Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338

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Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tafmec

Establishing flow stress behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V alloy and development of

constitutive models using Johnson-Cook method and Artificial Neural
Network for quasi-static and dynamic loading
S. Deb a, A. Muraleedharan a, R.J. Immanuel a, b, S.K. Panigrahi a, *, G. Racineux c, S. Marya c
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bhilai, Raipur 492015, India
c
Institut de Recherche en Génie Civil et Mécanique, UMR 6183, Ecole Centrale de Nantes, 44321 Nantes, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ti-6Al-4V alloy is one of the most widely used material in both research as well as in commercial industries at
Ti-6Al-4V present due to its high strength-to-weight ratio, low density and excellent high-temperature properties. Under­
Quasi-static tensile test standing the behaviour of this alloy at various deformation conditions (strain, strain rate and temperature) is
Direct impact Hopkinson Bar
crucial to fit the material in demanding applications. In our present work, the mechanical behaviour of α + β dual
Johnson-Cook model
Artificial Neural Network
phase Ti-6Al-4V alloy is studied in the temperature ranging from 25 ℃ to 200 ℃ and rate of deformation ranging
Constitutive model from 10-3 s− 1 to 104 s− 1. Tensile tests were done using uniaxial tensile tester for quasi-static range of deformation
and Split-Hopkinson bar machine for dynamic range of deformation. Post deformation fracture surface analysis
were carried out to understand the effects of strain rate and temperature variations on the deformation
behaviour, and to establish a structure–property correlation. For the studied range of deformation parameters,
constitutive models are developed. As Johnson-Cook model is one of the widely used model in various numerical
analysis software, a modified Johnson-Cook model has been developed for the alloy. Moreover, artificial intel­
ligence (AI) is found to be an efficient tool these days to solve complex problems in various fields of engineering.
An attempt is also made in this study to develop an artificial neural network (ANN) framework for the prediction
of flow stress at various deformation condition for Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Our study revealed that the AI based ANN
technique is more efficient in calculating the flow stress as compared with the traditional Johnson-Cook model.

1. Introduction
With the advent of new sophisticated technologies and enhancement
in existing infrastructures, selection of appropriate materials for every
specific application has become vital in most industries at present. Ti-
6Al-4V is an advanced engineering material and is one of the most
widely used titanium alloys. It is an α + β variant of Titanium alloy
having a combination of both α and β phases with hexagonal closely
packed and body centred cubic crystal structures respectively [1,2].
Some of the major characteristics that helped in commercialising the use
of titanium alloys are the high specific strength, low specific weight,
high ductility, excellent high and low temperature characteristics, bio-
compatibility, good corrosive resistance and high fatigue strength [3–8].
During different phases of fabricating the components for engineer­
ing application, alloys are subjected to a wide range of deformation
strain rates and temperatures. Dynamic strain rates and high tempera­
tures experienced during high-speed machining, quasi-static nature of
stress in superplastic forming processes, high strain rate deformation
during electro-pulse forming, low strain rate and moderate temperature
during sheet metal forming, such as stamping and deep drawing etc. are
the few examples. Further, once put into service, due to versatility of the
material, applications involving various temperature and deformation
rate conditions demands its usage. Therefore it becomes imperative to
know how the material would behave under each circumstance to avoid
hindered performance or catastrophic failures [9].
The study of deformation behaviour of a material is one of the most
vital aspects that determine the level of applicability of the material in
various engineering applications. One of the most essential parameters
in deformation behaviour study is the flow stress of the material. Strain
(ε), strain rate (ε̇) and the temperature (T) are the three parameters that

