AGG 112 Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology Module (1) - 1

ZAMBIAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
MODULE
Course code : AGG 112
Course title : Agricultural Extension & Rural Sociology
Course writer/Developer: Mr. C. Sondo (Cert. in Agric. & Hort; CAE,

DAE, BAE; MSc in Rural Dev. & Ext.) 2017
Agricultural Extension Module – C.S Page 1

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INTRODUCTION
In Zambia, majority (60%) of the population lives in rural areas and depends directly on
agriculture for their livelihood and survival. Thus, agriculture plays an important role in
economic growth, food security, poverty reduction, livelihoods, rural development and the
environment. Improvement in general agricultural production, productivity and sustainability
will depend on farmers’ willingness and access to new technology. For this reason, we
require efficient and skilful extension officers who should be competent enough to convince
farmers to fully understand and utilize the latest innovations in agriculture. As you are
aware that adoption of new agricultural technology involves not only the technology alone,
but also socio-psychological, communication and philosophical understanding of the
farmers, AGG 112 “Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology’’ is therefore a semester
course specifically designed for such students studying agriculture and other society-based
professions.
The main aim of this course is very simple. A clear understanding and appreciation of the
rural people in the proper perspective is an essential prerequisite for effective extension
work. An Extension Officer may possess high technical competency, but such competency
cannot compensate for lack of knowledge on how to work with rural people. Effective
introduction of improved practices is not possible without an effective approach based on
proper knowledge and understanding of the farmer and the social and cultural context
within which he or she operates. Rural sociology acquaints the Extension Officer with
intricacies of behavior of the rural people that he or she serves or will serve. The course
aims more at providing you with knowledge and skills on ‘how’ to convince farmers adopt
appropriate technologies than on ‘what’ (subject matter) to teach farmers.

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES
Learning outcomes are statements that tell you what knowledge and skills you will have
when you have successfully worked through this module. Therefore, this module aims at
providing you with an understanding of agricultural extension and rural sociology thereby
equipping you with knowledge and skills on how to disseminate appropriate and improved
agricultural technologies to farmers.
Generally, the module aims at:
 Defining the concept of Rural Sociology and its significance in agriculture extension;
 Helping you acquire an understanding of agricultural extension perspectives in the

current changing environment;
 Equipping you with knowledge, understanding and skills required to convince farmers
adopt appropriate agricultural technologies;
 Preparing you to work with farmers in the field of Agriculture and Agribusiness
whether in government, parastatal or private organizations; and
 Helping you set up and operate your own agricultural enterprise and effectively
manage human resources

ABOUT THIS MODULE
This Agricultural Extension module is divided into eight units.
Unit 1: Basic concepts and development of Rural Sociology
Unit 2: Rural Life
Unit 3: Culture and socialisation
Unit 4: Social Stratification
Unit 5: Sociology of development and underdevelopment
Unit 6: A brief history of agricultural extension.
Unit 7: Philosophy and principles of extension.
Unit 8: Extension Methods and Techniques.
Unit 9: Participatory approaches in extension
Unit 10: Research-Extension-Farmer linkages.
Unit 11: Extension Training
Unit 12: Challenges of managing agricultural extension organisations.

ASSESSMENT
This module is divided into eight units. Each unit addresses at least one of the learning
outcomes. You will be asked to complete various tasks so that you can demonstrate your
competence in achieving the various learning outcomes.
Assessment Methods
The course will be assessed in two aspects. These are:

1. Two Continuous Assessments (CAs),
2. End of semester examination.
Continuous Assessments (CAs)
Continuous assessments component of the overall assessment, accounts for 50% of the
total score. You will be given two (2) assignments during residential school of this
semester. Therefore, for you to get the gist of the concepts, you are advised to attend a
residential school.
Final Examination and Grading
This examination concludes the assessment for the course. To prep are for this
examination, read and study all the topics covered in the module. Revision of all
the exercises and the assignments before the examination will also be of help to you.
The revision should start after you have finished studying the last unit. A written theory
examination will be set at the begining of the following semester and will contribute 50% of
the final mark.

LEARNING TIPS
Duration: You will most likely take about 48 hours to work through this module. This
includes the time you will spend on the activities and self-help questions.
Activities: This module has some activites under different units. These activities are
meant to help you revise the various aspects of the course that you will have
covered. This is a way in which you will prepare yourself for the written
examination. In addition, the activities offer you an opportunity to experience,
first hand aspects of Agricultural Extension in general. Hence, you are
encouraged to work on these activities.

Icons: This module uses a number of icons. Icons are pictures or symbols that serve
as indicators or guides that tell you what you should do. Below are the icons
you will find in the module:
Activity
(Complete the activity)
Assignment
(Scores add to your CA. Refer to
page iv above)
Self-help
Note It
(Answer the question)
(Indicates important points)
(Indicates remember)
STUDYING AT A DISTANCE
Going through the introduction of this module, you have some picture regarding the
demands of open and distance learning mode. Open and Distance Learning requires
seriousness amidst your busy schedule, whether as an employee, employer, house manager
or any other socio-economic status. Therefore, it is important to point out one or two things
regarding the importance of time management. You have to make your own time-table not
like the students in full time programmes. For that reason, it is important that you allocate
your time in such a manner as to afford yourself enough time to go through this module.
The module contains suggestions regarding how much time should be spent on an activity.

Suffice to state that this module is categorically a guide only, therefore, you are advised to
read broadly around each topic. Examination questions and assignments are designed in
such a way that demands and requires broader understanding, critical thinking and analysis.
Therefore, rote learning in this module is not encouraged.
IF YOU NEED HELP
It will be necessary for you to contact a lecturer by phone, email or visit for various
consultations. As such enquire from the Program Coordinatior regarding the telephone
numbers and email address that you may use to consult. In addition, you will be advised
during your the residential school regarding contacting your lecturers or tutors by e-mail. If
you need the help of a course lecturer, consultation hours must be pre-arranged.
I hope you will find this learning experience exciting and beneficial.
GOOD LUCK

MODULE CONTENTS PAGE
Module overview........................................................................................
General introduction.....................................................................................
Aim.............................................................................................................
Objectives and assessment...........................................................................
Unit One: Basic concepts and Development of Rural Sociology …………
Conclusion....................................................................................................
Activity.........................................................................................................
Unit Two: Rural Life …………………………………………………………………
Conclusion....................................................................................................
Activity.........................................................................................................
Unit Three: Culture and socialization ……………………………………………..
Conclusion....................................................................................................
Activity.........................................................................................................
Unit Four: Social Stratification …………………………………………………….
Conclusion....................................................................................................
Activity.........................................................................................................
Unit Five: Sociology of Development ………………. …………………………
Conclusion........................................................................................................
Activity.........................................................................................................
Unit Six: A brief history of Agricultural Extension...................................
Conclusion....................................................................................................
Activity.........................................................................................................
Unit Seven: Philosophy and principles of Extension.......................................
Conclusion....................................................................................................
Activity..........................................................................................................
Unit Eight: Extension Methods and Techniques………………………………..

Conclusion......................................................................................................
Activity..........................................................................................................
Unit Nine: Participatory approaches in extension …………………………….
Conclusion.....................................................................................................
Activity..........................................................................................................
Unit Ten: Research-Extension-Farmer linkages..........................................
Conclusion.....................................................................................................
Activity..........................................................................................................
Unit Eleven: Extension Training ………………………………………………………..
Conclusion........................................................................................................
Activity.........................................................................................................
Unit Twelve: Challenges of managing agricultural extension Organizations

Conclusion...................................................................................................
Activity........................................................................................................
References.................................................................................................

Unit 1
Basic Concepts and Development of Rural Sociology
Unit introduction
You have just read through the table of contents. You will now have a general
understanding of what this unit is about and how it fits into this course as a whole. Basic
concepts and principles of rural sociology and their application to an understanding of rural
situations, rural society, and patterns of relationships, the family, societal maintenance and
inheritance, principles and processes are explored. Let us look at what you should learn in
this unit, as specified in the unit learning outcomes below.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Define the terms ‘Rurality’, ‘Rural sociology’;
 Describe the basic scope of rural sociology; and
 Explain the importance of studying rural sociology;
Topic 1: Definitions of rurality and rural sociology
Rurality: This is defined as remote area or place far away from the seat of government
and having no verified nor infrastructural facilities, that is, the countryside and the people
living in the villages. It also refers to areas with low population density, small size, and
relative isolation, where the major economic activity is largely agricultural production.

Although the definitions vary in their focus, Rural Sociology may be defined as the study of
relationships in human societies in rural situations. It is the scientific, systematic, and
comprehensive study of rural social organisations, its structure, functions and objective
tendencies of development. It provides a detailed study of knowledge about different
aspects of rural life, its problems, its culture, and its religion, its economic and political life.
Basically, it is a scientific study of societies living in rural areas.
Topic 2: Development of Rural Sociology
Rural sociology is the scientific study of the social behaviour of rural people. Rural sociology
was established as sub-discipline towards the beginning of the twentieth century, primarily
in the United States of America. Early beginnings of rural sociology date to at least 1908,
when United States President T. Roosevelt appointed the County Life Commission. The
President was influenced in his decision to set up the commission to study the deterioration
of rural life in Ireland and feared that if nothing were done about it the United States might
face the same situation.
After the Second World War, rural sociology became established in European academic and
research institutions. In most African countries rural sociology was introduced as an
invention of western civilization during the colonial era, particularly in the British territories.
It was not until the early 1960s that sociology was established as a component of higher
education programmes in Africa.

Topic 3: Scope of Rural Sociology
The scope of Rural Sociology is both wide and comprehensive. It encompasses all the
aspects of rural life in a scientific and systematic manner. The following are some of the
scope of rural sociology:
Topic 4: Importance of studying rural sociology
Having now gained some idea of what rural sociology and rurality are let us go ahead to
explain more of its significance to any extension organisation. Have you ever questioned the
rationale behind you being made to study this course? Or have you asked of what benefit
this course is to you? You could have so many answers and cannot be blamed for holding to
an opinion or questioning a rationale. No matter what your opinions are, the study of rural
sociology is relevant because:
1. It brings light to the main characteristics and problems of rural areas, the understanding
which is valuable when dealing fully with rural people;

2. It helps you to understand the nature and role of rural social organizations like co-
operatives, Farmer Field Schools, youth clubs, self-help groups etc. Consequently, you as
an extension officer could involve these social organizations effectively in achieving rural
development and understand what keeps them intact or in disarray;
3. As policy makers/planners, you can design effective agricultural extension polices, plans
or programs only if you have adequate knowledge about different dimensions of rural
life;
4. The study of rural sociology helps you to understand different dimensions of rural
culture which influence actions, attitudes and decision-making of rural people. This helps
you to use effective strategies to create favorable attitudes and right decision-making
among rural people towards acceptance and adoption of new technologies;
5. Rural sociology helps you in understanding different facets of rural leadership like
qualities, functions, types, methods of locating leaders and their development functions,
thereby involve rural leaders in technology transfer or rural development processes;
6. The study of rural sociology helps you in understanding causes and consequences of
rural poverty. This helps you to understand the dynamics of rural life and thus,
formulate strategies to reduce poverty levels; and
7. The study of rural sociology helps you finding solutions to rural social problems. As the
rural sociology generates scientific knowledge on causes and effects of rural social
problems, the change agents could find suitable remedies to the social problems of rural
society.
All these would contribute to the welfare of rural people.

Conclusion
This unit examines what Rural Sociology is from different perspectives, the concepts of
rurality and sociology and the merits of rural sociology in extension. The understanding of
the foregoing concepts and sociological knowledge to be gained will be of immense value to
people living in rural areas.
Self-help
1. Discuss five roles Rural Sociology play to an extension officer later on to rural
economic development.
2. Identify the parameters for determining the degree of rurality.
Prescribed Readings
Ekong, E. E. (2006). Introduction to rural sociology. Hillmark Publishers, Port
Harcourt.
Jibowo, G. (1992). Essentials of Rural Sociology. Abeokuta: Gbemisodipo Press Ltd.
Zerihun, D. (2006). Introduction to Sociology: MA Lecture Notes for Health Science
Students, Debud University.

