Neurons

Dendrites

• Neurons have a wide

variety of shapes that
reflect their input and Axon

output interactions Cell

body

(a) Sensory neuron (b) Interneurons (c) Motor neuron

The Structure of the Neuron
• Neurons (Nerve cell): Specialized cells that enable communication within the
brain. Dendrites

Cell body

Nucleus
Synapse
Signal
Axon direction

Presynaptic cell
Postsynaptic cell
Myelin sheath
Neurons can communicate with other cells (mostly with other neurons)
and transmit information within the brain and nervous system.
• Dendrites: receive messages
• Axon: carries messages
• Terminal buttons: send messages
• Synapse: space between the terminal button and the next neuron
• Direction of electrical messages:
• Dendrites → cell body → axon → terminal buttons
• Myelin sheath
• Wraps the axon
• Increases the velocity
Neurons are physically held in places by glial cells.
 How Neurons Fire
• All-or-none law: either on or
off
• Resting stage: the stage in
Stronger depolarizing stimulus
+50
which there is negative Action
charge within a neuron potential

Membrane potential (mV)

• Action potential: Electrical 0
impulse that travels through
axon.
• Speed of transmission: –50
Threshold

• Axon’s size
Action potential video:
• Thickness of myelin sheaths Resting
potential https://www.youtube.com/wa
–100
tch?v=OZG8M_ldA1M
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (msec)
 Axon

Action
potential
– – + + + + + +

+ + – – – – – –
1 An action potential is generated
+
Na+
+ – – – – – – as Na+ flows inward across the
– – + + + + + +
membrane at one location.
2

Action
The depolarization of the action
K+ potential potential spreads to the neighboring
+ + – – + + + +
region of the membrane, re-initiating
– – + + – – – –
– – +
Na+
+ – – – –
the action potential there. To the left
+ + – – + + + + of this region, the membrane is
repolarizing as K+ flows outward.
+
K

Action
3 The depolarization-repolarization process is
K+ potential
+ + + + – – – –
repeated in the next region of the
– – – – +
Na+
+ + + membrane. In this way, local currents
– – – – + + + +
of ions across the plasma membrane
+ + – – – –
+ +
K+
cause the action potential to be propagated
along the length of the axon.
• Action potentials in myelinated axons jump between the nodes of
Ranvier in a process called saltatory conduction.

Schwann cell

Depolarized region
(node of Ranvier)
Myelin
sheath

––
–
––
+ –
Cell body ++ +
+ +
++
Axon
–– +
– ++
––
–
Mirror Neurons
• Specialized neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular
behavior, but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying
out the same behavior.
• Might be important for
• Understanding others
• Empathy
• Predicting others’ actions
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xmx1qPyo8Ks&t=22s

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGYKcqzG_7M&t=91s
Where Neurons Meet
Synapse: the space between two neurons where the axon of a sending
neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by
using chemical messages.
• Electrical synapse
• Chemical synapse

Neurotransmitters: chemicals that carry messages across the synapse

to a dendrite of a receiving neuron.

Synapse and neurotransmitters video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VitFvNvRIIY&t=479s

• Excitatory message: a chemical message that makes it more likely
that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel
along its axon.
• Inhibitory message: a chemical message that prevents or decreases
the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire.
• Reuptake: the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal
button.
• Acetylcholine: movement
• Glutamate: memory
• Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA): primary inhibitor in nervous
system and brain
• Dopamine: movement control, attention, and learning
• Serotonin: regulation of sleep, eating, mood, pain
• Endorphins: pain suppression, pleasurable feelings
• Norepinephrine: fight and flight responses

Summary video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W4N-7AlzK7s&t=230s

 Central nervous Peripheral nervous
system (CNS) system (PNS)

Brain Cranial
nerves
Spinal cord
Ganglia
outside
CNS

Spinal nerves
Central Nervous Systems
Central nervous system (CNS): Part of the nervous system that
includes the brain and spinal cord
• Spinal cord: Bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the
length of the back
• Transmit messages between the brain and the body
• Controls simple behaviors on its own, independently of the brain (a type of
reflex)
Reflex: Automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus
Kinds of neurons involved in reflexes:
• Sensory (afferent) neurons: Transmit information from the
perimeter of the body to the central nervous system and the brain
• Sending the “hot” message

• Motor (efferent) neurons: Communicate information from the

nervous system to muscles and glands
• Sending the ”move away” message
 Cell body of Gray
sensory neuron in matter
Quadriceps dorsal root
muscle ganglion

White
matter

Hamstring
muscle

Spinal cord
(cross section)

Sensory neuron
Motor neuron
Interneuron
Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral nervous system(PNS): Made up of neurons with long axons
and dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and
reaches the extremities of the body.
• Somatic division: Specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the
communication of information to and from the sense organs
• Autonomic division: Controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands,
lungs, and other organs
• Sympathetic division: Acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations,
engaging all the organism’s resources to respond to a threat
• Parasympathetic division: Acts to calm the body after an emergency has ended
Information Processing
• Nervous systems process information in three stages:
Sensory input, integration, and motor output