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: skpanigrahi@iitm.ac.in (S.K. Panigrahi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2022.103338
Received 2 December 2021; Received in revised form 20 February 2022; Accepted 24 March 2022
Available online 27 March 2022
0167-8442/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
S. Deb et al.
control the flow stress [10]. Analysing the flow stress behaviour by
varying ε, ε̇ and T can provide ample information about where and to
what degree a material could be used. Evaluating the performance of
material in all working conditions pose practical challenges as large
amount of time, material and effort are required to conduct extensive
experimentation. This calls for the development of predictive models to
help us understand the material’s behaviour at unknown process con­
ditions (ε, ε̇ and T). The predictive models are generally developed
through mathematical/analytical, phenomenological or empirical
methods.
Ding et al. [11] developed a mathematical model with cellular
automation to predict the microstructural evolution and flow stress of
Ti-6Al-4V alloy subjected to hot compression in the temperature range
of 1000–1050 ◦ C and quasi-static stain rates up to 1 s− 1. The effect of
dynamic recrystallization and the growth of recrystallized grains were
simulated and compared with experimental findings. Mathematical/
Analytical models are based on the kinematics and the dynamics of
dislocations and require very clear understanding of the mechanisms.
While the analytical models help the researchers in developing the sci­
ence behind the deformation of materials, scaling its benefit for indus­
trial application is a challenge. Phenomenological models, on the other
hand, are less strictly related to physical theories. However, substantial
physical understanding of plastic deformation is required to develop a
successful phenomenological model. Lee et al. [12] used an Arrhenius
type phenomenological model to predict the compressive deformation
behaviour of Ti-6A1-4V alloy. The material was subjected to quasi-static
strain rate of 0.02, 0.1 and 1 s− 1 and temperatures ranging from 25 to
500 ◦ C. The model predicted the compressive flow stress with a good
precision.
Johnson-Cook model is also one of the widely used phenomenolog­
ical model to evaluate flow stress of the material. The parameters
required to build the model are estimated by various methods. Lee et al.
[13] used the regression analysis to estimate Johnson-Cook model pa­
rameters for Ti-6Al-4V alloy when subjected to strain rates ranging from
500 to 5000 s− 1 at temperatures varying from room temperature to
1100 ◦ C by means of the compressive split-Hopkinson bar technique.
Similar technique of regression curve fitting was adopted by Bobbili
et al. [14] for AA7017 aluminium alloy, Zhang et al. [15] for AA7075-T6
aluminium alloy, Lin et al. [16] for high-strength alloy steel, and Wang
et al. [17] for tungsten. Milani et al. [18] proposed a slight variation of
the usual regression method and opted for conducting individual ex­
periments to estimate the strain rate sensitivity coefficient and the
thermal softening parameter. The material under study was Ti-6Al-4V
and the parameters were estimated using these multi objective func­
tions. Buzyurkina et al. [19] proposed the use of numerical simulations
to directly estimate Johnson-Cook model parameters for various tita­
nium alloys subjected to high speed deformation. While most of the
deformation was confined to compression testing, Lin et al. [16] inves­
tigated the uniaxial tensile behaviour of high strength alloy steel sub­
jected to strain rates of 0.0001–0.01 s− 1 and temperatures in the range of
850–1100 ◦ C. Huh et al. [20] analysed the mechanics of a split-
Hopkinson bar for dynamic tensile deformation of sheet metals of
deep drawing quality utilised for vehicle body structures in the strain
rates domain ranging from 0.03 s− 1 to 10,000 s− 1. The original Johnson-
Cook constitutive model was used to analyse its flow stress behaviour
which was then modified in order to incorporate the coupled effect of
strain rate and temperature on flow stress. The modified Johnson-Cook
model showed a higher efficiency over the range of test parameters.
An empirical model for deformation of Ti-6Al-4V alloy has been
developed by Zhao et al. [21] at the processing domain of temperature
ranging from 760 ◦ C to 920 ◦ C and strain rate ranging from 0.01 to 10
s− 1. The results were compared with Arrhenius type Phenomenological
model. The developed Arrhenius model and multiple linear constitutive
empirical model predicted the flow stress values of the material with an
error of 14.811% and 7.145% respectively. Also, the non-linear rela­
tionship between the flow stress and the process parameters makes it
2
Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338
difficult to use the phenomenological and empirical model for a wide
range of processing temperature and strain rate [22]. Moreover, the
parameter estimation is based on the curve fitting in most of the cases.
Hence, it becomes imperative to optimise or calibrate these parameters
in order to minimise the disparity between predicted and experimental
values.
On the other hand, usage of artificial intelligence in predicting ma­
terials’ behaviour is being the recent interest of researchers. Artificial
neural network (ANN) is being used to predict the flow stress with better
efficiency and higher accuracy [21]. It requires minimal awareness
about the state of the physical background of the process. The structure
of the neural network is composed of three main layers namely input
layer, hidden layer and output layer which determine the myriad of
ways the various neurons are interconnected to one another. The input
functions correspond to three different matrices of Strain, Strain Rate