UNIT 2
RURAL LIFE
Unit introduction
Having gone through the introduction of this course, you would have understood the
importance of studying the course content and specifically the position of this unit as it
relates to the entire course. This is because you will need to have the basic background
knowledge of what the course is all about. In this unit, you will explore issues to do with the
rural life and its challenges.
Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this unit, as an extension officer you should be able to:
 State reasons to study rural life;
 Understand the life patterns of rural people; and
 Explain the challenges of rural areas.
Topic 1: Why Study Rural Life?
Rural persons’ norms, values, beliefs and culture often differ significantly from those of the
urban areas. As an agriculturist, you will find it relevant to actually study the life patterns of
rural people, particularly their social life, their economic life and their cultural life. It is
assumed that if you have better understanding of rural life you will be more effective in
persuading farmers to accept change. For instance, it would be unfair to refer to all rural
people as being traditional, illiterate, ignorant and unprogressive without having an

understanding of the values and beliefs of the people. This is because villages and groups
may be naturally quite diverse.
Topic 2: Characteristics of rural areas
Rural areas can be habitable depending on, at what level or to what degree, the influencing
factors, as you shall learn in this unit. Rural areas, have some inherent characteristics which
aid the survival and co-existence of the communities. Some of these characteristics are;
closeness to nature, social solidarity, shared territory, etc.
Closeness to Nature
It is obvious that the rural people are closer to nature than the urban people. The rural
people on a daily basis have interaction with their environment from where these elements
of nature are found.
Common Administration
Each community is led by a common administration for the running of the affairs of the
community. Leadership is very important in local administration. The leadership is put in
place by the people themselves through election or selection. When the leadership is put in
place, every member is expected to be subject to it. Common leadership helps people in
maintaining their customs, purposes and attitudes in a manner that there are not damaged
by the recalcitrant member of the community.

Social Solidarity
Have you ever queried some people

when they refer to themselves as
brothers even when they are not in any
way related by blood, but just because
they come from the same place or
speak the same language? That
phenomenon is what is referred to as
social solidarity or the degree of
togetherness among people. According
to Jibowo (2000), there is a greater degree of social solidarity among rural than urban
dwellers. This is because members of a given rural society are often from related kinsmen
and have similar occupation, education, income and other attributes.
Shared Territory
Every community occupies a common locality that has defined boundaries. These
boundaries separate the community from others, often with marked objects, such as trees,
oil palm, hills, rivers, valleys, rocks or some other features. Unique features tend to make
individual community identities easily recognizable. No matter how closely related
communities are, their individual identities cannot be compromised. Every member of a
community has as much equal right to the community natural or government-provided
amenities.

Topic 3: Challenges of rural areas
Social Infrastructure
One of the problems that still “drives” people from rural areas to urban areas is lack of or
inadequate social infrastructure. Most rural communities are still deficient in the areas of
quality health care facilities, educational facilities, portable water supply, employment
opportunities and electricity supply.
Where some of the above are available, they may be in short supply, dysfunctional or
moribund. As a result, rural communities are prone to outbreak of diseases and
unemployment.
Physical Infrastructure
The problem of inadequate physical infrastructure is also worth mentioning. Poor road
network does not allow rural people to convey
their farm products to the market as at when due.
Hence, spoilage, waste and reduction in
marketability of products are perennial problems
being witnessed by the rural dwellers. Also, where
markets are available, lock-up stores are not
provided. Due to lack of electricity in some
communities, the use of televisions, radios and other communication gadgets cannot be
provided and this makes majority not to be abreast with current information.

Institutional Infrastructure
The institutional infrastructure is made up of the police, extension services and telephone
services. Rural communities, in most parts of Zambia lack institutional services. You must
not forget that some of the institutions like the police are concerned about the people’s
security, others with communication services while others are for information on improved
farming technologies. The absence of these institutions, therefore poses much difficulties to
the dwellers of these communities. For example, cattle rustling may be pathetic in some
areas and if not addressed can result in community discoid and conflicts.
Illiteracy
Have you ever noticed that a large percentage of people in the rural areas are illiterate?
Almost 60 percent of people living in rural areas are illiterate. Illiteracy in the rural areas
encourages fatalistic tendencies among the people. Unwillingness to adopt improved
methods of doing things makes the people to use old and non-productive practices.
Therefore production has remained abysmally low and thereby affecting their income.
Illiterate rural dwellers are prone to misinterpreting good government policies that affect
their lives, it also affects information dissemination among the people.
Poverty
High levels of poverty in rural areas is also another challenge. The 2015 living conditions
monitoring survey has revealed that 40.8% of the country’s population is living in extreme
poverty. . . .The survey indicates that 76.6 percent of the population in rural areas is poor,
with 23.4% of the urban population being poor (CSO, 2015). Many people are faced with

economic, social, political, cultural and environmental deprivations. For example, well
intended agricultural innovations may not be adopted by the poor farmers.
Social Exclusion
Social exclusion is defined as processes that deny people the opportunity to participate in
common activities in society (Raphael 2007; Reimer 2004). As Vera-Toscano et al. (2001)
note, poverty is “about how people are treated and how they regard themselves; about
powerlessness, exclusion, and loss of dignity”. In this context, poverty is both a cause and
an outcome of social exclusion (Commins, 2004). This is because social exclusion both limits
access to and leaves poor people with few social networks and potential resources to be
used for addressing various aspects of poverty (Thorp et al. 2005).
People living in poverty participate less as members of organizations or networks, are less
likely to be integrated into public activities, and have limited power or influence over the
political agendas and policies that shape their lives (Clapham, 2003; Cloke et al. 2000b;
Duncan and Lamborghini, 1994; Freudenburg and Gramling, 1994). Limited resources, a
lack of education, limited access to networks, a lack of rights, and limited access to
transportation can impede one’s ability to participate in economic, educational, political, and
social activities
Conflicts
Conflict refers to the struggle in which competing partners, attempting to reach a goal,
strive to eliminate an opponent by making the other party ineffectual or by annihilation.
Victory is at expense of the opposing party. This may take the form of a quarrel and the

division of the village into several factions, fist fight, threats, legislation or total annihilation.
Challenge to the security of the village may also engender conflict, for example land
dispute. This often triggers off a strong group defense reaction resulting in the
reappearance of old alignments with each group trying to obtain dominant position over the
other. Individual conflicts may entail intensive feeling of animosity towards each other.
Conflicting individuals may refuse to greet each other or do anything together. Conflict has
both negative and positive effects. Its negative effects:
 Disruption of social unity;
 Generation of bitterness which may lead to destruction and bloodshed,
 Generation of inter-group tension;
 Disruption of normal channels of cooperation and the diversion of members’ attention

from group goals.
The positive aspect of conflict are:
 Conflict leads to a clear definition of issues and can then be amicably resolved.
 Group cohesion and solidarity increase
 Conflict keeps the group alert to members’ interest and such awareness helps to
prevent future conflicts.
Beliefs in deified ancestors, Superstitions and Taboos
One other challenge of rural dwellers is their strong belief in superstition. The rural people
also believe in some mysterious powers. These mystical, supernatural and esoteric powers
are virtually inexplicable, but cannot escape notice when they are manipulated by those
who have access to them. To the rural people, nothing evil is accidentally caused. It is the
handiwork of witches.
Conclusion
You have been exposed to the knowledge of rural life as differentiated from urban life. That
in rural life, there are challenges.
Activity
1. Understanding rural life is very important for an agricultural extension officer. Justify.
2. Illiteracy among rural dwellers inhibits rural development. Discuss.
Prescribed Readings
Alfred, S.D.Y. (2001). Effects of Socio-Psychological Factors on the Adoption of Agricultural
Innovations by Rural Households in Kogi State. A Ph.D. Thesis. The Federal University
of Technology, Akure.
Jibowo, G. (2000). Essentials of Rural Sociology. Abeokuta, Nigeria: Gbemi Sodipo Press.
National Open University of Nigeria (2010). Introduction to rural life: AEM 311.
ISBN: 978-058-008-5.
Okunlola, J.O. and S.D.Y. Alfred (1998). Socio-Economic Factors Affecting the Production
and Utilization of Soybean in Ondo State. Applied Tropical Agriculture, Vol. II.

UNIT 3
CULTURE AND SOCIALIZATION
Unit introduction
In the previous unit, the aspect of rural life and its challenges have been explored. In this
unit, you will learn about culture and socialization. The study of society or any aspect of it
becomes incomplete without a proper understanding of the culture of that society and how
culture is transmitted from generation to generation.
Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:

 Enhance student’s understanding of the concepts culture and socialisation;
 Acquaint them with the various functions and characteristics of culture; and
 Explain what socialization is its implication on society.
Topic 1: Definition and characteristics of culture
You may discover that the term ‘culture’ has been defined differently. Despite various
definitions, culture is the total way of life of a people - their pattern of thoughts and
behavior and constitutes the man-made environment as opposed to the natural
environment. It includes ideas, traditions, customs, usages, institutions, associations,
dressing, feeding habits, farming practices and some other material objects of the
community.

Characteristics of culture
Culture is a social heritage

Culture does not exist in isolation. Neither is it an individual phenomenon. It is a product of
society. It originates and develops through social interactions. It is shared by the members
of society. No man can acquire culture without association with other human beings. Man
becomes man only among men. It is the culture which helps man to develop human
qualities in a human environment.
Culture is transmissive
Culture is the public property of a social group of people. Individuals get cultural knowledge
of the group through socialization. Culture is capable of being transmitted from one
generation to the other. Parents pass on culture traits to their children, and they in turn to
their children, and so on.
Culture is continuous and cumulative

Culture exists as a continuous process. In its historical, growth it tends to become
cumulative. It becomes difficult for us to imagine what society would be like without this
accumulation of culture, what our lives would be without it.
Culture is dynamic
Culture is stable when we consider what people hold valuable and are handing over to the
next generation in order to maintain their norms and values. However, when culture comes
into contact with other cultures, it can change. However, culture changes not only because
of direct or indirect contact between cultures, but also through innovation and adaptation to
new circumstances.

