
continuous coverage t- -
vs
2-36000-103
-0.24s
3-108
- A GEO satellite is an equatorial satellite, so it cannot cover the polar regions.
- A GEO satellite can cover a region 24 hours, it is ideal for BSS services
(broadcast satellite services).
- An MEO satellite is only visible for a period of 2 to 4 hours (each pass).
Comparison of different orbits
(advantages and disadvantages) (2)
- A LEO satellite is visible for a period of 15 to 20 minutes (each pass)

requires a tracking system at the ground station.
Small satellites, inexpensive, Easy

- LEO (benefits)
to launch: low altitude.
Satellite architecture: useful functions
Satellite
(Low Noise Amp.)
(+Transponders)
Earth station (TX) Earth station (RX)

Components of a ground station (1)
Microwave
quarries
IF Baseband
signals
Components of a ground station (2)
◙UPC:uplinkPowerVScontroller adjusts transmitter power to compensate for

path loss variations.
◙Satellite tracking:
● Small antenna can be set manually,
● Large antenna requires some satellite tracking mechanism,
● Earth station antenna searches for maximum beacon power to focus the
antenna on the satellite.
◙ Beacon receiver(Beacon signal is transmitted by satellite company, its frequency is

fixed with high stability):
● Beacon signals are buried between the data transponders,
● Beacon receiver must locate the beacon and measure its power level
(beacon receiver monitors downlink signal strength).
Components of a ground station (antennas) (3)
Parabolic antenna types

Satellite operating frequencies
● Frequency is determined by:
(1)Atmospheric absorption,
(2)Antenna dimensions,
(3)International Regulations.
Atmospheric absorption
● As electromagnetic waves pass through

the different layers of the atmosphere,
they interact with the main components
of the air, including nitrogen and oxygen
molecules, water vapor and other rare
gases and dust. This phenomenon
induces attenuation on the path of the
wave.
● LThe specific attenuation in the atmosphere
is due to the electronic resonance of oxygen
atoms and the rotational transitions of water
molecules. The figure shows the absorption
spectra of O2and H2O in the frequency band 1
GHz-350 GHz.
Atmospheric losses due to

Microwave window: [1Ghz-10GHz] water and oxygen molecules
Antenna dimensions
Parabolic antenna gain:

4-HAS e
G-
-2
● Low frequencies:
- Long wavelength λ therefore small gain
- Low atmospheric attenuation
- Large antenna
● High Frequencies
- Small wavelength λ therefore large gain
- High atmospheric attenuation
- Small antennas
● Choice of frequency is a compromise!
Teacher. Y. Harkouss-Satellites-2020
Satellite communications: bands and services
(international regulations)
Band Frequencies Services
L 1-2GHz Communications with mobiles

(MSS Mobile Service Satellites
services).
S 2-4GHz Communications with mobiles (MSS,

NASA).
VS 4 - 8 GHz National and international civil
Ku: “Under” band K band and
communications, television (FSS Fixed
Ka: “Above” band K band.
Service Satellite Services or services
between fixed points).
X 8-12 (12.5) GHz Military communications (FSS).

These bands are still used by
weather satellites.
Ku 12 (12.5)-18 GHz National and international civil
communications, television (FSS and
BSS Broadcast Service Satellite
services).
K 18-24 (26.5) GHz Telecoms (FSS and BSS)
Ka 24 (26.5)-40 GHz Telecoms (FSS)
Satellite communications signal path
Assessment of a satellite link (1)
Objective of the assessment:
The signal completes its journey

between transmitter and
receiver with
Filtered
enough of
power on arrival for
be decoded with a
minimum of errors (in
digital).
Synoptic of a
satellite connection:
communication
between two ground
stations and a satellite.
Assessment of a satellite link (2)
Different types of losses
Link quality
●Analog links:
- C/N
- C = carrier power received (Carrier)
- N = noise power (Noise)
●Digital links:
- TEB (Binary Error Rate or BER Bit Error Rate)
- Eb/No
- Eb = Energy per bit
- No = Noise power density
Minimization of the influence of noise
●Increase in the power of the received signal,

●Reduction in noise level through optimum choice of
components and devices……
However, problems arise:
1-Hardware limitations:intrinsic noise sources in
electronic components and devices,
2-Economic limitations:cost associated with power, 3-
Regulatory limitations:interference problems between
systems.
Link assessment for the uplink (1)
Signal to noise ratio at satellite level:
-G-
WORSEground- - Lm
PeGeG--/4-Dm- -T- sat
2
-VS- -VS-
-- - ---
-NOT-m KTB -NOT-m KB
-VS- -VS-
in dB- - -10 log 10- -
-NOT- m,dB -NOT-m
WORSEground:EIRP of the transmitting earth station
WORSEground=Power supplied to the antennaPe xAntenna gain Ge
(G/T)sat:satellite figure of merit (T: noise temperature)
Lm:parameter depending on the wavelength λ of the transmitted signal and the distance
Dmbetween the transmitting ground station and the satellite
- - -2 Losses in
Lm- -- --
-4-Dm- free space
k: Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x10^-23 W/Hz/K
B: equivalent noise bandwidth is a good approximation of the bandwidth
filters for the type of modulation used.
Noticed :This link budget does not take into account other losses during the link.
Connection assessment for the uplink (2):
noise reminder
●Different origins of noise:

1-Sources internal to electronic components and devices:
thermal noise, shot noise, scintillation noise, etc. 2-Sources
external to the receiver:
Galactic noise (gas), atmospheric absorption noise, etc.
The transmission channel is assimilated to a source of thermal noise

available power of noise captured by the antenna (power of reception
thermal noise):NOT-kTB-W-
T:equivalent temperature of the system (noise

temperature). k: Boltzmann constant = 1.38x10^-23 W/Hz.K.
B: equivalent noise bandwidth is a good approximation of the bandwidth
bandwidth of the filters for the type of modulation used.
Link assessment for the downlink channel (1)
Signal to noise ratio at the ground receiving station:

-G-
WORSE sat-- Ld
-VS- P satGsatG --/4-Dd -2
-VS - -T-
-- - - - - ground
-NOT-m KTB -NOT-d KB

-VS- -VS-
in dB -- -10log 10- -
-NOT-d,dB -NOT- d
WORSE sat:Satellite EIRP
WORSEsat=Power supplied to the antennaPsat*Antenna gainGsat
Psatcan be determined with(C/N)mpreviously calculated and the noise floor P

noiseof the satellite transponder inB.
(G/T)ground:ground station figure of merit
Ld: parameter depending on the wavelength λ of the transmitted signal and the distance
2
Ddbetween the satellite and the receiving station - - - Losses in
Ld- -- --
- 4 -Dd - free space
Noticed :This link budget does not take into account other losses during the link.
Link assessment for the downlink (2)
If we consider other losses (Lo) in the descending path:
Power received =WORSEsatGLdLo

In dB:
-VS- -VS- -G-

-- -10 log 10- - - -
WORSE sat - dB -- - --Losses- dB--K- --B-
dB dB
-NOT- d,dB -NOT-d -T-ground,dB
-Losses- dB- --Ld- dB --L o-dB

Or
--2
- -
Power received = WORSE sat G/LdLo if Ld- -- --
In dB: - 4 -Dd -
-VS- -VS- -G -
-- -10 log 10- - -
--WORSE sat dB -- - --Losses-dB
-- -- KdB -B-dB
-NOT- d,dB -NOT- d -T- ground,dB
-Losses- dB--Ld- dB --Lo- dB

Calculation example: typical link in the C band
SSPA: Solid state power amplifier
Another calculation example
Satellite transponders (1)
Diagram of a satellite with 5 transponders
Nominal transponder bandwidth = 36 MHz. Ex.:

Hotbird 3 (L-band) 38.5 MHz by transponder.
The bandwidth allocated for C-band service is
500 MHz, and this is divided into subbands, one
for each transponder. A typical transponder
bandwidth is 36 MHz, and allowing for a 4- MHz
guardband between transponders, 12 such
transponders can be accommodated in the 500-
MHz bandwidth.
C-band satellite communications: satellite transponder channels (CCIR