and Temperature in flow stress modelling. Bobbili et al. [14] developed
an ANN for the prediction of flow stress values for AA7017 aluminium
alloy subjected to high strain-rate compression at elevated tempera­
tures. The model so developed was also used in comparison with a
Johnson-Cook model developed for the same data to quantify the coef­
ficient of correlation between experimental and predicted values. A
similar neural network for the prediction of flow stress was developed by
Zhao et al. [21] at temperatures ranging from 760 to 920 ◦ C. The ma­
terial under consideration was Ti-600 Titanium alloy and was subjected
to quasi-static loads varying from 0.001 s− 1 to 10 s− 1 strain rates. The
performance of the model so developed was also evaluated using Mean
Square Error, Mean Absolute Relative Error and Coefficient of Correla­
tion parameters. Singh et al. [23] developed a neural network model to
study the flow stress patterns of high phosphorous steel subjected to
quasi-static loading conditions at elevated temperatures. The predicted
values were then validated with the data obtained from corresponding
experimentation.
The current work focuses on developing a constitutive Johnson-Cook
model and an artificial neural network for predicting the flow stress
patterns of Ti-6Al-4V. The idea of choosing Ti-6Al-4V alloy for analysis
is mainly due to the fact that this alloy has been widely used in many
diverse vital applications as specified above. Also, most of the published
work on Ti-6Al-4V alloy showed a trend of either subjecting it to only
dynamic loading [13,18,20,24–26] or just quasi-static [12,16,21,23,27]
conditions. Here, the models were developed by subjecting the material
to a strain rates varying from quasi-static domain to dynamic domain
and temperature ranging from 25 ◦ C to 200 ◦ C which were validated
against experimental data. Further, the post deformation fracture sur­
face analysis of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy is necessary as the mode of fracture
depends on the operating parameters like strain rate and temperature.
Moreover, the deformation mode in Ti-6Al-4V under quasi-static loading
conditions generally shows a tendency of favouring slip or dislocation
motion whereas the major mode of deformation in dynamically loaded
conditions is adiabatic shear instabilities. So, in the present work, the
post-deformation microstructural analysis of the fractured samples was
performed to understand the failure mechanisms and correlate it with
flow stress patterns obtained.
2. Modelling the deformation behaviour
Modelling the deformation behaviour of a material essentially refers
to prediction of its flow stress pattern at various combinations of oper­
ating conditions such as strain (ε), strain rate (ε̇) and temperature (T).
Among various empirical models developed, Johnson-Cook model is one
of the most widely used models due to its relative ease of modelling and
high accuracy. Similarly, among various mathematical models pro­
posed, Artificial neural network (ANN) has been found to be excellent in
analysing flow stress patterns. The current section will describe these
two models along with their construction, in brief.
S. Deb et al.
2.1. Johnson-Cook constitutive model
Johnson-Cook constitutive model is an empirical model used to
correlate the flow stress of the material with the deformation strain (ε),
strain rate (ε̇) and operating temperature (T). As per Johnson-Cook
model, the flow stress of a material, σ is defined as [28]:
⎛ ⎞
{ ( )m }
ε̇ ⎠ T − TRef
n ⎝
σ = (A + Bε ) 1 + Cln 1− (1)
ε̇0 TMelt − TRef
where, A is the yield strength of the material, B is the strain hardening
modulus, n is the strain hardening coefficient, C is the strain rate
sensitivity coefficient and m is the thermal softening coefficient [28–30].
B and n represent the effect of strain hardening on the flow stress of a
material whereas C represents the effect of the strain rate on the flow
stress. High operating/test temperature may often lead to softening of
material and reduces the flow stress. This effect of operating tempera­
ture has been shown by m in Johnson-Cook model. The five unknown
parameters (A, B, C, n and m) can be evaluated from the experimental
data. The determination of these parameters has been explained in later
section.
2.2. Prediction of flow stress using ANN
Usage of ANN in flow stress prediction for engineering materials is
receiving attention in recent years [21,23,31]. The overall functionality
of an ANN algorithm is schematically represented in Fig. 1. The input
layer of the ANN takes the deformation parameters, namely strain (ε),
strain rate (ε̇), and temperature (T) as the input. The output layer pro­
vides a single output which is the flow stress of the material. For the
current study, a single hidden layer is chosen with a total of ten neurons.
The choice of a single hidden layer and ten neurons is considered to
avoid increasing complexity of the training algorithm since sufficient
experimental data are available for training the algorithm. The Sum­
mation function was chosen as the default Sum function (Eq. (2)) which
would add the weighted inputs and provide an output to the transfer
function.
Fig. 1. Network diagram of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) scheme used.
3
Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338
∑
n
Summation Function, I = wi xi (2)
i=0
Two of the input parameters, ε̇, and T, have opposing effect on the
flow stress (i.e. increase in the strain rate leads to increase in the flow
stress, whereas increasing the deformation temperature decreases the
flow stress). In order to accommodate this phenomenon in the algo­
rithm, tan sigmoid function is chosen as the transfer function as it pro­
vides outputs ranging from − 1 to 1 which enables the algorithm to