Culture is ideational
Culture exists as ideas. Societies came up with ways on how to behave and this gets
transmitted to others and have believed that is the way to live.
Culture is gratifying
Culture provides proper opportunities and prescribes means for the satisfaction of our needs
and desires. These needs may be biological or social in nature. Our need for food, shelter,
and clothing on the one hand and our desire for status, name, fame, money etc. are all for
example, fulfilled according to the cultural ways. Culture determines and guides the varied
activities of man. In fact, culture is defined as the process through which human beings
satisfy their wants.
Culture varies from society to society

Every society has a culture of its own. It differs from society to society. Culture of every
society is unique to itself. Cultures are not uniform. Culture elements such as customs,
traditions, morals, ideas, values, ideologies, etc., are not uniform everywhere. Ways of
eating speaking, greeting, dressing, entertaining living etc., of different societies differ
significantly. Culture varies from time to time also. No culture ever remains constant.
Topic 2: Importance of understanding culture in agricultural extension
Each aspect of the culture of a society has a definite purpose and function and is, therefore,
related to all the other aspects of its culture. This is important to remember when planning
extension programs. This is because changes in one aspect of culture may have an effect
on other aspects of that culture. If changes in one aspect of culture are introduced, and
these are likely to have an unacceptable effect on other aspects, then an extension program
may have little chance of success. The more an extension officer learns about and comes to
respect the culture of the people with whom he or she works, the more he or she will be
accepted by them. S/he will also be more sensitive to the type of advice and support that
will be provided.
There are five particular aspects of local culture that the extension officer should be aware
of when discharging his/her extension work, these are:
Farming systems
Farming systems are complex, and change in one aspect may create problems in others.
Therefore, before an extension officer can offer any advice to farmers, s/he must
understand their present farming system such as: What crops are grown and in what
sequence or combination? How important is each crop in the local diet? How is land
prepared for planting? When are the main farm operations carried out? Why do people farm
in the way they do?
Case study
Farming practice is not isolated from the rest of the society's culture and it cannot be
treated as a purely technical subject. It influences, and is influenced by, other aspects such
as food preferences, land tenure and family relationships. In one African country, for
example, extension officers encouraged farmers to plant their crops a few weeks earlier
than they usually did. Research findings showed that output would increase and that even if
the early sowing failed because of lack of rain, farmers would have the chance of re-
planting. However, this advice challenged the authority of traditional leaders. Nobody was
supposed to begin ploughing and planting until the village headman had declared that the
time was right. The advice also conflicted with the relationship between cattle owners and
arable farmers: cattle were allowed to graze freely on the stubble and grass in the fields
until the planting season began. This simple recommendation, therefore, had implications
for other aspects of culture, which made it difficult for individual farmers to change their
farming practice.
Land tenure
Land tenure consists of the ways in which people obtain the right to possess and use land.
Land-tenure systems vary from one society to another. In some communities, land is owned
by a tribe or kinship group, and each family has the right to use as much land as it needs to
feed itself. It cannot sell or rent that land to anyone else, and there may be restrictions on
the uses to which the land can be put. In other societies individuals can buy land and do
what they like with it.
The land-tenure system will affect people's ability to take extension advice. In some areas,
for example, land is not supposed to be on title. The farmer will, therefore, be unwilling to
adopt long-term investments.
Inheritance
The way in which land and other possessions pass from one generation to the next also
affects extension work. In some cultures, such as the Bembas, a man's possessions are
inherited by his uncles. This may reduce the widow’s incentive to develop the farm. In many
areas, it is normal practice for a man to divide his land between his sons and daughters
before he dies. Such a farmer will not want to do anything to the land that will make it
difficult for each portion to be farmed separately later. In other rural societies, land is not
inherited at all. When farmers die, the land they farmed is taken back by their kinship
groups for reallocation. Therefore, extension officers should understand the local inheritance
rules, because they will affect the ability of young farmers or serving spouses to acquire
land, and the incentive of farmers to take their advice.

Ceremonies and festivals
Ceremonies are a central feature of Zambian culture. They include religious festivals,
celebrations to mark important seasons, such as the start of planting or the end of harvest,
and ceremonies for events within the life of a family or community, such as marriage, birth
and death. An extension officer needs to know when these take place so that s/he can plan
his activities around them. He should also take care to behave in the appropriate way on
such occasions.
Traditional means of communication

All societies have ways of spreading information and sharing ideas. Songs, proverbs, drama,
dancing, religious gatherings and village meetings are just a few of the traditional means of
communication that an extension officer may find in a rural area.
There are two main reasons why these means of communication are important for
extension:
 The extension agent can learn from them what people in the community are saying
and thinking. An understanding of local proverbs, for example, will give you an
insight into people's knowledge of their environment and their attitudes toward
farming. Songs and dances often express deeply held feelings which an extension
officer should be aware of when planning his or her extension programs.
 The extension officer can make use of these traditional means of communication to
pass on information and ideas. Many extension services now use drama, dances and
songs to convey new ideas.

Topic 3: Functions of culture
Culture can also be seen to play a specific function in social life. Culture begins at the
premise that culture provides orientation, wards off chaos, and directs behavior toward
certain lines of action and away from others. In other words, culture can have a certain
utilitarian function – the maintenance of order as the result of shared understandings and
meanings.
 Culture is important with respect to the introduction of agricultural innovations;

 Culture influences the type of food consumed and produced in a rural setting;
 The manner of greeting is influenced by culture;
 Culture influences the manner of addressing elders;
 Culture influences the manner of eating;
 Culture influences dancing arrangements.
 Dressing styles vary among the major ethnic groups
 Culture influences the type of language/dialect spoken.
Topic 4: Socialization
You may be aware that in any society, there are socially recognized ways in which the
norms and values of the society are inculcated in the human being who comes into this
society.
Socialization has been defined as the process by which the human organism is made into a
person. Socialization is a process because it is an on-going, never ending process- from
cradle to the grave. That means an individual person passes through various stages of
socialization, from birth to death, infants to older persons.

In this process, as defined by the local culture, they learn what roles are associated with
their status. Also, as prescribed by the culture, they learn how to play those roles.
Agents of socialization
Socializing agents are the sources from which people learn about society and ourselves.
People and groups that influence people’s self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behaviour
are called agents of socialization. They are our socializers. Institutions that serve as
socializing agents include family members, peers, church, workplaces, schools and mass
media.
Every social experience we have affects us in at least a small way. However, several familiar
setting shave special importance in the socialization process. Some of the important agents
of socialization are as below.
The Family
Family is the first agent of socialization. Mothers, fathers, siblings and grandparents, plus
members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or
she needs to know. For example, they show the child how to
use objects (such as clothes, knives, kitchen utensils,
ploughs, bicycles);
how to relate to
others (some as
aunts, others as
friends still others as strangers or teachers or
neighbours); and how the world works (what is real
and what is imagined). As you are aware, either
from your own experience as a child or your role in helping to raise one, socialization

involves teaching and learning about an unending array of objects and ideas. Family begins
the lifelong process of defining ourselves of being male or female and the child learns the
appropriate roles associated with his/her gender.
The School
Schooling enlarges children's social world to include people with backgrounds different from
their own. Among the manifest functions, the schools teach children a wide range of
knowledge and skills. Schools informally convey other lessons, which might be called the
hidden curriculum. Through different activities schools help in inculcating values of
patriotism, democracy, justice, honesty, and competition. Efforts are made to introduce
correct attitudes about economic system/political system.
Peer Groups
Other than parents and schools, peer groups play very significant roles in the socialization
process. Sometimes, the influence of the peer group, be it negative or positive, can be as
powerful as that of parents. The peer group may transmit prevailing societal values or
develop new and distinct cultures of its own with peculiar values. Among the peers, children
learn how to form relationships on their own. Peer groups also offer the chance to discuss
interests that adults may not share with their children (such as clothing or other activities).
The Mass Media
The mass media have an enormous effect on our attitudes and behaviour, and on shaping
people's opinions about issues as well as what they buy. For example, portrayal of human
characters in different programs and in advertisements on television helps in projecting the
gender perceptions prevalent in the society; thereby helping in gender construction. The
same programs help in shaping the attitudes, values, and basic orientation of people to life.

Religion
Religion plays significant role in the socialization of people. It influences morality, becoming
a key component in people's ideas of right and wrong. The influence of religion extends to
many areas of our lives. For example participation in religious ceremonies not only teaches
us beliefs about the hereafter life but also ideas about dress and manners appropriate for
formal occasions.
Conclusion
This unit examined what culture is, its characteristics and functions. The understanding of
the foregoing concept and sociological knowledge to be gained will be of immense value to
extension officers working with the farmers and the people living in rural areas to
appreciate what the people do.
Activity
1. What is culture?
2. Explain in detail the various characteristics of culture.
3. Culture is ideational, elaborate on the concept.
4. Discuss five importance of studying culture as an agricultural extension officer; and
5. The peer group influences behavior of people. Discuss.

Prescribed readings
Abraham, F. M. (2010). Contemporary Sociology: An Introduction to Concepts and Theories.

New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Kong, E. E. (1988). An Introduction to Rural Sociology. Ibadan: Jumak Publishers

Ltd., P. 2 – 10.
Macionis, J. (2005). Sociology. (10th Ed.) . Prentice Hall.
Schaeffer and Lamm. (1998).Sociology, (6th Ed.). McGraw Hill.

UNIT 4
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Unit introduction
In the previous unit you explored culture and its importance in extension. In this unit, you
will learn about social stratification and explore how inequality is created. You may discover
that all societies exhibit some system of hierarchy whereby its members are place in
position that are higher or lower, superior or inferior, in relation to each other.
Learning outcomes
 Define social stratification;
 Trace the genesis of these inequalities in societies;
 Explain why inequalities persist in societies; and
 Explain whether it is possible to eliminate these inequalities in societies.
Topic 1: Definition of social stratification
Social stratification is a division of a population into two or more layers, each of which is
relatively homogenous and between which there are differences in priviledges, restrictions,
rewards and obligations. Stratification involves rank differentiation and constitutes an order
of ranking on the basis of relative position within the rating system operating in society.
Each stratum of society is only relatively homogenous as distinct from other strata. Further

priviledges and rewards enjoyed or restrictions imposed may or may not be related to needs
of society. Three features of this definition need to be emphasized for greater
comprehension:
a) Social stratification is a socially accepted cultural pattern that assigns members of

society a general position in the structure of society;
b) Social stratification is superimposed by members of society by tradition and, without

either the will or conscious knowledge of the majority; and
c) Social stratification involves a system of differential privilege, unequal distribution of

privileges, goods, power services, etc. among members belonging to different social
strata.
Viewed in this way it can be stated that every society is divided into more or less distinct
groups. There has been no society in which every individual has the same rank and the
same privileges. Today, there are many controversies and questions about inequality that
sociologists are interested in, such as why do inequality exit? Where did inequality come
from? Why does it continue? Do we justify inequality? Can we eliminate inequality? Can we
make a society in which people are equal? The next topics will explore these questions.
Topic 2: Theoretical explanation of social stratification
Various theorists have tried to explain how and why stratification systems emerge or exist in
societies. The most prominent of these are discussed below.

Structural-Functionalist Perspective
This perspective sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the
biological and social needs of individuals who make up that society. The essence of
structural functionalism is its concept of the way the parts of the social system function to
maintain the whole. Structural functional theorists have tried to show that social
stratification is necessary for societies to work. Therefore, functionalists contend that social
inequalities are inevitable and beneficial to society because it serves the needs of the
society. The layering is useful because it ensures that the best people are at the top and
those who are less worthy are further down the pyramid and therefore have less power and
are given fewer rewards than the high quality people at the top. In short, the generally
agreed system of governance motivates people to fill positions that are needed for the
survival of the whole. Therefore, social class system is essential for a cohesive society.
Conflict Perspective
Conflict theorists disagree with functionalists about whether inequalities function mainly for
the good of everyone. They believe that inequalities function primarily for the good of the
privileged few. In this vein, Marxists interpret inequalities purely as a system of exploitation.
They argue that inequalities arise as the result of the interplay of economic and material
possessions. He further argued that in capitalist societies, the private ownership of capital
gives rise to a two class systems. The two great classes are the dominant class, the
bourgeoisie (people who own the means of production and the dominated class), and the
proletariat (these are the workers who sell their labor for a wage). In capitalist societies, the
bourgeoisie maximize profit in competition with other firms. However, as these two classes
come together in order to produce the wealth of a society, one providing capital the other
providing labor, the proletariats begin to realize and discover that they are exploited,
together inevitably revolt against the system that oppress them.

