Transport Phenomena Part 1

Transport Phenomena Molecular Transport Mechanisms
Molecular Transport mechanisms
The molecular mechanisms involve transport of heat by conduction, of mass by

molecular diffusion, and of momentum as occurs in laminar fluid flow. A limited
analogy among these three transport phenomena can be used to help gain better insight
into the processes of the transfer. However, care must be taken not to carry the
analogy too far, and its limitations will be indicated as our development proceeds.
Analogy: It is common to formulate a general rate equation as
( )=( )/( ) ………………….1
1. The Case for Heat Transfer

In heat transfer, the driving force is the temperature difference. The heat transfer
rate is determined by Fourier's law:
=− …………………………………………………………2
Where: rate = q, resistance = x/ (kA), driving force = T
2. The Case for Mass Transfer
In mass transfer the driving force is the concentration difference. The difference
in concentration of species A divided by the difference in length for a differential
element of the box is called the concentration gradient. The concentration gradient is
denoted by ( / ). The equation which represents the experimental observation at
steady-state is:
( / ) =− …………………………………………………...3
Equation (3) is named Fick’s law.
Where: ( / ) is molar flux (moles of species A being transferred per unit

time per unit area)
x is a subscript denotes mass transfer in the n direction only.

1
D is a proportionality constant (diffusion coefficient or mass diffusivity)
3 .The Case for Momentum Transfer
Consider a fluid maintained between parallel plates, as illustrated in the Fig. 2.

The lower plate remains motionless, and a force is applied to the top plane to maintain
it at a velocity U. Because of the internal frictional resistance in the fluid and the
friction between the fluid and the plate, the fluid between the plates begins to move
with the top plate. For the same reasons, the fluid in contact with the lower plate
which is not moving remains stationary. This is an experimental observation and is
called the no-slip condition at the boundary. Figure 1 shows the coordinate system that
is usually used for momentum transfer. The x (the direction of the velocity U,) and y
(the direction for the change in U, and the direction of momentum transfer).
Fig.1: The no-slip boundary condition. A force F is needed everywhere along the plate to hold it
stationary
Let the force on the top plate in Fig. 1 be of magnitude F and let the area of
the plate be A. The ratio F/A is commonly called the shear stress, which is equal in
magnitude to the momentum flux τ. For the steady-state case (t = t∞) where the flow is
laminar between the moving plate and the stationary plate, it is experimentally
observed that:
= =− ………………………………………………4
2
Equation (4) is Newton’s law of viscosity, where the proportionality constant μ

is the viscosity of the fluid. Typical units of μ are kg m-l s-1 (N m-2 .s). At steady-state,
the velocity gradient is constant, the viscosity μ is constant and, since A is
constant, F must also be constant or the same everywhere.
The three equations (Eqs. (2), (3), and (4)) are quite similar. Each involves a
flux term, a proportionality constant, and a gradient of some measurable parameter.
However, the equations are not exactly in their analogous forms. A general one-
dimensional flux equation is:
=− ……………………………………………………….. 5
Where , is the flux in the x direction of whatever is going to be transferred
per unit time per unit area, δ is the proportionality constant, and finally is the
derivative (gradient) of the concentration of property .
In order to apply Eq. (5), each transport equation must be in the appropriate
form. Inspection of Eqs. (2) and (4) shows this not to be the case. For example, the
temperature in Eq. (2) is in units of degrees and is not a quantity per volume. The
following illustrates how to convert temperature driving force ( T) into the heat
contained in the body (J m-3).First, the property that is associated with the heat content
of a body is the heat capacity cp, typical units J kg-1 K-1. Therefore, the product of
(cp,T) may have units of J kg-1. To convert the term ( T) to units of J m-3, the density ρ
must also be included:
∗ ∗ =( )( )( )=
∴ =− =− =− ……………………6
The group is often represented by α (units m2 s-1) and is called the thermal
diffusivity; i.e.,
3
= ……………………………………………………7
Mass transfer. In Fick’s law, Eq. (3), the mass transfer flux ( / ) , is in units
of kmol m-2s-1, and the concentration CA is in units of kmol m-3.Therefore, the
equation is already in its analogous form. The proportionality constant D is the
diffusion coefficient or mass diffusivity in units of m-2 s-1.
Momentum transfer. The momentum equation, Newton’s law, must be treated

in a manner similar to that for the heat. The left-hand side of Eq. (5) is in the form of a
flux. In order to obtain the concentration of momentum that is being transferred, the
density is multiplied by Ux. The units of ρUx are kg m-2s-1 or N m-3 s. After
multiplying Eq. (5) by (ρ/ρ) and rearranging, the result is:
( ) ( )
∴ = =− = −[ / ] =− …………....8
When μ is divided by the density ρ, the result is called the kinematic viscosity ν
(or sometimes the momentum diffusivity):
= ………………………………………………………………….9
The one-dimensional transport equations are now in their analogous form and
are reviewed in Table 1.
TABLE 1. The one-dimensional transport equations in their analogous forms