handle inputs that have either an enhancing or a detrimental effect on
the output [32].
3. Experimental
The Ti-6Al-4V alloy used in the present research work was procured
in the form of annealed square sheets with the dimension 100 mm × 100
mm × 1.2 mm.
Microstructural characterisation was performed on the as-received
Ti-6Al-4V alloy using electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD). The
analysis was carried out using a FEI Inspect-F50 high resolution scan­
ning electron microscope (HR-SEM) at an operating accelerating voltage
of 20 kV and spot size of 6. To prepare the specimens for EBSD, initially
rough polishing was performed with series of emery sheets ranging from
400 grit size to 2000 grits in mutually perpendicular directions. A multi-
step diamond polishing using diamond paste of grit size 3–4 μm and
0.5–1 μm was then employed to obtain a mirror finish for the specimens.
The specimens were further polished with a paste of alumina (0.1 μm)
and water in order to obtain a scratch free mirror finish. Finally, the
specimens were polished by chemical mechanical polishing using a
mixture of colloidal silica and 30% volume of hydrogen peroxide solu­
tion to obtain an enhanced finish up to 50 nm.
Quasi-static tensile tests were performed using a micro-tensile testing
machine at low strain rates ranging from 10-3 to 1 s− 1 and deformation
temperature at the range of 25–200 ◦ C. The test samples were held at the
high temperature (75 ◦ C, 150 ◦ C & 200 ◦ C) for 30 min prior to the tensile
test for stabilizing the microstructure. After testing, the samples are
taken out of the chamber immediately to prevent any thermal damage to
S. Deb et al.
the sample post-deformation. Dynamic tensile tests were carried out at
three different strain rates of 100, 1000 and 10,000 s− 1 at room tem­
perature using a direct impact Hopkinson bar apparatus. The details of
the experimental procedure and working principle of direct impact
Hopkinson bar apparatus are given elsewhere [33]. The tensile test
specimens for both quasi-static and dynamic tests were obtained by wire
electrical discharge machining of the annealed sheets. Fig. 2 depicts the
machined tensile specimens for testing. As seen from Fig. 2, the gauge
lengths of specimens for quasi-static and dynamic tensile test specimens
are different owing to the different machine requirements. The gauge
length for the quasi-static tensile specimen is about 3 mm whereas it is
10 mm for the dynamic test sample. The fracture surfaces of both the
quasi-static and dynamically deformed specimens were inspected under
HRSEM to study the effect of operating parameters on the fracture
mechanisms.
4. Results
This section describes the microstructural characterization of as-
received Ti-6Al-4V, and the quasi-static and dynamic response of the
material tested as per Section 3.
4.1. Microstructural characterisation
Fig. 3(a) shows the distribution of α and β grains in the alloy. The
black spots in Fig. 3(a) correspond to the β phase whereas the coloured
regions depict the crystallographic orientation of the α phase. It was
clearly evident that α grains with HCP crystal structure were more
prominent in the alloy.
Fig. 3(b) illustrates the grain boundary distribution with the high
angle gain boundaries indicated by blue lines with a cut off misorien­
tation angle greater than 15◦ . The low angle grain boundaries were set at
5◦ -15◦ misorientation angle and were depicted by red lines in Fig. 3(b).
The presence of a larger number of high angle grain boundaries was a
possible indication of annealing treatment of the alloy in its as-received
state. The grain size distribution is derived based on the EBSD micro­
structure and presented in Fig. 4. It is observed from Fig. 4 that the
maximum fraction of grains presents in the size domain ranging from 1.5
to 3 μm. The grains of larger size correspond to α structures or colonies
which are surrounded by fine α structured grains.
Fig. 2. Ti-6Al-4V tensile test specimens for (a) quasi-static, and (b) dynamic
tensile test conditions.
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Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338
4.2. Quasi-static and dynamic mechanical behaviour
The mode of deformation is generally classified into two domains
based on the rate of deformation: quasi-static and dynamic. The engi­
neering stress-engineering strain curve obtained after quasi-static and
dynamic uni-axial tensile tests are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6
respectively.
It is evident from both the figures that the strain rate and tempera­
ture have noticeable influence on the flow stress and tensile ductility of
Ti-6Al-4V. For a fixed temperature, the flow stress tends to decrease with
reduction in strain rate, while the strain hardening remains almost
constant for the quasi-static strain rate of 0.001–0.1 s− 1 and reduces at 1
s− 1. The variation of the flow stress with the strain rate can be seen more
distinctly in Fig. 7, where the true maximum flow stress in plotted
against the log of strain rate for quasi-static range. Fig. 7(a) shows that
the maximum flow stress increases almost linearly with increasing strain
rate. But the rate of increase in flow stress with strain rate is very small.
On the other hand, the effect of increasing test temperature on the flow
stress is more severe which is illustrated in Fig. 7(b). Here, the true
maximum flow stress is plotted against the test temperature for the
quasi-static strain rate. The rapid drop in the flow stress with increasing
temperature can be the result of increased rate of dislocation annihila­
tion as compared to dislocation generation during deformation [13].
4.3. Deformation mechanisms
The fracture surfaces of specimens were analysed based on the
following three conditions that were investigated by the SEM fracto­