Symbolic Interactionism Perspective
The human self is a social phenomenon which arises from social interaction with others
especially those with good standing in societies. Nearly everyone assumes that people want
high social class and status for the monetary rewards and the self-esteem that go with
them. Such status symbols as a home located in the best part of the city, driving expensive
and unique cars, belonging to a club of high esteem, a child relating herself with close
relatives or mother for the provision of socio-economic needs, helps bolster the self-image.
In short, people’s appearance reflects their perceived social standing. Housing, clothing, and
transportation indicate social status, as do hairstyles, taste in accessories, and personal
style.
Topic 3: The persistence of inequality
Charon (2007) offers a few reasons why inequality continues in society. His arguments
reflect social reproduction theory, which focuses on the roles of institutions and cultures in
the perpetuation of inequality and the process by which the social class structure is
maintained. For example, in the patrilocal marriage system, a married women does not own
big assets such as cattle, land etc. In terms of governance, a man as an overall head of the
household, takes the lion’s share. As a result, inequality continues because those at the top
protect their positions and use their power to influence other parts of society.
Secondly, some cultures view inequality as justified. One belief system that people
commonly embrace--mistakenly, according to contemporary economic research--is that the
rich and powerful are more talented, hardworking, and intellectually superior and thus more
deserving. The poor are poor because they are lazy or irresponsible or unmotivated. If they
can’t make it, it is their fault. These are ideologies that protect the system of inequality.
These ideologies legitimatize the position of the rich and powerful and explain and justify
the position of the poor. People tend to accept inequality, not because they are happy with

their situation, but because over time people believe their situation is natural and normal
and it is what they expect from life.
Thirdly, people are socialized to accept their position in life. The rich and powerful socialize
their children to expect wealth and power. Parents, teachers, and friends show us our
position in society and teach us to expect that same level. Parents who attended prestigious
boarding schools expect their future offspring will attend such schools. In addition,
education helps to reinforce an acceptance of inequality and education prepares each social
class differently, depending on the roles they will play when leaving school.
To sum up, socialization brings the acceptance of a culture that justifies inequality, and it
normally brings an acceptance of one’s relative position in the system of inequality. Much of
society seems to encourage and protect the system of inequality. Given all of these ways
inequality is perpetuated in a society, is it at all possible to eliminate it? In the following
topic this question is briefly elaborated.
Topic 4: Can we eliminate inequality?

As you have explored reasons why inequalities exist, be reminded that inequality and
poverty didn’t just drop down from the sky. It has been discovered that inequalities is
embedded in society in many ways, but if the conditions that generate social inequality are
conscious and intentional creations of human actions, they can be changed.
Conclusion
In this unit, you have learnt about social stratification, its causes, and how to eliminate it. In
the next unit, you shall learn about societies as systems.

Questions for Discussion
1. Think about the jobs you have held. What factors do you think led you to getting the
job and what factors affected the salary that you received?
2. How do you think your gender, race, and socioeconomic position have affected your
path through life so far?
3. How does a functionalist understand inequality? How does a conflict theorist
understand inequality?
4. If our actions and behaviors mostly reproduce the condition in which we live, how
can we change inequality?
5. What can be done to lessen the negative effects of inequality on people’s lives?
Prescribed readings
Achbar, M., Abbott J., & Bakan J. (2004). The Corporation. Zeitgeist Video.
Charon, J.(2007). 10 questions. A Sociological Perspective, 6th edition. Belmont: Thomson

Wadsworth.
Hurst, E. (2010). Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Huwitz, M. (2011). Legacy students up to 45% more likely to be admitted to elite

colleges. [Online]. Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/06/legacy-
students-45-percent_805272.html [accessed August 1, 2011].

UNIT 5
SOCIOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT
Unit Introduction
In the previous unit, you studied social stratification, now you will have an opportunity to
study sociology of development and underdevelopment. This course offers an introduction
to the sociology of development and underdevelopment.
The sociology of development is concerned with understanding the ways in which people in
poorer countries try to improve the quality of their lives. Studying sociology of development
especially reasons why some countries are more developed than others, will allow you to
understand the world in a more global context. Throughout this unit, you will examine the
arguments advanced by some of the key development theorists – and think sociologically
about them. Among other things, this involves contextualising such theories, as well as
examining their premises and underlying assumptions.
Learning outcomes
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
 Define the key concepts of development and underdevelopment
 Describe the main theories and concepts in the sociology of development
 Explain why Africa is poor;
 Link factors of Africa’s underdevelopment to rural area’s underdevelopment;

Topic 1: Definitions of development and underdevelopment
World sociology is concerned with explaining the relationship and, specifically, the economic
inequalities, between different regions and different countries of the world. Generally the
term development is used by Western sociologists to mean industrialisation, economic
growth and the living standards associated with prosperity, such as increased life
expectancy, health-care, free education, etc. Those countries that have not yet achieved
these objectives are said to be undeveloped and are often termed ‘less-developed countries’
(LDCs).
The problematical nature of ‘development’
In economic terms, development has been understood as achieving sustainable rates

of growth of income per capita to enable the nation to expand its output faster
than the population (Todaro and Smith, 2011). This definition fails to take into
consideration problems of poverty, discrimination, unemployment and income distribution;
the assumption being that increased output or economic growth would deal with these
issues.
In sociological terms, the term ‘development’ is used (often by Western sociologists) to

mean industrialization, economic growth and the living standards associated with prosperity,
such as increased life expectancy, health-care, free education, etc. Those countries that
have not yet achieved these objectives are said to be ‘undeveloped’ and are often termed
‘less - developed countries’ (LDCs). However, some sociologists suggest that this definition
of development is both loaded and ethnocentric – it reflects the view that Westernisation is
the only worthwhile and desirable direction development should take. Not all sociologists
agree with this definition of development. For example, some regard liberation from
oppression as more important to progress than industrialisation. Others regard industrial

development as a problem if it means increasing social and economic divisions within a
country. Islamic societies regard development as constituting progress to becoming nearer
to Allah whereas Westerners might regard this as a backward step.
You may discover that there is no common consensus on what development is. Therefore,
amidst these sharply conflicting values and prevailing ideologies, in this course we do
suggest that something of significance can be gleaned from each of the four approaches to
define development. A classical understanding of development is that it is as a multi –
dimensional process involving changes in structures, attitudes and institutions as well as the
acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequalities and eradication of absolute
poverty. This is a holistic approach in looking at development.
Topic 2: Theories of Development
a) Evolutionary theories
The basic argument of neo-evolutionists was that social change, that is, the Third World
becoming more like the First World, can best be understood and explained as a quasi-
biological process. They saw certain components of developing countries, such as parts of
economic, political and other social structures, evolving from having simple, multi-functional
characteristics to having complex, specialised functions, like the organisations and social
structures of First World countries. The way in which this evolutionary process occurred was
called differentiation.

If Third World countries modelled themselves on First World countries, then they would
‘progress’ economically, politically, and socially and eventually achieve First World status.
Drawing parallels from organic evolution and the work of Charles Darwin, he suggested that
in order for societies to move from the primitive to the modern, several ‘evolutionary
universals’ have to be present. By this he means any organisational development which is
so important to any further evolution that it is likely to be hit upon by various systems
operating under different conditions. Elsewhere, he defines an evolutionary universal as ‘any
complex of structures and processes which so increases the capacity of living systems to
adapt’.
What this means in ‘plain English’ is that in order to survive and develop, societies need the
ability to develop the sorts of cultural attributes and structures of modern western societies
including: a wide outlook on the world, rewards based on achievement, cities, a class
system, bureaucracy and eventually democracy. Similarly to the way humans ‘evolved’ from
apes, developing societies ‘evolve’ into developed ones, if they have the right qualities that
allow them to adapt and change into more advanced societies.
b) Modernisation theories
The modernization movement of the 1950s and 1960s is an economic theory that is rooted
in capitalism. The concept of modernization incorporates the full spectrum of the transition
and drastic transformation that a traditional society has to undergo in order to become
modern. Modernisation is about Africa following the developmental footsteps of Europe
(largely the former colonizer of Africa).
According to modernity, policies intended to raise the standard of living of the poor often
consist of disseminating knowledge and information about more efficient techniques of
production. For instance, the agriculture modernisation process involves encouraging
farmers to try new crops, new production methods and new marketing skills. In general,
modernization led to the introduction of hybrids, the green house technology, genetically
modified (GMO) food, use of artificial fertilizers, insecticides, tractors and the application of
other scientific knowledge to replace traditional agricultural practices.
Modernisation theorists such as Inkeles and Smith, expressed the goal of development as
‘making men modern’. Making men modern’ is, in many ways, the essence of modernisation
theory. ‘Modern Man’ has become modern when ‘he’ has changed as an individual.
Modernity is indicated in the presence of a distinct set of attitudes, which include:
 A readiness for new experience and an openness to innovation

 A more ‘democratic’ attitude towards the opinions of others
 An orientation to the future rather than the past
 A readiness to plan one’s own life
 A belief that we can dominate our environment and achieve our goals
 An acceptance that the world is ‘calculable’ and therefore controllable
 A faith in the achievement of science and technology, albeit a somewhat simple faith
 A belief in ‘distributive’ justice.
Topic 3: Theoretical explanation of Africa’s poverty
Africa is endowed with abundant natural resources and it has attracted development aid
from the rich nations of the world. Despite these, the continent remains underdeveloped. In
other words, in spite of all the wealthy resources including human and material in its
possession, Africa is the world’s poorest continent. What are the causes? Different reasons
have been attributed to the African development crisis among the modernist school and the
dependency school. But before delving into reasons why Africa is poor, it is important first
of all to explain what we mean by poverty.
Topic 4: The Concept and Definition of Poverty
The meaning of poverty is equally varied and contested. There are many definitions of
poverty, according to how it is viewed. Encyclopaedia Encarta, defines poverty as the
condition of having insufficient resources or income. In its most extreme form, poverty is a
lack of basic human needs to sustain as useful and working efficiency such as adequate and
nutritious food, clothing, housing, clean water and health services.
According to the United Nations Human Development Report, (1998), poverty is defined as a
complex phenomenon that generally refers to inadequacy of resources and deprivation of
choices that would enable people to enjoy decent living conditions. Yunus (1994) on the other
hand defines it as the denial of human rights relating to the fulfillment of basic human needs.
The word “poverty” and / or “poor” originated from the Latin word pauper meaning poor,
which has its roots in the words pau- and pario that is “giving birth to nothing”; referring to
unproductive livestock and farmland.
In attempting to summarise the definition of poverty, it is both relative and absolute terms
refers to a circumstance where a person is not able to fend or provide sufficiently for his or
her necessities or fundamental human requirements such as clothing and decent
accommodation, food, the fulfillment of social and economic responsibilities, non-access to
productive employment, lack of skills, resources and confidence; and has restricted
admission to economic and social infrastructure.

Topic 5: The real causes of Africa’s underdevelopment
Africa’s causes of underdevelopment has multiple and complex causes. Different schools of
thought have come out with the causes of underdevelopment in Africa. Why is Africa in this
state?
Two schools of thought exist: the “externalist” and the “internalist”. Externalists ascribe
Africa's woes to factors beyond Africa's control: Western colonialism and imperialism, the
pernicious effects of the slave trade, racist conspiracy plots, exploitation by avaricious
multinational corporations, an unjust international economic system, inadequate flows of
foreign aid, and deteriorating terms of trade.
The argument attributing African underdevelopment to the colonial powers’ exploitation of

the continent is justifiable, however, it has been almost over sixty decades the colonial
masters left. Sixty years is enough to move the continent forward, if countries like India,
Brazil, Mexico, Chile and Indonesia that were at the same level of development with most
African countries can now become the leading emerging economies of the world, then
something is amiss with Africa. Internalists lay the blame largely on the shoulders of the
local systems of governance: excessive state intervention, associated corruption of
institutions at all levels, mismanagement of resources, politics of poverty etc.
The above contribution shows that while Europe and America are busy exploiting Africa; the
urban areas are also busy exploiting their rural areas. The dependence is also noticeable
between rural areas and urban areas. Within those rural areas one finds rich people
exploiting poor individuals and the chain goes on and on.

At personal level, the following contemporary theorists root the cause of poverty due to
various reasons.
Poverty Caused by Individual Deficiencies.
This theory state that poverty is a large and multifaceted set of explanations that focus on
the individual as responsible for their poverty situation. Typically, politically conservative
theoreticians blame individuals in poverty for creating their own problems, and argue that
with harder work and better choices the poor could have avoided their problems. Other
variations of the individual theory of poverty ascribe poverty to lack of genetic qualities such
as intelligence that are not so easily reversed.
Poverty Caused by Cultural Belief Systems that Support Sub-Cultures of Poverty
The second theory of poverty roots its cause in the “Culture of Poverty”. This theory
suggests that poverty is created by the transmission over generations of a set of beliefs,
values, and skills that are socially generated but individually held. Individuals are not
necessarily to blame because they are victims of their dysfunctional subculture or culture.
Culture is socially generated and perpetuated, reflecting the interaction of individual and
community. Technically, the culture of poverty is a subculture of poor people where they
develop a shared set of beliefs, values and norms for behavior that are separate from but
embedded in the culture of the main society. Once the culture of poverty has come into
existence it tends to perpetuate itself. By the time such children are six or seven, they have
usually absorbed the basic attitudes and values of their subculture. Thereafter, they are
psychologically unready to take full advantage of changing conditions or improving
opportunities that may develop in their lifetime.