Transport Flux ( ) Diffusivity (δ) Gradient Equation
1 Heat
= =−
2 Mass ( / ) D
( / ) =−
3 Momentum ( ) ( )
= =−
Example 1: Calculate the steady-state heat flux across a copper block 10 cm

thick, one side of which is maintained at 0°C and the other at 100°C (see Fig.2). The
thermal conductivity can be assumed constant at 380 W m-1 K-l.
4
Solution:
∫ =− ∫ …………………………………………………2
( − )=− ( − )= ∗ 0.1 = −380 ∗ 100
( / ) = 380,000 =380
Exa
mple 2: Two parallel plates are 10 cm apart. The bottom plate is stationary. The fluid
between the plates is water which has a viscosity of 1 centipoise. Calculate the
momentum flux and force per unit area necessary to maintain a plate in motion at a
velocity of 30 cm s-1.
Solution:
= =− …………………………………………4
∆ .
(∆ ) = − (∆ )→ =− = −0.001 ∗ = −0.003 ( )
∆ .
Notes:
1-The quantity (ΔUx/Δy) for the moving plate problem is called the shear rate.
2- μ = 1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.001 kg m-1 s-l
Three Dimensional transport:

1. Heat transfer: The flow of heat would not travel just in one coordinate
direction, and the temperature gradient as well, are vector quantities. Fourier’s law is:
5
x component:( / ) = − ( / )…………………………….2
y component:( / ) = − ( / )……………………………10
z component:( / ) = − ( / )…………………………….11
These components can be added as any components of a vector and result in:
( / )=− [ ( / )+ ( / )+ ( / )]……………..12
( / )=− …………………………………………………..13
where (q/A) is a vector quantity. Also i, j, and k are the unit vectors in the x,y,
and z directions, respectively, and (del) is an operator which may operate on any
scalar. Using T as an example, the term VT is:
= ( / )+ ( / )+ ( / )………………………14
The solution of differential equations such as Eq. (14) is relatively simple for
the one-dimensional case, but can be quite complex for two- or three-dimensional
problems. The general vector form can be derived in a similar manner, but also can be
written down by inspection and the use of our analogy; i.e.,
Ψ =− ………………………………………………………..15
= ( / )+ ( / )+ ( / )……………………....16
Example 3. A glass rod of diameter 1.3 mm is 1 m long. One end is maintained

at the normal boiling point of toluene, 110.6oC. The other end is affixed to a block of
ice. The thermal conduction along the rod is at steady-state. The heat of fusion of ice
is 79.7calg-1. The thermal conductivity of glass in SI units is 0.86 W m-1 K-1. Assume
no heat is lost from the exposed surface of the rod. Find:
(a) the amount of heat transferred in joules per second;
(b) the number of grams of ice that melt in 30 minutes.
6
Solution:
∫ =− ∫ ……………………………………………………2
( − )=− ( − )= ∗ 1 = −(110.6 − 0) ∗ 0.86
( / ) = 95.1
= 95.1 ∗ 0.00133 = 1.32 ∗ 10 J/s
ℎ ℎ = 79.7 ∗ 4.184 = 333.5
.
. = 30 ∗ 60 = 6.8 ∗ 10
.
2. Mass transfer:
Like heat transfer, mass transfer is also described by a vector equation in three
dimensions. Fick’s law becomes:
( / )=− …………………………………………………..17
= ( / )+ ( / )+ ( / )…………………...18
Diffusion may occur in solids, liquids, or gases. In this section, the case of
binary diffusion between two ideal gases under conditions of constant temperature and
pressure will be considered. Fig.3 represents a typical case of steady-state diffusion
between points 1 and 2 under conditions of constant temperature and pressure. Let
both species A and B be ideal gases. Let NA be the moles of A that pass by an arbitrary
location x in Fig. 3; let NB be the-moles of B that pass by the same location. The
quantities NA and NB are termed the molar flow rates, typical units (kmol. s-l);
7
Fig.3:One-dimensional, two-component equimolar counter diffusion.
Equimolar counter diffusion. Figure 3 shows two gases that are diffusing under
conditions of constant temperature and pressure. Since both gases are at the same
pressure, it follows from the ideal gas law that as a molecule of gas A traverses from
left to right in Fig. 3 that molecule must be replaced with a molecule of B in order to
maintain a constant pressure. Since at any arbitrary location x the number of
molecules is always constant, there can be no volume flow. Such a diffusion is called
“equimolar counter diffusion”. Then for equimolar counter diffusion:
=− ( / ) = −( / ) …………………………..19
Since there is no volume flow then:
( / ) =( / ) =− …………………………………….20
( / ) =( / ) =− …………………………………….21
Since both Temperature and pressure are constant then the total moles remains
constant.
= + = ………………………………………22
= + = 0……………………………………………………..23
8
=− ………………………………………………………….24
Combining Eqs. (20) Through (24) results in:
= ……………………………………………….25
Equation (25) is restricted to the binary diffusion of ideal gases at constant