graph observations:
4.3.1. Effect of loading condition (quasi-static vs dynamic loading)
To analyse the differences in failure modes between the quasi-static
and dynamically loaded specimens, two specimens tested at 0.1 s− 1 and
10,000 s− 1 strain rate at 25 ◦ C were chosen. Fig. 8(a) illustrates the
fracture surface of the specimen quasi-statically loaded at 0.1 s− 1 strain
rate at 25 ◦ C. The surface mostly consists of regions characterised by the
presence of dimples which is a clear indication of ductile mode of
fracture [34,35]. The failure of the material thereby takes place by
plastic deformation in this ductile zone. The ductile zone is also seen to
be considerably uniform at this magnification, but at higher magnifi­
cation, deep and coiled dimples are visible as shown in the inset of Fig. 8
(a). The brittle zones which have a flat appearance are also seen at some
places near the ductile zones. It is clear that these brittle zones are few
and hence do not contribute much to the overall failure of the specimen.
Fig. 8(b) illustrates the fracture surface of the specimen dynamically
loaded at the strain rate of 10,000 s− 1 at 25 ◦ C. The surface consists of
two major distinct zones. The ductile zones characterised by the pres­
ence of dimples (as marked in Fig. 8(b)) are present in either side of the
brittle zone. The brittle zones are observed to be smeared and flat.
Similar to the quasi-static loading scenario, the dimpled region looks the
same for most part, but there are evidence of certain sections of elon­
gated dimples present in these ductile zones (Fig. 8(b) inset). These
zones are the regions of excessive plastic deformation that has occurred
in certain regions of the material owing to the non-uniform stress dis­
tribution during dynamic loading. The reason for the smeared or sheared
surface constituting the brittle zone to be located in between two
dimpled regions is due to the friction caused by rubbing of two plasti­
cally deformed regions. This is in accordance with the observations of
Wojtaszek et al [36].
4.3.2. Effect of strain rate
4.3.2.1. Quasi-static deformation domain. The fracture surface of the
specimens tested at 0.001 s− 1 and 1 s− 1 at the temperature of 25 ◦ C were
represented in Fig. 9. The fracture surface of both specimens exhibit the
S. Deb et al.
Fig. 3. (a) EBSD image of the as-received Ti-6Al-4V and (b) the corresponding grain boundary map.
Fig. 4. Distribution of grain size in the as-received Ti-6Al-4V.
presence of dimples which were indicative of trans-granular ductile
fracture [37]. Finer dimples were observed in Fig. 9(b) when compared
to Fig. 9(a). This was further reinstated by analysing the specimens at
higher magnification as shown in the inset of the respective image.
The reasons of finer dimples existing at a strain rate of 1 s− 1 in
comparison to 0.001 s− 1 is due to the effect of strain hardening in the
material. An increase in strain rate leads to increase in the dislocation
density which in turn improves the dimple density. The theory stated
above was in accordance with the findings of Wojtaszek et al [36] who
showed an increase in finer dimpled structures in the ductile zone for Ti-
6Al-4V specimens when subjected to increasing strain rates. Fig. 5(a)
indicates that there was clearly an increase in strength of the material
when subjected to a strain rate of 1 s− 1 as compared with 0.001 s− 1
loading. Since thermal effects during quasi-static loading are negligible
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Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338
this can be attributed to solely the strain hardening phenomenon, which
was validated by dimple density variation as depicted in Fig. 9.
4.3.2.2. Dynamic deformation domain. The ductile fracture zone from
the fractographs of specimens tested at the strain rate 1000 s− 1 and
10,000 s− 1 are shown in Fig. 10. The ductile zone of the fracture surface
of both specimens were characterised by the presence of dimples. Higher
density of dimples was observed at in Fig. 10(b) when compared to
Fig. 10(a). The reasons of high density dimples existing at a strain rate of
10,000 s− 1 in comparison to 1000 s− 1 is due to the effect of strain
hardening in the material.
In addition, an increase in temperature in impact loading causes a
certain degree of thermal softening which hinders the hardening pro­
cess. So the final stress developed within the material is a compromise
between the hardening and the softening effects. From Fig. 6, it was
established that specimens subjected to 10,000 s− 1 strain rates possessed
higher strength values in comparison to those tested at 1000 s− 1. This
meant that the compromised stress developed in the material was higher
for 10,000 s− 1 strain rate loading. So despite higher temperatures being
developed during loading, higher dimple density was observed in Fig. 10
(b) in comparison to the former. Fig. 10(b) also indicated more regions
of intense plastic deformations than Fig. 10(a) which were illustrated by
more number of elongated large dimples.
4.3.3. Effect of temperature
Fig. 11 illustrates the fracture surfaces of two specimens quasi-
statically loaded at temperatures of 25 ◦ C and 200 ◦ C respectively. As
seen earlier, presence of dimples was indicative of a ductile type of
fracture mechanism caused due to plastic deformation in the specimen
fracture. Analysis on both the fractographs indicate the formation of
coarser and deeper dimples in Fig. 11(b) when compared to Fig. 11(a)
due to the phenomenon of thermal softening in the material. Thermal
softening causes recovery in the material which also causes a certain
amount of grain growth thereby causing larger dimples. At the same
time, the deeper dimples represent the longer post necking deformation
S. Deb et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338