Poverty Caused by Economic, Political, and Social Distortions or Discrimination
Theorists in this tradition look not to the individual as a source of poverty, but to the
economic, political, and social system which causes people to have limited opportunities and
resources with which to achieve income and well-being. Much of the literature on poverty
now suggests that the economic system is structured in such a way that poor people fall
behind regardless of how competent they may be.
Poverty Caused by Geographical Disparities
Rural poverty and other framings of the problem represent a spatial characterization of
poverty that exists separate from other theories. This theory calls attention to the fact that
people, institutions, and cultures in certain areas lack the objective resources needed to
generate well-being and income, and that they lack the power to claim redistribution.
Conclusion
This essay started with the premise that the theory or explanation of poverty one holds
shapes the type of anti-poverty efforts that are pursued by community developers. The fact
that poverty theory addresses individuals, their culture, the social system in which they are
embedded, the place in which they live. The diversity and complexity of causes of poverty
allow for these multiple points of view.

Assignment
1. Sociologically, how would you explain Africa’s underdevelopment?
2. What are the implications of Africa’s dependence on Western countries on rural
areas?
Prescribed Readings
Acemoglu, D., and J. A. Robinson (2010). “Why is Africa Poor?” Economic History of
Developing Regions, 25: 21-50.
Alcock, P. (1993). Understanding Poverty. London: Macmillan.
Allen, T. and Thomas, A. (2000). Poverty and Development into the 21st century. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Chang, H. (2003). Kicking Away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective:
Policies and Institutions for Economic Development in Historical Perspective. London:
Anthem Press.
Duncan, C. M. (1999). Worlds Apart: Why Poverty Persists in Rural America. New Haven:
Yale University Press.
Gunder, F. A. 1969. “The Development of Underdevelopment.” In: J. Timmons

Roberts and Amy Bellone Hite (eds.) The Globalization and Development Reader.
Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 76-84.
Rostow, Walt W. (1960). “The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto.”

In: J. Timmons Roberts and Amy Bellone Hite (eds.), The Globalization and
Development Reader. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 47-55.

Unit 6
A brief History of Agricultural Extension
Unit Introduction
You have just learnt about rural sociology and other preliminary information about this
course. To that effect, you now have a general understanding of what this course is all
about and how it fits into your field of study as a whole. As you have been working with so
many clients whether farmers or fellow extension officers, you may have been boggled with
so many questions regarding the subject of agriculture extension. Among such questions
could be:
 What is extension and agriculture extension?

 When and where did they originally begin?
 What were the circumstances that led to their introduction?
 Why bother yourself on history than the present?
 Why should I learn about agricultural extension; after all, there is no relationship with
my field of study!
Don’t worry much. This unit and many others looks at answering such questions bothering
your mind.

Learning Outcomes
It is expected that by the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Explore the historical perspectives of agricultural extension to understand the current
extension theory and practice;
 Explain the genesis of extension and agricultural extension in:
 Britain and the U.S.A;
 Zambia;
 Define extension; and
 Explain the relevance of studying agriculture extension.
Topic 1: Historical evolution of agriculture extension in the World
Basically, the word ‘extension’ was first coined in the 1840s in Britain to describe adult
education programmes when travelling teachers used the programmes to expand or extend
the work of universities beyond the campus into neighbouring communities. But, this word
was first used in a practical way by James Stuart of Trinity College, Cambridge University in
1867-68, when he was addressing “Women Association and Working Men’s Clubs” of North
England. Again in 1871, he appealed to the officials of the Cambridge University to establish
extension centres under the supervision of university, so that these centres could be used
as a platform to deliver lectures to teach people on literary and social topics (i.e. how to
read, write and compute simple arithmetic). His effort in this field was to eradicate illiteracy,
thereby being responsible to be called the “Father of University Extension”.
There are several explanations on the genesis of agricultural extension. One such
explanation is premised on the following: Agricultural extension service in the modern form
came into existence as a result of the outbreak of Potato Blight in Europe in 1845. In
Ireland, its effects were particularly severe because the predominantly peasant population

relied on potato as their staple diet, and the ‘potato famine’ persisted until 1851. The British
government arranged for ‘practical instructors in husbandry’ who were centrally appointed,
deployed and paid, to travel around the affected districts and to advice small farmers, in
simple terms, how to improve their cultivation and how to grow alternate root crops.
The other explanation states that the growth and success of this work in Britain influenced
the initiation of similar activity elsewhere, especially in the United States. Therefore, the
Land-Grant Colleges in the United States of America (U.S.A) formally established the
agricultural extension activities by conducting demonstrations at agricultural shows and
giving lectures to farmers’ clubs that the term ‘agricultural extension’ service was first used.
Topic 2: Definition of extension
What comes to your mind when the word extension is mentioned? There are many experts
and practitioners who have defined and opined extension in various ways encompassing
many facets of extension’s functions. The following are some of definitions:
a) Is a voluntary out of school educational programme for clientele consisting of the

relevant contents, principles and procedures.
b) Is a “body of knowledge which accumulates experience and research findings with
respect to extension and borrows insights from other disciplines and field of
endeavors which seems pertinent to extension (Rolling, 1997).
c) Is a system of out-of-school education for rural people (Saville, 1965);
d) Is a service or system which assists farm people, through educational procedures, in
improving farming methods and techniques, increasing production efficiency and
income, bettering their levels of living and lifting the social and educational standards
of rural life (Maunder, 1973);
e) Is the conscious use of communication of information to help people form sound
opinions and make good decisions (van den Ban, 1974);

f) Is assistance to farmers to help them identify and analyze their production problems
and become aware of the opportunities for employment (Adams, 1982); and
g) Is a series of embedded communicative interventions that are meant, among others,
to develop and/or induce innovations which supposedly help to resolve (usually multi-
actor) problematic situations (van den Ban, 2004).
The above statements illustrate the range of definitions. The fact is that there has been a
change of emphasis in various aspects of extension, such as greater interest in human
factor and concern with the rural community and even the region as a whole. Despite these
different definitions, the word extension has a history and roots. Thus, the word extension
is derived from the Latin roots ‘ex’ meaning “out‟ and ‘tensio’ meaning “stretching‟.
Therefore, extension is stretching out to the people who are beyond the limits of an
educational institution. Also when you check up the word “extension” in the dictionary, it is
stated as “extended or projected”.
In the next topic, you will learn about how agriculture extension evolved in Zambia.
Topic 3: Historical antecedent of agriculture extension in Zambia
The genesis of agricultural extension in Zambia is linked to both the political and colonial
agricultural history of Zambia. Therefore, in this unit an attempt is made to trace the
historical evolution of extension in Zambia. These are briefly discussed under three different
periods: Pre-colonial, Colonial and Post-Colonial periods.
 The Pre-Colonial (Before 1890)
You may be aware that dissemination of relevant farming information and advice to farmers
dated as far back as pre-colonial era. How? You may ask! The conscious efforts made by
farmers in selection, introduction and teaching of the practices to their family members and
community through socialisation implied that agricultural extension services were going on.
In the same vein, the people were involved in producing and selection of good varieties of
crops and breeds of animals. The farmers selected the best seeds for multiplication, from
which the seedlings were being transplanted to their farms. Similarly, farmers introduced
improved seeds and animals from their neighbouring communities or from Trans-Saharan
traders from neighbouring countries.
By so doing, extension teaching was largely through apprenticeship, observation, imitation

and participation. And this type of teaching was skills-oriented thus addressed their farming
problems or needs. When the whites colonized Northern Rhodesia, this type of education
was commonly known as traditional agriculture.
 The Colonial Period (1890 – 1964)
During the colonial era, as industrialisation was taking shape, agricultural development
initiatives were undertaken with the purpose of increasing production. The colonial masters
imposed farmers to adopt their innovations. In the event of non-adoption of these promoted
innovations, severe penalties were meted against such individuals. For instance, in the field
of animal husbandry, late release of cattle from kraals or driving cattle at noon invited a fine,
slap or an imprisonment to such a farmer. At some point, farmers who were adopting
innovations such as crop rotation, green manuring crops, application of kraal and farm-yard
manure, etc were given farm inputs. Later, promotion of modern technologies such as
inorganic fertilizers, High Yielding Varieties (HYV), exotic livestock breeds, pesticides,
herbicides, farm machinery, vaccines etc were introduced. At the same time, monoculture
was also promoted replacing mixed or intercropping agricultural system.
In these cases, county agents (now called camp extension officers) were busy
disseminating such technologies to farmers through several extension methods and
techniques.
 The Post-Colonial Period (1964 to date)
You may remember or be informed that at independence (1964), the development and
adoption of extension in Zambia just like any other British colony, adopted her former
colonial master’s extension approaches. During this period, extension workers continued
promoting modern agriculture. In this vein, small packages of farm inputs were freely
distributed to extension workers for demonstrations. The primary focus was on agricultural
productivity by ensuring that national food security was enhanced. Diffusion of scientific
proven innovations at research stations was promoted and farmers who were adopting
these technologies were categorized as innovators, early adopters, and those who were
taking time to adopt were called laggards etc.
This was known as the Transfer Of Technology (TOT) model where technology was
generated by research scientists and passed on to the farmers via extension workers (See
Figure 1). Extension was a bridge between research and farmers. The theory behind this
approach had been the ‘diffusion of innovation’ model.
RESEARCH EXTENSION FARMERS
Fig. 1: The TOT model
This type of extension was implemented up until 1999. In last part of 1990, participatory
approaches were introduced that actively involved the farmers to shape the destiny of their
farming activities. Some more details on participatory approaches are discussed in the other
units.

Topic 4: Importance of studying Agricultural Extension
In the last topics, you were able to trace the history of agriculture extension. In this topic,
we shall be looking at the rationale for studying agricultural extension. The importance of
learning agriculture extension cannot be over-emphasized. Agricultural extension, being a
specialized form of adult education in agriculture is an educational process often seen
mainly as a communication process between extension agents and rural dwellers with the
intention of helping them improve on their farming practices for sustainable increase in
productivity and better standard of living.
To highlight more information, agricultural extension is more concerned with the “How,
Why, When, and Who” instead of the “What.” In other words, if a person is very
knowledgeable in various technical aspects but does not know how to explain, or when to
explain them to the farmers, then his or her knowledge has no meaning. The reasoning is
simple: education is basically meant to uplift the standards of the people. Therefore, the
power to express knowledge and view point also plays a crucial role in agricultural sector.
Below is detailed importance of studying agricultural extension:
1. Many small-scale farmers always find it difficult to take risks; hence they prefer to
continue with their traditional methods of farming. Therefore, extension prepares and
stimulates the farmers’ state of mind to make them adopt new technologies;
2. Agricultural extension is an educational process directed to bring about change in

people meaning both extension officers and farmers;
3. It is also a communication process that involves dissemination of information to the

farmers on new technologies or innovation. It also involves exchange of ideas that
could provide basis for research or feedback on the use of previous innovation. The

methods of communication could be through the use of individuals, group or mass
method.
Conclusion
This unit has introduced you to the meaning and history of agricultural extension both in the
world and Zambia. From these discussions you must have learnt the meaning of “Extension
education” and “Agricultural extension” as well as history of agricultural extension in the
world and in Zambia.
Assignment
1. Briefly explain the genesis of agricultural extension in the U.S.A.
2. State how extension activities were carried out during the:
(a) Pre-colonial era
(b) Colonial Era
3. Define extension from different perspectives.
Prescribed Readings
Rolling, N. (1997). Extension Role in Sustainable Agricultural Development in Improving
Agricultural Extension. A reference Manual. FAO Rome.
Swanson, B. F. (1997). Improving Agricultural Extension: A reference Manual. Rome.
World Bank. (1990). Agricultural Extension: The next step. Washington D. C.