temperature and pressure.
Mass flux: A mass flux is defined simply as the mass per area per time. It is
common practice to define two new fluxes similar to the molar fluxes already
introduced:
( / ) = / [ ]…………………………………….26
( / ) = [( / ) ][ ]……………………………………27
Where MA is the molecular weight. nA; units are (kg s-l)
The mass concentration is the density (ρA) ,typical units (kg m-3).The density
and concentration are related by:
= …………………………………………………..28
Fick’s law can be written in terms of mass flux.
( / ) =− ……………………………………29
Equation (29) is seen to be in the analogous form:
Ψ =( / ) =− ………………………………..…….30
= ……………………………………………..…………31
9
Fick’s law can also be written in terms of partial pressure.
= × …………………………………………………….32
= …………………………………………………………33
Where yA is the mole fraction of A in the gas phase and p is the total pressure.
Fick’s law becomes:
( / ) = −[ /( )] …………………………….34
Example 4: Two gas streams, CO2 and air, are flowing in the same direction in
a channel. The channel is divided into equal volumes by a piece of iron 4 cm thick. At
the plane A-A' there is a hole 1.2 cm in diameter drilled in the iron so that CO2
diffuses from left to right and air from right to left. At the plane A-A, both gases are at
a pressure of 2 atm and a temperature of 20°C. Upstream of the hole both gases are
pure. Under the conditions given, the concentration of CO2 equals 0.083 kmolmm-3
i.e., the concentration of CO2 on the left at the point A. At the right-hand side of the
hole, the concentration of CO2 in air may be assumed to be zero because air is flowing
rapidly past the hole. The diffusion coefficient of CO2 in air is 1.56 ˟ 10-3 m2 s-1.
(a) Find the molar flux of CO2.
(b) Find the number of pounds of CO2 that pass through the hole in the iron in
one hour.
Solution:
= × = × (0.012) = 1.131 10
4 4
( / ) =−
. .
( / ) =−
.
10
0.083
( / ) = 1.56 × 10 = 3.237 × 10−3 3.
0.04
( / ) = [( / ) ][ ]
= [( / ) ][ ]× = 3.237 × 10 × 44.01 × 1.131 10
= 1.6112 × 10
1
= 1.6112 × 10 × 3600 × = 0.1277
ℎ 0.4539 ℎ
Example 5: A tank containing 15 mole percent of CO2 in air is connected to a

second tank containing only air. The connection line is 5 cm in diameter and 30 cm
long, as shown in Figure below. Both tanks are at 1 atm pressure and at 298.15 K. The
volume of each tank is very large compared to the volume of gas in the 30-cm
connection line so that concentration changes in each tank are negligible for a very
long time after the beginning of the experiment. The diffusion coefficient of CO2 in air
at 1 atm and 25°C is 0.164 x 10-4 m2 s-l. Calculate the initial rate of mass transfer of
the Solution:
( / ) = −[ /( )]
15%CO2 x
( / )∆ = −[ /( )]∆
0.164 × 10
( / )(0.30 − 0) = − (0.0 − 0.15 × 1) × 10
(8.314 × 298)
( / ) = 3.3096 × 10
.
= × = × (0.05) = 1.963 10
4 4
11
( ) = 3.3096 × 10 × 1.963 × 10 = 6.498 × 10

.
3. Momentum Transfer:
Temperature and mass are scalar quantities. The gradients of these (∇ or )

and the flux terms (q/A or JA/A or NA/A) are vectors. Whilst the velocity itself is a
vector, and the gradient of this (∇ ) is a second-order tensor correspondingly, the
momentum flux or shear stress is also a second order tensor. The momentum equation
in three dimensions is a tensor relation, which for an incompressible fluid is:
= − [∇ + (∇ ) ]…………………………………………..35
Where τ is the stress tensor, ∇ is the shear rate tensor and its transpose (∇ )
is the transpose of stress tensor.
Velocity, which is a vector quantity, has three components. Any one of these
components can vary in three directions. Consequently, there are three components
taken three ways, or nine possible terms. In the form of an array, these terms are:
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
∇ =⎢ ⎥ ………………………………………..36
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The transpose tensor (∇ ) will be:
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
(∇ ) = ⎢ ⎥……………………………………..37
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Since Eq. (35) must be homogeneous, the left-hand side must also be a second-
order tensor, i.e.,
12
= ……………………………………………38
Each row of the tensor has three terms. In the first row of Eq. (38) there is one
normal stress τxx and two tangential stresses, τxy and τxz. The three normal stresses in
Eq. (38) (the diagonal elements) act in the x, y, and z directions, and each is the’ force
per unit area on a plane perpendicular to the direction in which it acts.
As already indicated, Eq. (35) is a shorthand representation for nine equations.