Fig. 5. Engineering stress- engineering strain curve obtained from quasi-static tensile test at (a) 25 ◦ C, (b) 75 ◦ C, (c) 150 ◦ C and (d) 200 ◦ C for all the strain
rate tested.

of a material.

4.4.1. Estimation of parameters using regression analysis

The reference strain rate, ε̇0 is chosen as 0.01 s− 1 and the reference
temperature, TRef is assumed to be 25 ◦ C. The choice of reference strain
rates and temperatures is arbitrary as the final motive in developing the
predictive model is to predict values conforming to actual flow stress
values. It should be noted that all the true stress and true strain values
are considered hereafter.
To estimate A, the yield point of the stress-strain curve at reference
strain rate and reference temperature was analysed. This is illustrated in
Fig. 12(a). A line drawn parallel to the linear or elastic region of the
curve at an offset of 0.02% strain and the value of A is found to be
971.63 MPa.
At ε̇ = ε̇0 and = TRef , the Eq. (1) is reduced to:

σ = A + Bεn (3)

as both the other terms reduce to unity. Taking A to the left hand side
Fig. 6. Engineering stress- engineering strain curve obtained from dynamic
tensile test at 25 ◦ C for all the strain rate tested.
and taking log on both sides, the Eq. (3) becomes:
ln(σ − A) = B + nlnε (4)
(Fig. 5). So, an increase in temperature would result in the enhancement
Drawing a plot between the log values on both sides for all the true
of the ductility. The inferences stated above were in accordance with the
stress and true strain values in the flow region of the curve at reference
findings of Lee et al [26] where a similar trend was observed in the for
conditions yields a scatter of points (Fig. 12(b)). The slop of the linear fit
Ti-6Al-4V in the low temperature regime.
of these scattered points is equal to n and the antilog of y-intercept of the
linear fit is equal to B (Fig. 12(b)). The value of B and n is found as
650.67 and 0.88 respectively.
4.4. Development of Johnson-Cook constitutive model parameters
To estimate the value of the thermal softening coefficient (m), all the
true stress -true strain plots at the reference strain rate of 0.01 s− 1 are
The Johnson-Cook constitutive model is a phenomenological model
considered. This would reduce the Eq. (1) to the form:
that predicts the flow stress value from the strain ε, strain rate ε̇, and
operating temperature T (Eq. (1)). The estimation of five constants
(A, B, n, C and m) in Eq. (1) is imperative to enable flow stress prediction

6
S. Deb et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338

Fig. 7. (a) Effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength for all the temperature tested and (b) effect of temperature on the ultimate tensile strength for all the
strain rate tested.

Fig. 8. Fracture surface of the samples after the tensile test performed at (a) quasi-static (0.1 s− 1) and (b) dynamic (10000 s− 1) strain rate at 25 ◦ C.

1 1
Fig. 9. Fracture surface of the samples after quasi-static tensile tests performed at the strain rate of (a) 0.001 s− and (b) 1 s− at 25 ◦ C.

{ ( )m }
T − TRef and n have already been determined, so re-arranging the above equation
σ = (A + Bεn ) 1 − (5)
TMelt − TRef and taking logarithm on both sides yields:
( σ )
The plots to be considered are only in the quasi-static loading con­ ln 1 − = mlnT * (6)
dition as dynamic tests have all been performed at the reference tem­ A + Bε n
perature and hence would not have the second temperature term in the T− T
where, T * = TMelt − Ref
TRef . Considering all the true stress-true strain value in
Eq. (1). The melting point of Ti-6Al-4V is 1605 ◦ C. The constants A, B

7
S. Deb et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338

1 1
Fig. 10. The ductile zone of the fracture surface of the samples after dynamic tensile test performed at the strain rate of (a) 1000 s− and (b) 10000 s− at 25 ◦ C.

1
Fig. 11. Fracture surface of the samples after quasi-static tensile tests performed at the strain rate of 0.001 s− at (a) 25 ◦ C and (b) 200 ◦ C.

( )
the flow region, the value of ln 1 − A+Bσ *
εn is plotted against lnT , where T
104 s− 1 if the reference strain rate is used as 0.01 s− 1 which will results in
varies from 75 C to 200 C, as shown in Fig. 12(c). The slope of the
◦ ◦ inaccurate and high flow stress values. For this reason, reference strain
linear fit drawn for all the points gives the value of the thermal softening rate of 100 s− 1 is used while determining C for dynamic strain rate
coefficient, m. The value of m obtained is 0.75. domain.
The estimation of the strain rate sensitivity coefficient (C) is done by
considering the true stress-true strain values at 25 ◦ C. At reference 5. Discussion
temperature, the Eq. (1) reduces to the form:
The current section focusses on establishing deformation models
σ = (A + Bεn )(1 + Clnε̇/ε̇0 ) (7) with high level of accuracy that can help researchers in predicting the
After rearranging both sides, the Eq. (7) becomes: flow behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V in future.
σ
− 1 = Clnε̇* (8) 5.1. Validation of experimental data with the developed Johnson-Cook
A + Bεn
constitutive model
where, ε̇* = ε̇/ε̇0 . All the data points of true stress-true strain values are
considered and A+B σ − 1 vs lnε̇* curve is plotted in Figs. 12(d) and 12(e). The Johnson-Cook model developed from the analysis is of the
εn
following form:
The slope of the linear fit drawn for all these points gives the value of C
In the quasi-static domain
which is 0.11 and 0.156 for the quasi-static and dynamic flow
( )(
respectively. σ = 971.63 + 650.688ε0.88 1 + 0.11lnε̇* )(1 − T *0.75 ) (9)
It should be noted that the value of C is determined separately for
quasi-static (0.11) and dynamic (0.156) data as the strain hardening and In the dynamic domain
the failure mechanisms for materials subjected to quasi-static and dy­ ( )(
( σ = 971.63 + 650.688ε0.88 1 + 0.156lnε̇* ) (10)
namic loading are different in nature. Also, the strain rate term 1 +
To analyse the efficiency of the developed model, it is imperative to
)
validate it with actual experimental data obtained to quantify the errors
Clnε̇/ε̇0 in the Eq. (1) will enormously increase at high strain rate of in prediction. For the quasi-static and dynamic domain, discrete strain

8
S. Deb et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338

Fig. 12. Estimation of Johnson-Cook model parameters (a) A as the 0.02% yield stress, (b) the strain hardening modulus, B and strain hardening coefficient, n, (c) the
thermal softening coefficient, m, (d) the strain rate sensitivity coefficient C for quasi-static tensile loading and (e) strain rate sensitivity coefficient C for dynamic
tensile loading.