UNIT 7
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
Unit Introduction
In our last unit, you were able to give various historical development of agriculture
extension and its importance. This unit introduces you to the basic philosophy and principles
of extension. You may be familiar with the basic philosophy and principles of extension and
have some practical experience in the field of extension which will help you in reflecting on,
and sharing your experiences with others, thus developing new insights. Agricultural
extension is very important in dissemination of introduction on innovation or new
technologies to the clientele. It is important to improve farmer’s method of production and
enhance farm output. In order to accomplish the above, it is important for you to
understand the philosophy and principles of extension.
Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
 State the philosophy and principles of extension; and
 Explain the broader application of extension principles to various development sectors

as well as to agriculture and rural development.

Topic 1: Philosophy of extension
The seriousness and thoroughness of the extension officer is governed by the second
premise of the extension concept – the philosophy of extension. The word philosophy is
derived from two Greek words ‘Philos’ and ‘Sophia’. ‘Philos’ means love and ‘Sophia’ means
wisdom or knowledge. Thus, etymologically, philosophy means love of wisdom. To love
something is to desire it. In this way, the correct meaning of philosophy is the manner of
achieving the knowledge.
The topic on philosophy of extension is to make you be aware of the basic and several
philosophies behind agricultural extension activities. This is important so that you can
understand why agricultural extension is involved in certain activities. You will also
understand why iIt is presently carried out and why it is limited in scope to communication
and educational roles. According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967), the basic philosophy of
extension education is to teach people how to think, not what to think.
Once the farmers are taught how to think, their ability to adopt new technologies will
increase while their income and standard of living becomes enhanced. The basic philosophy
of agricultural extension therefore, is to build in the concept of self reliance in the farmers.
It is also to discourage the farmers from depending on agricultural extension for technical or
production requirements. The ultimate of extension work is to build in the process where
the farmers will be able to take initiatives at solving their problems as they arise. This could
also involve farmers forming themselves into groups, societies and seeking linkage-
opportunities which will provide the technical information that is required.

Topic 2: Principles of Agricultural Extension
Principles are a kind of philosophy guiding the branch of knowledge of teaching or

instructional approaches. Extension has now developed as a full-fledged discipline, having
its own philosophy, objectives, principles, methods and techniques which must be
understood by every extension worker and others connected with the rural development.
Certain basic principles underlie the conduct of agricultural extension work. These principles
differ with respect to the kind of community in which extension is carried out. Extension
principles may be defined as guidelines for the conduct of extension work and these
principles are the bedrock upon which extension service rests. The principles of extension
are stated as follows:
 "Start where the people are." Extension should start at the level where the farmers
are, that is, at their level of knowledge, understanding, interest and degree of
readiness. In order to be able to assist the farmers to move to higher levels of
aspiration, it is important that an extension officer should know the prevailing
conditions of the farmers. It means personal contact with the local condition, and its
environment, an understanding of their social-cultural system, problems and felt
needs, their habits, traditions, attitude and economic status of the people and
society.
 “Begin with what they have”, such as farm tools and any other capital available unlike
a situation where you bring in new things not familiar to them.
 "Help them help themselves" this means teaching farmers how to do better farming
using their own efforts and resources. This is with respect to identification and
finding solutions to the problems on their farms. The basic idea behind the principle
is to stimulate the thinking ability-of the clientele. The extension personnel does not
solve the problems of its clientele but only guides them on how to solve their
problems.
 Interest and needs. Extension work must be based on the needs and interests of the
people. These needs and interests differ from individual to individual, from village to
village, from block to block, and from district to district and, therefore, there cannot
be one programme for all people. It is therefore important that an extension officer
should have adequate knowledge of the farmer’s interests and needs. For example, a
farmer that has the problem of Quela bird’s infestation of his farm would be more
interested at that particular period in any technology that would remove the birds
than opportunity to apply for agricultural loan.
 Mutual trust and respect. It is very important to know that in human relationship
mutual trust and respect is critical. In a situation where there is no respect, there
cannot be harmony and peaceful co-existence. Similarly in extension work, the
clientele and the extension officer should respect and trust each other. The extension
officer has the sole responsibility of giving respect to the farmers by acknowledging
their level of understanding. He or she should realize that the farmers are
knowledgeable as they have been successfully carrying out farming activities over the
years to the best of their ability.
 Voluntary Involvement. Extension specifically is a process that involves changing

human behaviour through communication. It is not possible to change the behaviour
of an unwilling individual. It is only when the clientele is willing and accepts what is
being introduced to him or her that extension could make any impact on the project.
 Extension is based on the facts and Knowledge. Extension deals with the facts that
emanate from experimentation and adaptation of findings. Therefore, the
developments of impact points are based on the tested findings which will be of
utmost importance to the farmers. It is important therefore that any new technology
to be introduced to the farmers should be based on absolute facts that will not affect
the farmers who naturally are not willing to take risks. It is in view of the above that,

whatever extension officers do is found to be proven both at the experimental level
and on the field.
 Principle of cultural difference. Extension work is based on the cultural background of

the people with whom the work is done. Improvement can only begin from the level
of the people where they are. This means that the extension worker has to know the
level of the knowledge, and the skills of the people, methods and tools used by them,
their customs, traditions, beliefs, values etc.
Other principles include:
1. An extension programme should be flexible so that necessary changes can be made

whenever needed to meet the varying conditions and needs of the farmers.
2. Extension work should be based on the full utilization of local leadership.
3. That extension should not be a form of charity.
Topic 3: Requirements for effectiveness of extension officers
With the key roles of extension officers in rural development work, it is important that the
following factors be considered for them to perform their duties effectively.
1. The extension officer must have appropriate educational background. This is required
to enable him or her understand what to do, why he or she must do it.
2. The extension officer must have belief in what he or she is doing, meaning
technology. If the extension officer does not have belief in what he or she is doing,
definitely his or her level of interest and zeal will be low.

3. There should be constant training for the extension officers. They should have
opportunities for in-service training, and regular professional training so as to update
their skill and enhance their credibility and integrity with the farmers.
4. The extension officers should be provided with the required materials such as training
aids and materials for effective teaching and demonstration to the farmers.
5. The required extension team must be in place and made functional so as not to
frustrate the efforts of the extension officers. The extension officer cannot work
without the researchers, subject matter specialist and effective administrators.
6. Financial support to extension officers should be adequate. This is because no

extension work could be carried out if not well funded.
7. The issue of extension - farmer ratio should be given adequate consideration. In

situations where there exists 1:3000 extension to farmer ratio, may not augur well.
The extension officer may not be able to effectively manage such ratio with the
available resources. It is therefore, important that minimum extension to farmer ratio
be maintained.
8. The extension officers’ performance should be constantly objectively evaluated. This

is to assess the performance of the extension officer and help advice appropriately in
areas where he or she needed to improve.
Conclusion
In this unit, you have been made to understand the roles of extension officers, the support
system that must be in place for the extension officer to operate effectively. You have also
learnt that what is required to make the extension officer effective in the performance of his
or her duties. In the next unit, you shall learn about psychology of adult learning.

Activity
1. Research on the “Philosophy of Agricultural Extension” and make brief notes for its
use.
2. Review the different agricultural extension systems that were applied in your
respective organisation and evaluate their weaknesses and strengths.
Prescribed Reading
Burton, E. S. (2008). Global Review of Good Agricultural Extension and Advisory
Service Practices FAO Rome ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0261e/i0261e00.pdf

UNIT 8
EXTENSION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Unit introduction
In the previous topic you discussed participatory approaches in agricultural extension. In

this unit, you shall focus on the use of a wide range of different extension methods and
techniques that are commonly used. It outlines the main extension methods which you can
use and contains some guidance on how to choose appropriate methods and techniques for
different target groups.
Quote!
“What a man hears, he may doubt.
What he sees, he may possibly doubt.
But what a man does himself, he cannot doubt”
Seaman Knapp
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Define extension methods and extension techniques;

 Explain the three types of extension methods;
 Describe the four principles of extension methods;
 Explain factors influencing the choice of an extension method and technique; and
 Practice teaching methods in real field like situation.

Topic 1: Definitions of extension method and technique
Attempts to define the term ‘extension method’ have always provided some linguistic
controversy. In the dictionary sense, extension method simply refers to systematic ways
followed in presenting materials for instruction. In agriculture extension, however, method
is slightly more than a way followed in presenting instructional material. In extension
method may be defined as a sequence of progressive steps, undertaken to create situations
that are conducive to effective learning. Thus, extension methods are means by which
people/farmers are organized or encouraged to participate in educational activities while an
extension technique is a means to reach out to these organized farmers or clients.
Classification of extension methods
Wilson and Gallup (1955) classified extension teaching methods according to their use and
form. Bains (1987) attempted to classify them according to their use, form, stages of
learning process, stages of adoption process, categories of adopters, initial cost involved,
cost per unit of results obtained, skill required in using them, time consumed in using them
and according to behavioural changes intended. However, most of these classifications are
only of academic interest. The most widely used as well as useful classification of extension
teaching methods is according to use.
These are classified into three: Individual, group and mass methods. Extension techniques
are means to achieve extension methods. Extension techniques that are commonly
conducted in the field include: Demonstrations, field days, role plays, workshops, seminars,
conferences and discussions.

The extension methods which are described in this module are summarised in Table 1
below.
Table 1: Classification of extension methods by use
Individual Contact Group Contact Mass Contact
 Farm and home visits  Result demonstrations  Mass meeting

 Farmer's call  Method  Campaigns
 Personal letter demonstrations  Exhibition
 Telephone call  Group meetings  Newspaper
 Field day  Radio
 Study tour  Television
 Posters
Topic 2: Extension methods and techniques
This unit outlines the main extension methods and techniques which are mostly used.
Furthermore, some guidance on how to choose appropriate methods for different target
groups is provided.
Individual Methods
Although it is Ministry’s policy to work with farmer groups, there are occasions when it is
appropriate for an extension officer to visit an individual farmer or household. This can be
used for contacting only one person at a time and conveying the necessary information to
the farmer. The main purpose of an individual farm and home visit is to identify and analyse
the main problems facing an individual farmer or household and to provide advice on the

best actions to take for overcoming them. The argument is that farmers are not a
homogeneous group but heterogeneous.
However, although individual farm and home visits are an important way of establishing
rapport with farmers in the area and building trust and confidence in the extension service,
they take time to plan and implement making them ineffective methods for reaching larger
numbers of farmers. They are a costly extension method and should be carefully thought
out and planned. The visits need to make an impact and lead to positive agricultural
development if they are to justify their cost. In addition, field staff should be careful not to
visit the same set of farmers repeatedly as this severely limits the impact of extension
activities and may also arouse resentment among other farmers who might feel extension
service has nothing to offer them or has deliberately ignored them.
Types of Individual Extension techniques:
We can have several techniques of individual extension. Some of these are
a) Farm and home visits;

b) Office calls and inquires; and
c) Informal contacts.
Group extension methods

The use of groups in extension has become more common over the past decades especially
with the promotion of participatory approaches. A key principle of the present extension
approach is working with groups of farmers. This has involved a shift in emphasis from
individual contact to group contact - though this does not mean that individual contact is

abolished. Working with groups is an integral part of the extension approach, and can
contribute to targeting, responsiveness to farmer needs and decentralization. Group
methods are characterized by reaching many clients/farmers who have some degree of
opportunity for interaction and feedback. To be effective, however, it also has to be
supplemented by individual and mass extension methods.
Types of Group Extension Techniques
Method demonstration, Result demonstration, Focus Group Discussions, Field day, Lecture;
Symposium, Seminar, Conference, Workshop, Role playing.
Below is an explanation of some of the extension techniques under group methods

commonly used by field extension officers:
Demonstrations
Demonstrations are very important methods of communicating technologies to the farming
community. A demonstration is a particularly
powerful method to use with farmers who are
illiterate and learn by doing. Usually, a
demonstration shows the differences between
a recommended practice and farmer’s practice.
The strength of the demonstration lies in its

simplicity and its ability to present the farmers
with concrete results and above all, the need for it. In such a case, they serve more if they
have been planned by the farmers than where they are planned by the extension officer or
extension organization.
Demonstrations are divided into two principal types: method demonstrations and result
demonstrations.
Method demonstrations
Basically, method demonstrations show the farmers how to do something. When you
conduct a method demonstration, the farmer is shown step by step for example, how to
plant seeds in lines, how to make a wooden maize sheller, how ve getables are preserved
etc. However, an extension officer can only conduct a method demonstration only if the
farmers have already been convinced or accepted
the particular practice but need to know how it
can be done practically or how to do it themselves.
It is important to be careful when conducting a

method demonstration because if not done
properly, it can lead to a technical failure.
Remember the day you conducted a method demonstration, was it a failure or success? If it
was a failure, how did you feel?