Sensory input

Integration
Sensor

Motor output

Effector
Peripheral nervous Central nervous
system (PNS) system (CNS)
The Endocrine System
Endocrine system: A chemical communication network that sends
messages throughout the body via the bloodstream
Hormones: Chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the
functioning or growth of the body
Pituitary gland: Major component of the endocrine system, or the
“master gland”
• Secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system
Techniques for Studying the Brain
Computerized Tomography (CT; X-rays)
• X-ray images are similar
to photographs
• Good image quality
• Only shows structures
not the functions
Techniques for Studying the Brain
Electroencephalography (EEG)
• Measures electrical activity on
the surface of the brain.
• Shows functions
• High temporal resolution
• Low spatial resolution
Techniques for Studying the Brain
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
• Measures blood flow in the
brain
• Show function
• High spatial resolution
• Low temporal resolution
Hearing Words Seeing Words

Speaking Words Generating Words

Techniques for Studying the Brain
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
• Measures biochemical activity in
the brain
• A radioactive substance is
injected into a patient.
• Shows function
• High Temporal resolution
• Low spatial resolution
Techniques for Studying the Brain
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
• Exposed a small part of the brain
to a strong magnetic field
• Temporarily disrupts a brain
region
• Show functions
• High temporal resolution
• Low spatial resolution
• “Virtual lesion”
Brain summary video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vH
rmiy4W9C0
The Central Core: ”Old Brain”
• Controls basic functions:
breathing, eating, sleeping.
• Hindbrain: Many basic
biological functions e.g. reflexes,
sleep, balance
• Medulla: Breathing, heartbeat
• Pons: involved in coordinating
muscles and sleep regulation
• Cerebellum: Balance, involved in
coordinating sensory information,
problem solving and motor
learning
 The Central Core: ”Old Brain”
• Midbrain: other low level functions e.g.
targeting auditory and visual stimuli,
regulating body temperature
• Reticular formation: related to changes in
the level of arousal
• Forebrain: intelligent adaptive behavior
• Thalamus: relay station for information
about senses
• Hypothalamus: plays role in releasing
hormones, controls body temperature,
eating, reproduction
Limbic System
• Controls eating, aggression, and
reproduction
• Amygdala: emotion
• Hippocampus: involve in learning,
memory and navigation
• Involved in self-preservation,
experience of pleasure,
learning, memory.
The Cerebral Cortex: ”New Brain”
• Responsible for the most
sophisticated information
processing in the brain
• Lobes:
• Frontal lobe: planning, controlling
though and behaviour
• Parietal lobe: receiving
somatosensory information
• Temporal lobe: hearing, language
• Occipital lobe: processing visual
information
Different Areas of the Brain
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe

x
r te
co
te x

ry
cor

so
Somatosensory

en
tor
Speech association
Frontal

to s
Mo
association area

ma
area Taste

So
Reading
Speech
Hearing
Visual
Smell association
Auditory
association area
area
Vision

Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe
The Motor Area
• Responsible for the body’s voluntary movement
• Well mapped: researchers have identified the amount and relative
location of cortical tissue used to produce movement in specific parts
of the body
 Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Fig. 49-16

Upp
Shou

Trunk
Head
Trunk

Knee
For
Elb

er a

Neck

Leg
Hip
Hip
lder

Elb
ear
ow
Wr

rm
ow
Ha

ist

m
Fi

Ha
nd
ng

nd
Fi earmm
er

ng
Fo T h
Th

er
r u
um

s
b

b
Ey
Nec No e
B k se
row Fa
ce
Eye Li
ps
Genitals
Face Toes

Tee
Gumtsh
Lips Jaw
Jaw Tongue

Tongue Pharynx

Primary Primary
motor Abdominal somatosensory
cortex organs cortex
The Sensory Areas
• Somatosensory area
• Primary vision area (occipital lobe)
• Primary auditory area (temporal lobe)
The Association Areas
• Responsible for the higher mental processes
• thought, language, memory, and speech
• Control executive functions
• Planning, goal setting, judgement, decision making, impulse control

• Damage to association areas of the brain can produce agnosia or

aphasia
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwCrxomPbtY
Broca's and Wernicke's Aphasia
Broca’s apahasia
Yes... ah... Monday... er... Dad and Peter H... (his own
name), and Dad.... er... hospital... and ah...
Wednesday... Wednesday, nine o'clock... and oh...
Thursday... ten o'clock, ah doctors... two... an' doctors...
and er... teeth... yah

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=12dO78c6-q8&feature=related

Wernicke’s aphasia
I called my mother on the television and did not
understand the door. It was too breakfast, but they
came from far to near. My mother is not too old for me
to be young.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B-LD5jzXpLE&feature=related
Neuroplasticity of the Brain
Changes in the brain relating to the addition of new neurons
that occur throughout the life span
• New interconnections between neurons
• Reorganization of information-processing areas
• Cortical reorganization
• Neurogenesis
• Creation of new neurons in certain areas of the brain during
adulthood
Environmental Influence
• Experience affects brain development

Impoverished Rat brain Enriched Rat brain

environment cell environment cell
The Specialization of the Hemispheres
• Hemispheres: Symmetrical left and right halves of the
brain that control the side of the body opposite to their
location
• Damage to one side affects the opposite side of the body
• Neglect patients
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HFTBC1ixfNk
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rB4w_R5APp8&NR=1
The Specialization of the Hemispheres
• Lateralization: Dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific
functions
• Left Hemisphere: Language processing; speaking, reading, thinking and
reasoning.
• Right Hemisphere: understanding spatial relationships, recognizing patterns,
drownings, music and emotional expression

• BUT!!
• Differences between the two hemispheres are not that great and also vary
person to person
The Split Brain
• Split brain patients
• Corpus collosum is damaged or cut for treating
severe epilepsy
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BvcH4Yfb
8xw
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AiaAA34X
KbE

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SHqDf8wfABM