values ranging from 0.1 to 0.2 and 0.01 to 0.1 are used respectively for
validation. The comparison between the modelled output and experi­
mental values are shown in Figs. 13 and 14.
The error for the developed predictive model was quantified by using
the mean absolute percentage error for all discrete data points involved
and found to be:
For the quasi-static flow stress = 18.145 %
For the dynamic flow stress = 17.811 %
The average prediction error for both the quasi-static and dynamic
Johnson-Cook models were found to be considerably high. So, there is a
need to reduce the prediction error by using a suitable optimisation
method for predicting the flow stress behaviour accurately.
5.1.1. Optimisation of Johnson-Cook model key parameters to develop
modified Johnson-Cook model
Among the various methods proposed for parameter optimisation,
the single parameter optimisation technique proposed by Forni et al.
[38] was found to be more effective and was able to retain the physical
material significance of the remaining parameters. For the current work,
the strain rate sensitivity coefficient, C has been identified for single
parameter optimisation. The reasons for choosing C is purely based on
the analysis of the previous Johnson-Cook model prediction capabilities.
From Figs. 13 and 14, it is clear that the red lines indicating reference
strain rate points (0.01 s− 1 for quasi-static and 100 s− 1 for dynamic)
show the highest conformity with the experimental data. At reference
strain rate values, the Johnson-Cook model equation does not have the
parameter C, as the entire term reduces to 1 as per Eq. (1). Thereby, the

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S. Deb et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338

Fig. 13. Validation of quasi-static experimental data using Johnson-Cook (JC) model for all the temperature tested.

Fig. 14. Validation of dynamic experimental data using Johnson-Cook (JC) model.

errors for all other non-reference strain rate values can be reduced by
optimising C value suitably.
5.1.2. Bisection method to optimise the strain rate sensitivity coefficient, C
The bisection numerical technique was adopted to optimise the
parameter C. Initial guesses were randomly chosen and for each
midpoint value of C encountered, the average error for the whole data
was calculated. This was continued till the average error value reached a
local minimum and the value of the parameter C converged to three
decimal points. The detailed analysis of the bi-section method has been
in given in Table 1. The optimum value of C for quasi-static and dynamic
flow are found to be 0.0292 and 0.073 respectively.

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S. Deb et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338

Table 1 ( )(
Determination of C using bisection method. σ = 971.63 + 650.688ε0.88 1 + 0.073lnε̇* ) (12)
For quasi-static loading For dynamic loading
5.1.3. Validation of experimental data with the modified Johnson-Cook
Value of C Average error (%) Value of C Average error (%)
model
0.11 18.1459 0.156 17.8119 The validation of experimental data with the flow stress values
0.16 & 0.06 27.4650 & 8.8644 0 14.6886
predicted by the modified Johnson-Cook model has been done using the
0.085 13.5145 0.078 5.5481
0.04 & 0.03 7.1268 & 4.5944 0.039 & 0.117 8.5567 & 11.8600
similar technique as mentioned in Section 5.1 and are shown in Figs. 15
0 6.5068 0.0585 5.9055 and 16.
0.015 5.2653 0.06825 5.2390 The error for the predictive model so developed was quantified by
0.0225 4.7488 0.073125 5.1552 using the mean absolute percentage error for all discrete data points
0.02625 4.6195 0.0706875 5.1853
involved. The error estimated was found to be:
0.028125 4.5957 0.07190625 5.1619
0.0290625 4.5912 0.072515625 5.1586
0.029296875 4.5913 0.0728203125 5.1569 1. For the quasi-static flow stress = 4.591 %
0.0291796875 4.5912 0.07297265625 5.1560 2. For the dynamic flow stress = 5.155 %
– – 0.07304882813 5.1556

5.2. Developing the Artificial Neural Network

The modified Johnson-Cook model developed from regression
analysis is of the following form: The second predictive model developed for flow stress pattern
analysis is the artificial neural network (ANN). The use of neural net­
1. In the quasi-static domain works for flow stress estimation requires supervised training with the
( )( available experimental data. The effectiveness of a neural network
σ = 971.63 + 650.688ε0.88 1 + 0.0292lnε̇* )(1 − T *0.75 ) (11) developed for prediction is dependent on the accuracy of prediction as
well as the volume of data used for the training algorithm as the pos­
2. In the dynamic domain sibility of over-fitting or under-fitting can lead to errors. It also becomes
imperative to validate the predicted values with actual experimental

Fig. 15. Validation of quasi-static experimental data using modified Johnson-Cook (JC) model for all the temperature tested.