Several of these are’
=− + = −2 …………………………….39
=− + ……………………………………………40
=− + ……………………………………………41
For the one-dimensional problem of Eq. (2.5), Ux varies in the y direction only,
and both Uy and Uz are zero. Thus, most derivatives in ∇ are zero:
= = 0……………………………………………………42
= = = 0……………………………………………..43
= = = 0…………………………………………......44
From the nine equations represented in shorthand by Eq. (35) only two
equations remain, Eqs. (40) and (41), both of which are identical to Eq.(4) since is
zero and τxy equals τyx. It therefore follows that for the one-dimensional problem
where Eq. (4) is valid, there are only two non-zero shear stress terms, which are τxy
and τxy .
13
Fig. 4 considers the shear stresses τxx, τxy, and τxz, at a point in space, Figure
4(a). Figure 4(b) shows a typical experiment that might generate τxy, i.e., a flat plate
moving with velocity Uplate, in the y direction. This plate causes a velocity gradient so
that Uy in the fluid is a function of x. There is a momentum flux τxy that acts in the x
direction on the yz plane, shown as shaded in Fig. 4(a).The shear stress, on the other
hand, is in the y direction as a result of a force F (not shown) in the y direction that is
needed to pull the plate with velocity UPlate. It is admittedly confusing when the-same
symbol τxy is used to denote the momentum flux and the shear stress, especially when
they are
equal in magnitude but in differing directions.
Fig.4 The momentum flux τxy.
Example 6. Toluene is contained between two identical and parallel plates each of
area 5.0m2. The top plate is pulled in the minus x direction by a force of 0.083N at a
velocity of 0.3 ms-1. The bottom plate is pulled in the opposite direction by a force of
0.027N at a velocity of 0.1 ms-1, as shown in Figure below. The plates are 10 mm
apart. Calculate the viscosity of toluene in centipoise.
Solution:
∆
= =− =−
∆
∆ = , − , = −0.3 − 0.10
= −0.40
14
∆ = 0.01
∆ = 0.083 − (−0.027) = 0.11
0.11 −0.4
=−
5 0.01
= 5.5 × 10 . = 0.55
Example 7. An incompressible fluid flows between two large plates in the x direction
at steady-state. The bottom plate is flat. The top plate is divided into two flat plates by
a reducer plate set at an angle to the bottom plate. The fluid flows in a 2-cm wide
channel at the inlet, then into the reducer section, and out a 1-cm-wide channel (see
Figure below). The flow is laminar throughout the channel. In the reducer, which of
the nine components of the velocity tensor ∇ and the stress tensor τ are non-zero?
Solution:
Since both plates are large and flow is in the x and y directions only, the
velocity in the z direction (perpendicular to the plane of the paper) will be zero as will
all derivatives of Uz:
= = =0
In the reducer, the fluid is accelerating in the x direction:
≠0
The velocity U, is a function of y everywhere between the plates (zero at both

walls, finite and variable in between):
≠0
15
The fluid must flow in the minus y direction as well as the positive x direction
in order to squeeze into the l-cm-wide channel. The velocity Uy will vary in the x
direction as well as in the y direction:
≠0≠
Since the plates are large, there is no variation of any velocity with the z
direction, thus:
=0=
In conclusion, for the two-dimensional flow in the reducer, there are four non-
zero derivatives in ∇ : , , .According to this there are four non-
zero shear stress which are: τxx ,τyx ,τxy and τyy.
Note the symmetry of the stress tensor:
Heat, Mass and Momentum Diffusivities:

Fourier’s law, Fick’s law and Newton’s law contain three constants have
different units:
(1) Thermal conductivity, k: units of W m-1 K-1.
(2) Diffusion coefficient, D: units of m2s-1.
(3) Viscosity, μ: units of kg m-l s-1.
In developing the analogous equations, these three empirical constants were

modified (see Table 1) in order to equate the with the concentration gradient, :
These three constants vary with changes in temperature, pressure, and, in the
case of D, concentration. Generally, it is necessary to find the individual properties (k,
16
ρ, cp, and μ) in order to compute the diffusivities. These three constants are available
in tables or determined experimentally.
Thermal Conductivity:
See Table (2.2) for typical values of k for different gases. The thermal
conductivity α is normally estimated from:
Diffusion Coefficient:
D is normally measured experimentally (see Table 2-2).D increases with

pressure and temperature according to the following relationship:
= ………………………………………………..45
Where Do is known at To and Po, and the exponent n varies between 1.75 and
2.0 over a range of normal temperatures and pressures.
Viscosity:
Table 2.2 contains some typical values of viscosity. Extensive tables and charts
are available in various handbooks. In general, the viscosity of gases increases with
temperature at low pressures, while that of liquids usually decreases. An approximate
empirical observation for the temperature dependency of liquids is:
= ……………………………………………………..46
Where A and B are empirical constants in this equation.
17
Transport Phenomena The General Property Balance
The General Property Balance
The conservation laws of mass, energy, and momentum are the most widely
applicable laws in our universe. Many practical problems can be solved by application
of these laws either alone or in combination. The laws of conservation of mass,
energy, and momentum will be expressed in an analogous fashion. The resultant
generalized equation is called the general property balance.
The Balance or Conservation Concept:

Conservation of energy, conservation of mass, and conservation of momentum
are mathematically analogous. Consider one-dimensional conservation. A simple
volume is illustrated in Fig. 1. Heat enters from the left and exits to the right. The inlet
and outlet areas need not be equal, but the input and output must occur only in the x
direction. No transfer of any kind occurs in the y direction or z direction. There are
four types of terms to be considered:
Fig. 1: A volume V with INPUT and OUTPUT.