Results demonstrations
The main purpose of results demonstrations is to show

farmers that a particular technology is practicable under
their local conditions. In results demonstrations, the
farmers are shown the end product of a method
demonstration of two practices, that is, a recommended
practice and farmer’s practice for them to make
comparisons. They see how much better results are from
using better practices. For example, comparisons between compost and no compost,
between recycled seed and certified seed, or between use of fertilizer and no fertilizer. In
this case, "Seeing is believing" is an age-old adage. Unless a farmer has actually seen the
good results of an innovation already been convinced, s/he will not be convinced by the
extension officer's recommendations.
Both method and results demonstrations are extension activities that require a lot of
thought, careful planning and efficient execution.
Field days
A field day is a trade show to which all stakeholders in

agricultural sector are invited to display their products.
Field days are arranged in places where a large group of
farmers can gather to see trials and demonstrations.
There are usually held in a non-formal and highly
structured manner. The purpose is often to introduce a
new idea and to stimulate the interest of as many farmers as possible. A field day should be

interdisciplinary in order to bring extension, research and other agencies together into a
coordinated educational undertaking. Field days can be held on farmers’ field, Farmer
Training Centres or research centres. However, field days held on farmer’s field are more
effective than the one held on FTC or research stations. Normally, a field day takes the
whole day and involves visiting the field, discussions and viewing exhibits and displays.
Field tours
This is a special visit made to several places or points of interest. It is a carefully planned
educational activity and may require a day, several days or even weeks. Just like a field day,
a field tour is also conducted for first-hand study of a technology that cannot be easily
brought to the learning group.
Mass methods
The aim of mass methods is to address a large number of people at one particular time. It
is particularly useful in making large numbers of people aware of new ideas and practices. It
is equally good to announce sudden emergencies, campaigns or crusades. It is clear that
mass methods have a function mainly in stimulating farmers after which they seek
additional information by individual or group contact. Traditionally, mass methods are
limited by low level of feed-back.
Types of Mass extension Techniques are Radio, Television, Agricultural Shows, posters,
fliers etc. Below is a brief explanation of some of mass extension techniques.

Radio and Television
The coming of relatively solar panels and solar operated TVs has made rural community to
have access to more information. For example, the Department of National Agricultural
Information Services (NAIS) and other extension organizations provide extension services to
farmers by use of electronic gadgets through ZNBC, Muvi TV, CITY TV, CBC, Radio Liseli,
and other community media.
Agriculture shows
Towards the end of the agricultural season, shows are

held in Zambia. First, ward agricultural shows followed
by district, provincial and finally the national shows are
held. The objectives of these shows are to:
 Spread new innovations/ideas in farming;

 Provide an opportunity for farmers to discuss
their problems with fellow farmers and share experiences;
 Encourage competition in order to stimulate farmers to improve their farming
practices;
 Advertise goods and services available to farmers; and
 Sometimes it provides farmers with the opportunity to market and sell their produce.

Exhibits – These are systematic display of specimens, models, charts, posters, etc that are
found in a particular place. In this case, during
agricultural shows or Expos, exhibits should be obtained
from a specific area. Their main purpose is to develop the
interest of those who see them, influence their attitude,
increase their knowledge and stimulate them to action.
Exhibits are considered as some of the best methods of
teaching illiterates. A well planned educational exhibit can
present information quickly and convincingly. Exhibits
have imaginative appeal, and can stimulate competitive spirit among participants. This will
be particularly so when prizes are awarded to those who produce the best. Shows exhibits
should be so convincing that observers will be persuaded to adopt exhibited practices on
their farms, in their homes and communities. Exhibits can be of any size. However, for
extension purposes, they should be made simple, and should convey only one idea at a
time.
Topic 3: Factors influencing selecting extension methods and techniques
Extension officers are responsible for choosing methods and techniques to use in extension
programmes. How should staff decide which method is most appropriate? One key factor is
the stage of the adoption process. For an effective use of extension-teaching methods, it is
not enough to know these methods and their techniques. What is more important is the
appropriate selection of a method or combination of methods for a particular situation. In
fact, when a farmer is exposed to a new idea several times by different methods or a
combination of methods, he is likely to accept it more quickly. Farmers learn about new
practices through several stages or adoption stages. These stages are known as:
1. The awareness stage- when a person comes to know of a new practice but
lacks the complete information;

2. The interest stage- when he becomes interested in a new idea and wants to
know more about it;
3. The evaluation stage- when he mentally applies the new idea to his present
situation and evaluates it;
4. The trial stage- when he applies the new idea or practice on a small scale in
order to determine its utility under his own situation; and
5. Adoption stage- when he decides to continue the full use of the practice.
Thus, it is the cumulative effect on people through exposure to an idea
repeatedly that result in action.
The following are some of the factors that may influence the selection and use of extension
teaching methods (See Box 2 below):
Box 2: Factors considered selecting extension methods
Coverage: Choosing group extension methods which will reach more than one or a few farmers;
Complexity: Selecting simple methods which do not need a lot of materials, or a lot of time to plan and
implement;
Skill: Choosing methods which extension staff have the capacity to implement, if not training may be
required;
The Message: The extension method selected should be appropriate to the subject or message. For
example, a method demonstration might be the most appropriate way to show a group of farmers how
to graft orange seedlings.
The Participants: The extension method selected should be suitable for farmers as participants- their
age, education, interest, experience, knowledge, number, intelligence etc should be considered.
Available Resources: The extension method should be cost effective. Using materials which are
externally sourced may not be appropriate and sustainable.
Complementarity: The extension method should complement any other methods which have already
been used to deliver a particular message.
Time: Time of delivery

Conclusion
This unit has been designed to help you as extension officer to advise field officers use
appropriate and context-specific extension methods and techniques when dealing with
farmers. It is of interest to you involved in extension and education of farmers at a practical
level.
Activity
 Suppose you are working as an extension worker in one of the rural areas in Zambia.
Which of the extension method (s) and technique(s) would you choose to change the
behavior of farmers in terms of knowledge, skill and attitude they have towards
specific agricultural technology? Why? How do you compare and contrast among the
different extension teaching methods?
 An assessment of innovation adopters showed that a number of them adopted a

promoted innovation at different rates. What could have been responsible for this?
 When designing a technology for use by your clients, what factors would you
consider?
Prescribed Reading
Swanson, B.E., and Sonfranko, H. (1997). Improving Agricultural Extension: A reference
Manual. FAO, Rome.

UNIT 9
PARTICIPATORY INTERVENTIONS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
Unit Introduction
The aspect of applying extension methods and techniques to ensure that introduced
innovations are sustainably adopted to some extent requires participatory interventions.
Hence, this unit aims at you as a student to: 1) explore changing understandings of
innovation processes and decision-making in natural resource based livelihoods, with
particular respect to participatory and bottom-up approaches; 2) consider what participatory
approaches and methods are together with their strengths and limitations and; 3) consider
the implications of 1 and 2 for the management and organisation of practical development
and extension/research interventions.
Learning Outcomes
 Define participation;
 Explain the reasons for the development and widespread use of participatory
interventions;
 State the strengths and limitations of participation; and
 Explain the principles of participation.

Topic 1: Definition of Participation
Having outlined some preambles of participation discourse, the next topic provides you with
a range of definitions of participation. Following the collapse of Top-Down approaches,
there has been a search for participatory approaches that respond better to farmers’
demands and a shift towards more broad based, participatory and group focused
approaches.
Some of the definitions of participation are:
1. It is a process during which individuals, groups and organisations become actively

involved in a project;
2. Participation means that the poor people themselves are involved in identifying the
problems they face, determining ways to overcome them, designing realistic plans to
achieve these goals, and carrying them out;
3. Participation is defined as a voluntary contribution by the people in one or another
of the public programmes supposed to contribute to national development, but the
people are not expected to take part in shaping the programme or in criticizing its
contents; and
4. Participation includes people’s involvement in decision-making processes, in
implementing programmes, their sharing in benefits of development programmes
and their involvement in efforts to evaluate such programmes.
A critical analysis of these definitions is that participation is defined with adjectives, resulting
in terms such as community participation, citizen participation, people’s participation, public
participation, and popular participation. Such definitions on different levels of participation
only describe varying levels of involvement of the community, ranging from material
contribution, to organisation, and to empowerment.

Despite defining participation using adjectives, literally speaking for some people to
participate means to take part in or to be involved in some activity. The Oxford English
Dictionary specifically deﬁnes participation as the “[a]ct of being involved in something,” “to
have a share in” or “to take part in,” thereby, emphasizing the rights of individuals and the
choices that they make in order to participate.
Topic 2: Participation: It’s Theoretical Roots
The discourse on theoretical roots of participation needs to be understood from both a

historical and development perspective. For a comprehensive understanding of the concept
of participation, it is important first to review how it came about and the conditions which
led to its development.
In the 1960s, Paulo Freire articulated the need to believe in the creativity of the poor and
oppressed. He came to realise that the ignorance and lethargy of the poor people were the
direct product of the whole situation of economic, social and political domination. To that
effect, he established an approach aiming at raising the consciousness of the powerless (the
downtrodden, marginalised, oppressed and poor) to become organized and determine their
development destiny. This led to the emergence of a number of participatory approaches.
Another school of thought is based on Orlando Fals Borda’s analysis. His theory is based on
the principle of experiential learning through thinking, feeling and acting. Fals Borda adds to
the Frierian conscientization process, the political organization process of local people,
valuing their knowledge and wisdom. His approach includes the recovery of the local history
and a process of collective research.

The other root of participation is derived from researchers and community organizers who
sought to improve their understanding of insider/local knowledge as a balance to the
dominance of outsider/western scientific knowledge.
Therefore, the word 'participation' became a popular term from the mid-1970s onwards as a
response to the failure of top-down development planning to address the real needs of poor
and marginalized people. Building on the premise that knowledge is power, the participatory
research approach assisted the socially marginalized people to critically investigate their
reality, analyze it, and then undertake collective action to bring about constructive changes
in their lives. Consequently, participation implies:
1. Taking part in making decisions about what needs to be done;

2. Taking part in implementing programmes and decisions by contributing resources or
managing certain activities or specific organisations;
3. Sharing in the benefits of a programme; and
4. Taking part in efforts to evaluate such programmes.
By the 1990s, and continuing to the present, participation had become a mainstream,
expected component of development. A programme or project hardly receives funding
unless the word participation is included. The growing adoption of a participatory approach
to development reflects a continuing belief in a bottom-up approach in which the
downtrodden, marginalised, oppressed and poor people become agents of change and
decision-making. Participation is seen as providing a means through which to enable
meaningful involvement of the poor and voiceless in the development process, allowing
them to exert greater influence and have more control over the decisions and institutions
that affect their lives.

