Amjad Ali

BS IR 212190
Section ‘A’ Eve

Assignment: Summary from page 37 to 51

During the 16th century, the Islamic world saw the rise of significant empires: the Mughal
Empire in Delhi, the Safavid Empire in Iran, and the Ottoman Empire in the west. Each of
these empires made substantial contributions to their regions. The emergence of these
empires demonstrated that Islam was still expanding. While the Mughal Empire is outside the
scope of this text, it's essential to acknowledge its significance. The Safavid Empire's
establishment of Shiism in Iran had far-reaching implications, and the Ottoman Empire,
lasting from 1517 to World War I, left a lasting mark on the Middle East and Europe.

The Ottoman Empire originated as one of several small Anatolian principalities that emerged
after the Mongol invasions. These were Islamic warrior states engaged in conflicts with
Christian Byzantium, inspired by religious and material motives. The concept of gaza, or holy
war, was crucial among these warriors. While they aspired to uphold Islamic traditions, they
also sought power and wealth. Osman, a Turkish chieftain, played a significant role in the
early Ottoman state's expansion. Under his leadership and that of his son Orhon, the
Ottomans extended their rule to the Sea of Marmara and eventually Southeastern Europe.

The Ottomans' expansion was impressive, conquering Constantinople in 1453 and

establishing Istanbul as their capital. They developed a powerful navy and conquered
strategic Mediterranean islands, extending their influence over North Africa. Their land army,
equipped with advanced gunpowder weapons, was formidable. Ottoman military
professionalism and logistical capabilities contributed to their success. The Ottomans also
expanded eastward, confronting the Safavid Empire and eventually incorporating Arab lands
into their dominion, solidifying their role as protectors of holy cities and even gaining access
to the title of caliph.

The Ottoman sultans possessed the right to the caliphate, which they didn't extensively use
until the 19th century, aiming to gain Muslim support against European imperialism. Sultan
Süleyman the Magnificent, one of the most powerful Ottoman rulers, focused on expanding
the Ottoman frontier deeper into Europe. His campaigns captured Belgrade and much of
Hungary. In 1529, he laid siege to Vienna but couldn't conquer it. The Ottoman Empire under
Süleyman extended from the Danube to Yemen, from Albania to the northern Black Sea, and
from Algiers to Baghdad, becoming a significant world power.

The Ottoman ruling institutions were bureaucratic and adaptable, recognizing the diversity of
their territories. Ottoman rule was characterized by pragmatism, adaptability, and efficiency.
The guiding principles came from gaza (holy war), urban Islamic civilization, local customs,
and the division of society into rulers and ruled. The latter, known as reaya, generated wealth
through labor and taxes to support the ruling elite, who were exempt from taxes. The elite
included military, civilian officials, and religious figures. Ottoman rule accommodated
regional differences, emphasizing efficiency over uniformity.

The Ottoman sultans ruled through an imperial council called the divan, led by the grand
vizier. The divan members advised the sultan on various matters and exercised executive
authority in the sultan's name, sometimes even making decisions without consulting the
monarch. Within the Ottoman ruling elite, there were three major groups: the military, the
civil service, and the religious establishment. The devshirme system was a unique Ottoman
practice that involved levying adolescent male Christian children from European provinces,
converting them to Islam, and training them for service in the empire. These individuals often
became top-ranking military commanders and administrators. They were slaves of the sultan
but held considerable power and wealth.

The Ottoman Empire had a unique system for recruiting its ruling elite through the devshirme
levy and palace training system. This method severed the ties of young adolescents with their
places of origin and created officials who were wholly loyal to the sultan. Success in the
Ottoman elite was based on individual talents rather than family standing. The offspring of
converted high-ranking officials were considered full-fledged Muslims and were excluded
from key positions reserved for the sultan's slaves. The Ottoman slave system provided
limitless opportunities for those who entered it, even leading to instances where parents tried
to have their sons taken in the devshirme levy.

Military:
Janissary Infantry:The Janissaries, a professional slave army, were the most efficient
imperial military unit. They were disciplined, professional, and paid regular salaries.
Forbidden to marry or engage in trade, they were stationed in barracks and served both in
military campaigns and domestic law and order maintenance. By the time of Süleyman the
Magnificent, their strength reached around 40,000 troops, including specialized artillery
units.

Sipahi Cavalry:
The provincial sipahis were freeborn Muslims who held timars (income rights from
agricultural lands) in exchange for military service and maintaining order in their timars.
They also brought armed retainers depending on their income level.

Civil Service:
The Ottoman Empire had an extensive bureaucracy, drawing from the administrative
traditions of Byzantium, Iran, and the Arabs. Scribes played a crucial role in maintaining
records of various government affairs. The higher-ranking officials were often from the
devshirme levy, while middle-level civil servants were freeborn Muslims trained on the job.

Religious Establishment:
The ulama formed an essential part of the Ottoman ruling class. The sultans respected the
ulama's role, and the Ottomans sought to establish sharia norms of justice by organizing qadis
(judges) into an official hierarchy. The shaykh al-Islam emerged as the chief religious
dignitary overseeing the appointment of qadis and providing legal opinions sought by the
sultans. However, the ulama's positions were ultimately subject to the sultan's approval.

Millet System:
The Ottoman Empire organized its non-Muslim subjects into religious communities called
millets, granting them a degree of autonomy. The major non-Muslim religions, including
Greek Orthodox Christianity, Judaism, and Armenian Christianity, had millet status. Each
millet was under the authority of its respective religious leader. While these communities
enjoyed religious freedom, they faced social discrimination and were not regarded as equals
to Muslims.

The Ottoman Empire did not undergo a rapid decline but rather a transformation from the
17th to the 20th centuries. External factors, such as European merchant capital penetrating
the empire and commercial treaties like the Capitulations, led to economic dislocation and a
decline in state revenues. Inefficient governance, struggles over succession, and the
weakening of the central government exacerbated the situation. Ottoman military dominance
waned, and they faced defeats in wars, leading to territorial losses and changes in the military
balance of power. The empire needed immediate military improvements to survive.