1-Input: The input is the amount of heat that enters the volume (V) in a
given period of time. Let us say that the heat enters through face 1 in the
x direction only. By using the concept of a flux Ψ and property
concentration ,the input will be:
= (Ψ ) ………………………………………. .(1)
Notes:
i. The units of Ψ , are (property m-2s-l) and the rate of transferred

material (property s-l).
18
ii. For heat or energy transfer, is ρcpT; for mass transfer, is the
total mass per unit volume (ρ) or the concentration of any
individual species in mass units (ρA) or in molar units (CA); for
momentum transfer , can be ρUx , ρUy or ρUz, depending on the
direction being considered. The various properties are summarized
in Table 1.
Table 1: Complete list of , and δ for use in the general property balance
2-Output: The amount of heat that exits the volume through the outlet
face 2 in the same period of time is the output. The output is also
restricted to the x direction.
= (Ψ ) ………………………………………(2)
3-Generation: It is possible for heat to be generated in the volume during

the period of time. A common mechanism for heat generation is by
means of chemical reaction. Absorption of heat by chemical or other
means is simply negative generation or depletion. The generation
sometimes depends on the fluxΨ , or the property concentration . Since
∙
generation is not a transport, an arbitrary symbol will be used to
represent the rate of generation of heat, mass, or momentum in a unit of
∙
volume. The logical unit of is the property per unit volume per unit
time (kmol m-3 s -1 for mass transfer)
19
∙
=( )[ ]…………………………………(3)
4-Accumulation: If the heat transfer is not occurring under steady state

conditions, the temperature in the volume between faces 1 and 2 may
increase or decrease in the period of time (i.e., be positive or negative).At
steady-state, the accumulation term is always zero. The nature of the
accumulation term is similar to that of the generation term, the rate of
accumulation of is( / ), in the units of property per volume per
time. The total balance requires that the total amount of accumulated
be proportional to the total volume so that:
=( / )( )………………………… (4)
The law of conservation of energy (or mass or momentum) says:
+ = + ………… (5)
(Ψ ) +( ∙ )[ ] = (Ψ ) +( / )( )………………. (6)
Equation 5 is the general property balance in mathematical terms.
The Balance Equation in Differential Form

Equation 6 is most useful in differential form. When combined with expressions
for the flux, Equation 6 can be integrated to give useful results. The equation can be
rearranged to:
∙ ) − (Ψ ) ]/( )………………. (7)

/ − = −[(Ψ
Now consider a differential volume ΔV of length Δx as shown.in Fig. 2.The

differential volume in the figure is the volume between x1 and x2, and can be
expressed as:
∆ =( ) −( ) ……………………………………... (8)
Replacing V in Eq. (3.8) with ΔV gives:
20
∙ ) − (Ψ ) ]/(∆ )…………..… (9)

/ − = −[(Ψ
F
igure 2:
A
differenti
al
volume
of length
Ax.
T
he limit of[(Ψ ) − (Ψ ) ], divided by ΔV, as ΔV approaches zero is the
definition of the derivative:
( ) ( ) ∆( ) ( )
lim = = …………………… (10)
∆ → ∆
Substitute equation (10) in Equation (9) gives:
∙ ( )
/ − =− …………..……………………… (11)
Substitute equation (8) in Equation (11) gives:
∙ ( )
/ − =− ( )
…………..……………………… (12)
If the area is constant, Eq. (12) becomes:
∙
/ − =− …………..…………………………. (13)
Example 1: For the copper block in Fig (2), find the temperature profile if face
2 is at 100oC, the flux through face 2 is -3.8 x 105 J m-2s-l, and there is uniform
generation in the volume of 1.5 x lo6 J m-3 s-1. Assume steady-state conditions.
Solution:
21
Equation (13) is reduced to:
∙
=
∙
= Ψ
The integration of above equation results in:
∙
= Ψ + ……………………………………………(*)
The boundary condition to evaluate C1 is:
Ψ ( = 0.1 ) = −3.8 × 10
→ = (1.5 × 10 )(0.1) − (−3.8 × 10 ) = 5.3 × 10
∴ Ψ = (1.5 × 10 )( ) − 5.3 × 10
Where Ψ is (q/A)x in units of J m-2 s-1 and x is in meters.
But Ψ = =−
Above equation can be combined with Eq. (*):
∙
− = − …………………………………………(**)
The variables in Eq. (vii) are again separated and the resulting equation is
integrated to give:
∙
− = − +
2
Boundary condition: T(x = 0.1 m) = 100°C = 373.15 K
1.5 × 10 × 0.1
= −(380 × 373.15) − + (5.3 × 10 × 0.1)
2
= −9.63 × 10
22
∴ = (−1.974 × 10 ) + (1.395 × 10 ) + 253.41
Where T is in units of kelvins.
Example 2: For the copper block in Example 1, let the heat flow at face 1 be -
270 J s-1. At face 2 the heat flow is -228 J s-1. The generation is the same as in
Example 2: 1.5 x lo6 Jm -3 s-1. The heat capacity of copper is 0.093 cal g-1 K-1and the
specific gravity is 8.91.
(a) Find the rate of accumulation.