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S. Deb et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338

Fig. 16. Validation of dynamic experimental data using modified Johnson-Cook model at 25 ◦ C.

data just as in the case as like the Johnson-Cook model. In addition to

Table 3
this, the validation of predicted flow stress values in certain operating
Dynamic input data combinations used for ANN prediction.
conditions which were not used for training the network is also done.
Temperature ( C) Strain Rate (s− 1) Strain (mm/mm)
◦

5.2.1. Supervised learning of the ANN 25 100 0.01

In order to predict the flow stress patterns, the network needs to be 1000 0.02
trained with the flow stress values at certain operating conditions of 10,000 0.03
0.04
strain rate and temperature. The three inputs are strain rate, tempera­ 0.05
ture and strain. As stated in Section 4.3.1 about the difference in failure 0.06
mechanisms of both quasi-static and dynamic data models, the use of 0.07
two separate ANN models were preferred to enhance the prediction with
accuracy. Tables 2 and 3 illustrate all the possible combination of the
input functions used for the training algorithm in the quasi-static and Table 4
dynamic loading domain respectively. Parameters excluded from training and used for validation.
It is to be noted that not all combinations of these input values were S. No Strain rate (s− 1) Temperature (◦ C)
used for the training algorithm. Certain combinations of strain rate and
1 1 25
temperature as presented in Table 4 were not used for training and were
2. 0.1 75
used only for validation purposes. 3. 0.01 150
Unlike in quasi-static domain, all the possible combinations of strain 4. 0.001 200
rates were used for the training purpose in the dynamic domain as the
volume of data available was comparatively lower in this domain.
Validation of predicted data not subjected to supervised learning was error was estimated as:
done in a narrow region of strain ranging from 0.01 to 0.03.
1. For the quasi-static flow stress = 6.729 %
5.2.2. Validation of experimental data using the artificial neural network 2. For the dynamic flow stress = 2.586 %
Flow stress values predicted by using the ANN were validated with
actual experimental values in both the quasi-static and dynamic loading 6. Conclusions
domains. Fig. 17 illustrates the flow curves obtained by actual experi­
mental investigation and those predicted by the ANN for quasi-static This work presents detailed investigation on the prediction of me­
loading. For the dynamic loading condition, the flow curves obtained chanical behaviour of a Ti-6Al-4V alloy by suing an empirical Johnson-
by experimental investigation and those predicted by the ANN for Cook Constitutive model and a mathematical artificial neural network
trained data combinations are shown in Fig. 18(a); while the validation model. The models developed are validated with experimental data to
process for data not used for supervised training are shown in Fig. 18(b). ensure good degree of precision in flow stress pattern analysis.
The error for the ANN model so developed was quantified by using Furthermore, the microstructural characterisation of the alloy was per­
the mean absolute percentage error for all discrete data points involved. formed on material before and after the deformation in order to analyse
The error was estimated by considering both supervised and unsuper­ its base microstructure, understand the fracture mechanisms and to
vised points and their corresponding prediction accuracies. The average correlate the flow stress patterns obtained with the microstructures. The
main conclusions are summarised below:

Table 2 • A modified Johnson-Cook model is developed to analysis the flow

Quasi-static input data combinations used for ANN prediction. stress pattern in quasi-static and dynamic domain. The model has
Temperature ( C) Strain Rate (s− 1) Strain five unknown constants/parameters and the existing methods of
◦

25 0.001 0.1 determining those parameters often result in erroneous flow stress
75 0.01 0.125 prediction. In the present work, these five parameters were initially
150 0.1 0.15 determined from regression analysis, and it was established that the
200 1 0.175
strain rate sensitivity coefficient, C has higher contribution towards
0.2

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S. Deb et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338

Fig. 17. Validation of quasi-static experimental data using ANN at all the temperature tested.

13
S. Deb et al.
Fig. 18. The validation of (a) the trained dynamic experimental data and (b) the predicted data.
to model efficiency among the five constants. An alternative opti­
mization approach was established in the current work based on
bisection numerical method for optimizing a single parameter C for
quasi-static and dynamic loading condition separately. Through our
approach the final error was reduced to 4.591% from 18.145% for
quasi-static loading and to 5.155% from 17.811% for dynamic
loading condition.
• In the second phase of the work, another flow stress model was
developed based on artificial intelligent (AI) based neural network
and has been found to be a promising technique in developing
constitutive equations for deformation process. The strain, strain rate
and temperature were used as input function and artificial neural
network (ANN) with one hidden layer and 10 neurons was consti­
tuted for both quasi-static and the dynamic mode of loading condi­
tions. The established ANN predicted the flow stress as output with a
final error of 6.729 % and 2.586 % for the quasi-static and the dy­
namic loading condition, respectively.
• The proposed method of optimizing Johnson-Cook model parame­
ters and establishing ANN based flow stress model can be extended
further to other materials subjected to a wide range of strain at wide
range of deformation temperature.
• In the current work, the effect of loading conditions including both
quasi-static and dynamic domain on the deformation of material
have also been established from the post-deformation fractographs of
the Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The mode of failure under dynamic loading is
dominated by excessive plastic deformation as well as smearing of
surfaces whereas under quasi-static loading, the fracture surface is
dominated by dimple structures.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
S. Deb: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Investigation,
Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. A. Muraleedharan: Method­
ology, Conceptualization, Validation, Investigation, Formal analysis,
Software, Data curation. R.J. Immanuel: Conceptualization, Method­
ology, Validation, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – review &
editing. S.K. Panigrahi: Conceptualization, Resources, Visualization,
Supervision, Writing – review & editing. G. Racineux: Resources,
Writing – review & editing. S. Marya: Resources, Writing – review &
editing.
14
Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 119 (2022) 103338
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The electron microscope facility has been supported by FIST grant,
Department of Science and Technology, India [Grant # SR/FST/ ET11-
059/2012 (G)].
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