(International Radio Consultative Committee) fixed satellites services
handbook, final draft, 1984)
● The incoming, or uplink, frequency range is 5.925 to 6.425 GHz. The input filter
passes the full 500-MHz band to the common receiver while rejecting out-of-band
noise and interference such as might be caused by image signals. There will be
many modulated carriers within this 500-MHz passband, and all of these are
amplified and frequency converted in the common receiver. The frequency
conversion shifts the carriers to the downlink frequency band, which is also 500 MHz
wide, extending from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz. At this point the signals are channelized into
frequency bands which represent the individual transponder bandwidths. A
transponder may handle one modulated carrier, such as a TV signal, or it may
handle a number of separate carriers simultaneously, each modulated by its own
telephony or other baseband channel.
●The wideband receiver:
A duplicate receiver is provided so that if one fails, the other is automatically switched in. The first stage in the
receiver is alow-noise amplifier(LNA). The LNA feeds into a mixer stage, which also requires alocal oscillator(LO)
signal for the frequency-conversion process. The power drive from the LO to the mixer input is about 10 dBm.
The oscillator frequency must be highly stable. A second amplifier follows the mixer stage to provide an overall
receiver gain of about 60 dB.
●The input demultiplexer (CCIR, 1984):
The input demultiplexer separates the broadband input, covering the frequency range 3.7 to 4.2 GHz, into the
transponder frequency channels. The channels are usually arranged in even-numbered and odd-numbered
groups. This provides greater frequency separation between adjacent channels in a group, which reduces adjacent
channel interference. The output from the receiver is fed to a power splitter, which in turn feeds the two separate
chains of circulators. The full broadband signal is transmitted along each chain, and the channelizing is achieved
by means of channel filters connected to each circulator. Each filter has a bandwidth of 36 MHz and is tuned to the
appropriate center frequency. Althoughthere are considerable losses in the demultiplexer, these are easily
made up in the overall gain for the transponder channels.
●The power amplifier (CCIR, 1984):
A separate power amplifier provides the output power for each transponder channel. Each power amplifier is
preceded by an input attenuator. This is necessary to allow the input drive to each power amplifier to be adjusted
to the desired level. The attenuator has a fixed section and a variable section.Traveling-wave tube amplifiers(
TWTAs) are widely used in transponders to provide the final output power required to the transmit antenna.
Typical diagram of the relative levels in a transponder (CCIR, 1984)
Schematic of aTWT and power supplies
Spacebus satellites
● Spacebusis the name given to the family of geostationary
telecommunications satellites developed from the 1980s by Aerospatiale, now
Thales Alenia Space, in the Cannes Mandelieu space center.
Domain :telecommunications.
Mass :from 1.1 tonnes to more than 5 tonnes.
Lifetime :commonly 15 years old.
Launch :since 1985.
Eutelsat Eurobird1 satellite (Spacebus 3000B2)

(24 Ku-band transponders)

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Translated from French to English - www.onlinedoctranslator.

Teacher. Youssef Harkouss

-D. Roddy, “Satellite communications”, 4rdEdition, The

- Intelsat Earth station technology. Revision 5, 1999.

-Tri T. Ha, “Digital satellite communications”, 2n/aEdition,

- Roger L. Freeman, “Radio system design for

● A natural satelliteis a celestial body that revolves around

● Communication satellites originated in long-distance

● First missions:The first satellite equipped with an on-board

● Two earth stations use a satellite as a relay (or repeater)

●Advantages of satellites over cables:

●The moon is a satellite of the earth:

●The earth is a satellite of the sun:

●The GEO satellite is a satellite of the earth:

- Fireplaces:F(vs,0) andF'(-vs,0) withvs-has2-b2

For a circular orbit (r:radius of the circle) :

● The artificial satellite moves faster the closer it is to the

● The square of the period of rotation of the artificial satellite around

There are 3 types of orbits, depending on the altitude:

(1) LEO(Low earth orbit) below 1500 Km (low orbit, 500-1500

GEO(geostationary orbit orGeostationary earth orbit): orbit

The duration of a revolution (T) depends on altitude and

James Van Allen

Equatorial orbit Inclined orbit Polar orbit

The geostationary satellite has the particularity of remaining fixed in relation to a

- Equatorial orbit:a satellite in equatorial orbit gravitates directlyabove

- Synchronous orbit:the satellite is at35786 km (≈36,000 km) altitude. Its

- Only one GEO

- The position of the orbit

● Circular orbit: T2 4-2

Relationship between speed and period of revolution of a satellite:

Example : Calculate the speed and period of revolution of a satellite in low

2-R 2--R T -h-2----6400 - 600--103

For a geostationary orbit: -GMT2-1/ 3 ≈ the moon is10

The period increases as the orbit rises.

VM:maximum satellite speed (perigee); V M:mass of the earth;

F:Newtonian force of attraction;

● Period of revolution: T2 4-2

● Speed of a satellite (case of an elliptical orbit): -2 1-

● Speed of a satellite (case of a circular orbit):

Round trip delay 10ms-20ms 50ms-100ms 240ms

Number of 50 10 3 very weak

Need for a network of go-back-ct-

- A LEO satellite is visible for a period of 15 to 20 minutes (each pass)

Small satellites, inexpensive, Easy

(Low Noise Amp.)

Earth station (TX) Earth station (RX)

◙UPC:uplinkPowerVScontroller adjusts transmitter power to compensate for

◙ Beacon receiver(Beacon signal is transmitted by satellite company, its frequency is

Parabolic antenna types

● Frequency is determined by:

● As electromagnetic waves pass through

Atmospheric losses due to

Parabolic antenna gain:

L 1-2GHz Communications with mobiles

S 2-4GHz Communications with mobiles (MSS,

X 8-12 (12.5) GHz Military communications (FSS).

K 18-24 (26.5) GHz Telecoms (FSS and BSS)

Ka 24 (26.5)-40 GHz Telecoms (FSS)

Objective of the assessment:

The signal completes its journey

Different types of losses