(b) Find the equation for the temperature profile, and determine the temperature
at face 1 after 1 min, if at the start face 2 is at 100°C.
Solution:
a)
∙
=( )[ ] = (1.5 × 10 )(6 × 10 ) = 90
= + −
= −270 + 90 − (−228) = 48
=( / )( )……………………………… (4)
( / )=( = 8 × 10
× )
b)
∙
/ − =− …………..…………………………. (13)
∙
/ − =− ……………………………..........(*)
The variables are separated in Eq. (*) and the resulting equation is integrated:
[ ∙ ] =Ψ +
/ −
23
∙
Note that the term [ / − ]is a constant in this problem. The heat flow
qx is converted into a flux by dividing qx by the area (0.0006 m2) perpendicular to the
direction of the flux; i.e.,
Ψ , =− = −4.5 × 10
.
Ψ , =− = −3.8 × 10
.
Boundary condition 1: , ( = )=− . ×
∙ ∙
=Ψ , +[ / − ] = −4.5 × 10 + [ / − ]0
= −4.5 × 10
Boundary condition 2: , ( = . )=− . ×
∙
=Ψ , +[ / − ]
−3.8 × 10 = −4.5 × 10 + − 1.5 × 10 0.1
= 8 × 10
−Ψ = −4.5 × 10 − (7 × 10 ) …………………………..(**)
But Ψ = =−
Above equation can be combined with Eq. (**):
= −4.5 × 10 − (7 × 10 )
Upon separation of variables and integration, above Equation becomes:
×
= + (4.5 × 10 ) + ……………………….(***)
24
The constant in Eq. (***) may not be evaluated until the temperature at face 2
(x = 0.1 m) is expressed as a function of time. First, the density and heat capacity of
copper are converted to the appropriate units:
= 8.91 × 10
= 0.093 × 4.1840 × 10 = 389
= 380
The integration of equation = 8 × 10 results in:
= (8 × 10 )( ) +
The boundary condition needed to evaluate C3 is:
T (t= 0 and x=0.1) =1000C=373.15K
= (8 × 10 )(389)(373.15) = 1.293 × 10
∴ 8.91 × 10 × 389 × = (8 × 10 )( ) + 1.293 × 10
= 0.231 + 373.15
The above equation is substituted in Eq.(***) in order to evaluate C2:
→ = 87.7 + 1.00297 × 10
By substituting the value of C2 in Eq.(***),results in:
= −(921)( ) + (1184)( ) + 0.231t + 263.9
At t=60 sec. and x=0.1m:
= −(921)(0.1 ) + (1184)(0.1) + 0.231 × 60 + 263.9 = 387
= 113.8 0C
25
The one-directional balance equation including molecular and convective

transport:
Two mechanisms are general to all transports:
Ψ =Ψ , +Ψ , ………………………………………… (14)
Where Ψ , the contribution due to is molecular transport and Ψ , is the

contribution due to convection.
Molecular Transport:
The flux Ψ , was related to the concentration of property by the empirical
laws of Fourier, Fick, and Newton. The general equation is:
, =− ……………………………………………………….. (15)
Convection Transport:
A property can also be carried into and out of a volume by a flow mechanism.
Convection is the bulk flow of a fluid due to the external influences such as a pressure
difference or the force of gravity. A flux may consist of both a molecular and a
convection contribution, each occurring simultaneously.
The convection flux , is associated with the property being convected and the
flow velocity. When the velocity is zero, there is no convective contribution. The
correct form is simply the property concentration times the velocity:
, =( )( )
For heat transfer, the units are:
=( )( )
∴ , = ………………………………………………….(16)
Where is the average velocity of the property that is being convected. This
velocity Ux takes different forms for each property as follows:
26
1-Mass average velocity, which is defined mathematically for a mixture of n

components as:
=∑ ( )/ ∑ ………………………………........(17)
Where is the velocity of species i and is its density.
Each cubic meter of volume is associated with a certain amount of momentum,

e.g., ρUx (units of which are kg m-2 s-l).
2- Molar average velocity of the species (denoted by U), which is defined in

general as:
∗
=∑ ( )/ ∑ ……………………………………(18)
Where Ci is the concentration of species i.
The total flux is:
= , + , =− + …………………………...(19)
Taking the partial derivative of Eq. (19) with respect to x gives:
, , ( )
= = − + …………………....(20)
∙
But → / − =− …………..…………………… (13)
∙ ( )
− = − ……………………………... (21)
If =
∙ ( )
− = − …………………………………(22 )
Acc. Gen. Molec. Conv.
27
Eq. (21) is the general property balance equation for the concentration of
property .
Eq. (21) is commonly presented in the following rearranged form:
( ) ∙
+ = + …………………………………… (23)
For heat transfer with no radiation:
( ) ( ) ∙ ( )
+ = + ……………………….(24)
Since, from Table 1 is and = . For constant k,
, this equation becomes:
( ) ∙
+ = + ………………………………………..(25)
For mass transfer:
( ) ∙
+ = + { & } … … … … (26)
When is expressed in terms of mass units. For in terms of molar units,

Eq.(26) becomes:
( ∗)
∙ { & } … … … … (27)
+ = +
For momentum transfer:
∙
+ = + …………………………………… (28)
Three Dimensional Balance Equation:

Consider the volume in Fig. 3, a parallelepiped of dimensions dx, dy,and dz.
The volume of the parallelepiped is the product of these dimensions:
=( )( )( )……………………………………………(29)
28
Fig 3: The balance on a cube
∙ ∙
=( )[ ]=( )[( )( )( )]………… (30)
= ( )= [( )( )( )]………. (31)
For the two faces perpendicular to the x axis, the area is (dy)(dz), and so on for
the other pairs of faces in Fig. 3. Thus, the input is the sum of the total flux in each
direction times the appropriate area:
= (Ψ ) ( )( )+ Ψ ( )( ) + (Ψ ) ( )( )…….. ...(32)
Similarly, for the output one obtains:
= (Ψ ) ( )( )+ Ψ ( )( ) + (Ψ ) ( )( )…….. (33)
Next, the basic definition of the derivative is reviewed with the aid of Fig. 3.
The definition of the derivative dy/dx is the limit of Δy/Δx as Δx approaches zero.
Thus, the value of y at location x + dx, i.e., y(x + dx), equals the value of y(x) plus the
29
derivative times Δx. In other words, the derivative times Δx is really Δy. Applying this
result to Ψ at the face x + dx, the result is:
(Ψ ) = (Ψ ) = (Ψ ) + ( Ψ / ) ………………………(34)
Similarly for the y and z directions:
Ψ = Ψ = Ψ + Ψ / …………………..…(35)
(Ψ ) = (Ψ ) = (Ψ ) + ( Ψ / ) …………………..……(36)
The above three equations are substituted into Eq. (33):
= (Ψ ) ( )( )+ Ψ ( )( ) + (Ψ ) ( )( )+
( Ψ / )+ Ψ / +( / ) [( )( )( )]………………. (37)
Now the value of input, output, generation and accumulation for three-
dimensional case, are substituted into Eq. (5). After canceling, the general property
balance:
∙
=− + + +( )………………………(38)
The operator ∇ may be also applied to a vector such as the flux Ψ. The flux
vector in rectangular coordinates is:
Ψ = Ψ + Ψ + Ψ………………………………………………..(39)
The application of the operator ∇ to a vector is called the divergence of that

vector, or more simply the dot product; for rectangular coordinates:
(∇. Ψ) = + + …………………………………(40)
Eq.(40) is combined with Eq.(38) ,gives:
∙
= −(∇. Ψ) + ( )…………………………………………..(41)
30
For convective flux in three dimension:
Ψ = ……………………………………………............................. (42)
(∇. )= + + ……………………………….......(43)
(∇. )= + + + + + … (44)
Eq. (44) is written in terms of the ∇ operator. The product (U. ∇) operating on
is:
( . ∇) = + + ………………………………(45)
(∇. ) = + + …………………………………..(46)
The last two equations can be used to simplify Eq. (44):
∴ (∇. )= (∇. ) + ( . ∇) ……………………………………….(47)
flux was presented as the sum of molecular and convective terms. For the three-
dimensional problem, the corresponding vector equation is :
Ψ = Ψ + Ψ ……………………………………………………………(48)
The divergence of the flux is:
(∇. Ψ) = (∇. Ψ ) + (∇. Ψ )…………………………………………….(49)
(∇. Ψ) = (∇. − ∇ ) + (∇. )……………………………………….. (50)
Equation (50) can now be combined with Eq. (41) to give the three dimensional
property balance:
∙
= (∇. ∇ ) − (∇. )+( )………………………………… (51)
31
This equation can be expanded by use of Eq. (47) and rearranged into a more
common form:
∙
+ ( . ∇) = + (∇. ∇ ) − (∇. )……………………. (52)
Acc. Conv. Gen. Mole. Conv.
If the diffusivity is constant, a further simplification is possible:
∙
+ ( . ∇) = + (∇. ∇ ) − (∇. )……………………. (53)
The term (∇. ∇ ) can be easily presented in rectangular coordinates by using

Eq. (40); i.e.
(∇. ∇ ) = ∇. + = + + ………......... (54)
The general heat or mass balance is easily obtained from Eq. (53) by the
appropriate substitution for from Table 1.
For heat transfer:
∙
+ ( . ∇) = + ∇. α∇( ) −( )(∇. )
For mass transfer:
∙
+ ( . ∇) = + (∇. D∇ )−( )(∇. )
∗ ∙ ∗)
+( . ∇) = + (∇. D∇ )−( )(∇.
For momentum transfer:
∙
+ ( . ∇)( )= + ∇. α∇( ) −( )(∇. )
32
Example 3: Obtain the three-dimensional equation for heat transfer in vector

notation and show the form that can be obtained for constant properties. Also, express
this equation completely in rectangular notation.
Solution
The vector equation is obtained by replacing with and δ with α in Eq.

(50). The resulting equation is:
∙
+ ( . ∇) = + ∇. α∇( ) −( )(∇. )
For constant properties above equation reduces to:
∙
+ ( . ∇) = /( ) + α(∇ ) − (∇. )
In Cartesian coordinates, the above equation becomes:
∙ )+α
+ + + = /( + + −
+ +
The Continuity Equation:

For a single component system, there can be no diffusional contribution to the
flux, hence Eq. (52) reduces to:
+ (∇. ) = 0………………………………………….. (55)
Where the concentration of property is now the total mass per volume and is
the density ρ:
+ (∇. ) = 0………………………..………………….. (56)
Eq. (56) is the “Equation of Continuity”, a general mass balance that holds in all
problems with no net generation of mass by nuclear means and with no mass transfer.
33
+ ( . ∇) = − (∇. )…………………………….……. (57)
The equation of continuity can be simplified under conditions of:
1-Steady- -state conditions ( =0
2- Constant density.
Then Eq. (57) reduces to
(∇. ) = + + = 0…………………………….……. (58)
It is possible to express the equation of continuity on a molar basis
(∇. ∗)
= 0…………………………………………....……. (59)
Example .4 :A flow in rectangular coordinates is given by U=i(x3y)+j(yx2z).Is

this flow compressible?
Solution:
If the flow is incompressible, then (∇. ) will be zero as required by Eq. (58).
The components of the velocity vector are:
=3 , =2 & =0
(∇. ) = + + =3 +2 = (3 + 2 )
This flow is compressible because the dot product (∇. ) is not zero.
Example .5: An incompressible flow at steady-state in rectangular coordinates

is given by the vector components {Ux =x3y and Uy =2yx2z} and Uz is unknown. Find
Uz.
Solution:
34
(∇. ) = + + =0
3 +2 + =0
= (−3 −2 )
= −3 − + ( , )
Note that C(x, y) is a constant of integration to be determined from the

boundary conditions and may be a function of x and y;
The General Property Balance for an Incompressible Fluid:

The fluid in the system may be assumed incompressible, which means constant
density with respect to time and position. Eq. (52) is the general property balance
equation:
∙
+ ( . ∇) = + (∇. ∇ ) − (∇. )…………………….... (52)
If the flow is incompressible, then the last term on the right-hand side {(∇. )is
zero by Eq. (58), and Eq. (52) reduces to:
∙
+ ( . ∇) = + (∇. ∇ )………………………………… (60)
Acc. Conv. Gen. Molec.
If the transport coefficient δ can be considered constant, then Eq. (60) reduces
further:
∙
+ ( . ∇) = + ∇ ………………..…………………… (61)
For momentum flow:
∙
+ + + = / +ν + + …... (62)
35

Transport Phenomena Part 1

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Transport Phenomena Part 1

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Transport Phenomena Molecular Transport Mechanisms

Molecular Transport mechanisms

The molecular mechanisms involve transport of heat by conduction, of mass by

Analogy: It is common to formulate a general rate equation as

( )=( )/( ) ………………….1

1. The Case for Heat Transfer

Where: rate = q, resistance = x/ (kA), driving force = T

2. The Case for Mass Transfer

Equation (3) is named Fick’s law.

Where: ( / ) is molar flux (moles of species A being transferred per unit

x is a subscript denotes mass transfer in the n direction only.

D is a proportionality constant (diffusion coefficient or mass diffusivity)

3 .The Case for Momentum Transfer

Consider a fluid maintained between parallel plates, as illustrated in the Fig. 2.

Equation (4) is Newton’s law of viscosity, where the proportionality constant μ

the velocity gradient is constant, the viscosity μ is constant and, since A is

constant, F must also be constant or the same everywhere.

Where , is the flux in the x direction of whatever is going to be transferred

derivative (gradient) of the concentration of property .

Momentum transfer. The momentum equation, Newton’s law, must be treated

TABLE 1. The one-dimensional transport equations in their analogous forms

Example 1: Calculate the steady-state heat flux across a copper block 10 cm

( − )=− ( − )= ∗ 0.1 = −380 ∗ 100

2- μ = 1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.001 kg m-1 s-l

Three Dimensional transport:

Example 3. A glass rod of diameter 1.3 mm is 1 m long. One end is maintained

(a) the amount of heat transferred in joules per second;

(b) the number of grams of ice that melt in 30 minutes.

( − )=− ( − )= ∗ 1 = −(110.6 − 0) ∗ 0.86

= 95.1 ∗ 0.00133 = 1.32 ∗ 10 J/s

ℎ ℎ = 79.7 ∗ 4.184 = 333.5

Fig.3:One-dimensional, two-component equimolar counter diffusion.

Since there is no volume flow then:

Combining Eqs. (20) Through (24) results in:

Equation (25) is restricted to the binary diffusion of ideal gases at constant

Where MA is the molecular weight. nA; units are (kg s-l)

Fick’s law can be written in terms of mass flux.

Equation (29) is seen to be in the analogous form:

Fick’s law can also be written in terms of partial pressure.

(a) Find the molar flux of CO2.

= [( / ) ][ ]× = 3.237 × 10 × 44.01 × 1.131 10

Example 5: A tank containing 15 mole percent of CO2 in air is connected to a

( ) = 3.3096 × 10 × 1.963 × 10 = 6.498 × 10

Temperature and mass are scalar quantities. The gradients of these (∇ or )

The transpose tensor (∇ ) will be:

As already indicated, Eq. (35) is a shorthand representation for nine equations.

equal in magnitude but in differing directions.

Fig.4 The momentum flux τxy.

∆ = 0.083 − (−0.027) = 0.11

In the reducer, the fluid is accelerating in the x direction:

The velocity U, is a function of y everywhere between the plates (zero at both

zero derivatives in ∇ : , , .According to this there are four non-

Note the symmetry of the stress tensor:

Heat, Mass and Momentum Diffusivities:

(1) Thermal conductivity, k: units of W m-1 K-1.

(2) Diffusion coefficient, D: units of m2s-1.

(3) Viscosity, μ: units of kg m-l s-1.

In developing the analogous equations, these three empirical constants were

D is normally measured experimentally (see Table 2-2).D increases with

2.0 over a range of normal temperatures and pressures.

Where A and B are empirical constants in this equation.

The General Property Balance