Topic 3: Principles of Participation
The ability of participatory development to fulfil its promise rests in part on the manner in
which it is undertaken. Effective participation rests on respecting a number of key principles,
such as those identified by Egger and Majeres (1998):
 Inclusion of all people, or representatives of all groups who will be affected by the
results of a decision or a process, such as a development project;
 Equal Partnership – recognizing that every person has skill, ability and initiative and
has equal right to participate in the process regardless of their status;
 Transparency – all participants must help to create a climate conducive to open
communication and building dialogue;
 Sharing Power – authority and power must be balanced evenly between all
stakeholders to avoid the domination of one party;
 Sharing responsibility – similarly, all stakeholders have equal responsibility for
decisions that are made, and each should have clear responsibilities within each
process;
 Empowerment – participants with special skills should be encouraged to take
responsibility for tasks within their specialty, but should also encourage others to also
be involved to promote mutual learning and empowerment; and
 Cooperation – cooperation is very important; sharing everybody’s strength reduces
everybody’s weaknesses. These principles for effective participation can be applied to
all aspects of the development process or project.

Conclusion
Considerable progress has been made in encouraging local communities to participate more
fully in the development process. This has come about as a result of programmes which put
greater stress on the development of both individual and institutional capacities.
Nevertheless, much progress still has to be made, particularly in encouraging support
organisations to adapt their internal culture more closely to the demands of participatory
development. Better co-ordination between participatory practices and the formulation of
policy needs to be achieved, since the sustainability of participatory approaches will depend
on their being recognised and endorsed by national policy.
Activity
1. Give a brief history of participatory approaches.

2. State participatory approaches implemented in Zambian agriculture systems.
3. Critically examine the challenges of implementing participatory programmes in
Zambia.
4. Review the different agricultural extension approaches that have been applied in your
area and evaluate their effectiveness.
Prescribed Readings
Chambers, R. (1997). Whose Reality Counts? Putting the First Last. IT Publications. London.
Leeuwis, C. (2004). Communication for Rural Innovation: rethinking agricultural extension
Blackwell Science Inc.
Platteau, J. (2006). Pitfalls of participatory development. In Participatory governance and

the millennium development goals. New York: United Nations, 1-47.
Neef, A. (2003). Participatory approaches under scrutiny: Will they have a future?

International Agriculture, 42, 489-497.
Scoones, I. and Thompson, J. (1994). Knowledge, power and agriculture - towards a

theoretical understanding Beyond Farmer First. Rural people's knowledge, agricultural
research and extension practice I. Scoones and J. Thompson, ITDG publishing.

UNIT 10
RESEARCH-EXTENSION-FARMER LINKAGES
Unit Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about

extension methods and techniques
commonly used by field-based
extension officers when disseminating
agriculture technologies. Research-
extension-farmer is three main pillar
of agricultural system and their
effectiveness largely depends on strong linkage among each other. However, the existing
research-extension-farmer relationship has not been effective in Zambia. This calls for
coordination and collaboration to improve effectiveness and avoid the duplication and
wastage of scarce resources. Therefore, in this unit you shall explore research-extension-
farmer linkages.
Learning Outcomes
Within the main objectives of examining the current status of the local extension system
and developing a collaborative strategy to ensure its effectiveness and efficiency, the
specific objectives are to:
 Define research-extension linkages;

 State the importance of research-extension-farmer interface;

 Identify current extension service providers; and
 Carry out a critical analysis of the current research-extension system.
Topic 1: Defining research-extension interface

The concept of linkages implies communication and working relationship established
between two or more organizations pursuing commonly shared objectives in order to have
regular contact and improved productivity. The conventional argument for linkages is that
by working together actors stand better chances for establishing the institutional
relationships that can facilitate access to technology, information, capital and marketing
arrangements, which can in turn enable farmers to be competitive. For development of
agriculture, an effective linkage between the research, extension and farmers is the
prerequisite as well as meeting the other variables of input supply, market outlet and
related infrastructure. From this viewpoint, agricultural research and extension services are
two systems which are linked by information flow and feedback.
Topic 2: Importance of research-extension-farmer linkages
Research, extension and farmers are the three main pillars of agriculture system and their
effectiveness largely depends on strong linkage among each other. Hence, strong
interaction and effective collaboration among all the stakeholders are essentially needed to
achieve the common objective of increasing agricultural production and uplift the living
standard of the rural poor. Agricultural researches without appropriate linkages to extension
may neither be aware of the difficulties faced by farmers (knowledge of which is crucial to
formulating appropriate research) nor know how their findings are applied.

The existence of weak linkages among the research, extension and farmers have been
identified as a major drawback to generation, wider testing, dissemination and adoption of
improved agricultural technologies. If the linkages among the agricultural knowledge system
actors are weak, the flow of information is hampered either from research to extension or
from extension to farmers thereby, agricultural production and productivity will be adversely
affected.
Topic 3: Major extension service providers
The Government of the Republic of Zambia recognises the important role played by non
public sector in the provision of agricultural extension and advisory services. Historically,
public agricultural extension services have been dominant in the delivery of extension
services in Zambia. Following the economic liberalisation, other extension service providers
have also been invited to provide extension services. In Zambia, there are numerous
extension service providers, among others include: public-funded institutions, Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOs), commodity processors, farmers’ associations and
private agro-input suppliers. Below is specific description of some of the major players in
agricultural extension provision:
a) Public research-extension organizations
This category comprises traditional public agricultural research establishments that are
directly or indirectly involved in agricultural extension as a result of their mandates, the
nature of their work at the grassroots level and/or the transformation and evolution of
research and extension models towards approaches that are more farmer-participatory.
Examples are all Zambia Agriculture Research Institutes (ZARIs) established almost in all the
provincial centres. However, their status leaves much to be desired-many of these facilities
hardly do research later on providing extension services.

b) Farmers’ associations
Farmers’ unions and associations emerge as actors not only because they represent their
members on the economic and political fronts, but also because they are active in policy
advocacy, capacity building programmes and the dissemination of production and marketing
information. Central Growers Association (CGA), Cooperatives, Zambia National Farmer’s
Union, etc.
c) NGOs and bilateral donors
For various reasons, NGOs represent some of the more pronounced actors in all rural
development contexts. NGOs are known for being relatively well endowed with financial
resources for their programmes, their great mobility and their drive for bottom-up
approaches. In some sectors, NGOs are associated with great strides in rural development.
On the other hand, they have also been accused of promoting donor-dependency, and their
rural development programmes have been criticized for lack of sustainability. E.g, Musika,
COMMACO, MAWA, PROFIT + etc.
d) Private agro-chemical input suppliers
For virtually all of the private companies that supply agrochemical inputs, direct or indirect
involvement in agricultural extension is part of a marketing strategy to increase farmers’
awareness of products, achieve a competitive edge and increase market share.
Subcategories of these actors include seed houses, fertilizer manufacturers, pesticide and
herbicide companies, and credit institutions. Cargill, MRI, Kanala, Seed Co etc.

e) Commodity processors and exporters
This group of actors is on the periphery of agricultural extension providers, mainly because
they are only partially involved in such efforts. Their involvement normally stems from: i)
the need to provide information about specific technical production aspects to the groups of
farmers who produce on a contract basis on their behalf; and ii) for the same groups of
farmers, commodity processors and exporters have also been known to disseminate
information on quality and other standards that make either processing easier or exports
acceptable. Good examples are NWK Agri-Services, Africa-Zambia Cotton, etc.
Topic 4: The current status of research-extension-farmers linkages
Just like other developing countries, agricultural extension and advisory services in Zambia
are provided by public, private, and non-profit organizations. While it has become
commonplace to refer to this collection of actors as a system, this claim is only valid in the
loosest of terms, as many of the component parts do not functionally interact with others in
an operational sense, tending rather to function as independent information sub-networks
within larger national, and international spheres of exchange. The potential for interaction
and exchange between these component parts defines the potential for positive synergism,
while a lack of such interaction is a predictor of inefficiency, redundancy and conflict.
Despite these facts, the problem of weak research extension farmer linkages and poor
interorganizational relations still exist in Zambia. The question that needs to be addressed is
why such discrepancies? Some of the major contributing factors have been explored as
follows:
i. Poor linkages explain the present low adoption of technology and minimal research
utilization in agricultural production systems.
ii. Conflicts over NGOs’ and donor-supported projects’ use of incentives for engaging
MAL staff,
iii. Differences in extension approaches;
iv. Different and sometimes competing messages to farmers;
v. Unfriendly policy environment compounded by policy somersaults and poor to no
incentives provided to research later on extension. For example, statistics show that
in 2004/5 season, the Government of Zambia devoted roughly 6% of its annual
budget to the agricultural sector over the past several years, and of this, less than
4% was allocated to agricultural research and extension. Fertilizer Support Program
was 37%, Food Reserve Agency Maize Marketing was 15%. In 2015 national budget,
only 7 percent was allocated to finance extension, research, staff emoluments, and
administration while FISP and FRA was approximately 80% (MA, 2015).
vi. Grossly inadequate, irregular and untimely release of funds to the agricultural and
rural development sector and worse for agricultural extension and advisory services.
vii. Finally, the Agricultural Research-Extension-Farmer has been plagued by a weak,
dysfunctional and uncoordinated linkage system.
Conclusion
This unit provided an overview of research -extension-education linkages for farmer success
in Zambia. The overall review entails that the linkage between extension, research and
education organizations was very low. Among the factors that challenge effective linkages ,
lack of policy framework, competition over recourses and inability of involving farmers in the
development process, and shortage of incentives to strengthen both extension. You have
learnt that there should be close working relationship between agricultural research,
extension, farmers and farmer organizations. In addition, the important roles those farmers
and their organizations can play, in disseminating technology, providing effective feedback,

setting priorities and improving relevance of programs should be appreciated by research
and extension.
Activity
 What constraints did you observe in the effective rollout of agricultural technologies?
 How can these constraints be overcome?
Prescribed Readings
Havelock, R.G. (1986). Linkage: A key to understanding the knowledge system. In G.M.
Beal, W. Dissanayake and S. Konoshima, (Eds.). Knowledge Generation, Exchange
and Utilisation. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Faylon, P. S. and Acoba, E.P.(2002). Agricultural research and development-extension-

farmer interface, and technology transfer in the Philippines: gearing up for the
challenges of a liberalized market regime. FAO Regional Office, Bangkok, Thailand.
Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. (2016). The National Extension Policy Stratergy.
Lusaka, MAL.

UNIT 11
EXTENSION TRAINING
Unit Introduction
Effective training or development depends on knowing what is required-for the individual,

the department and the organisation as a whole. With limited budgets and the need for
cost-effective solutions, all organisations
Learning Outcomes
At the completion of this unit, the students will be able to:
 State the purpose of training;
 Describe the types of extension training;
 Conduct extension training needs assessment; and
 Evaluate extension training programmes
Topic 1: Purpose of training

Many people in organisations that have anything to do with training agree that training for
training’s sake is a waste of time and money, yet there are many organisations just doing
that. Have you ever been in a situation where a lot of time was spent on material that you
already knew?
1. The material was far more in-depth or complicated than you needed?
2. How did this make you feel?
3. How did this affect the participant’s morale?

No doubt many of us can provide examples where officers and farmers were sent for a
training course or workshop because it was their turn, or because it was the organisation’s
policy to train all officers or farmers. Of late, we are experiencing situations where people
rarely attend a course of whatever form if there are no allowances. This unit provides
training managers with information on how to develop, deliver and manage training
activities in an effective manner. By learning these, you will be able to manage training as
well as design and facilitate your session(s) in an effective manner.
Topic 2: Types of Extension Training
Pre-service training is more academic in nature and is offered by formal institutions

following definite curricular for a certain duration to offer a formal degree, diploma or
certificate. They are not entitled to get a professional job unless they earn a certificate,
diploma, or degree from the appropriate institution. Pre-service training contents emphasize
mostly on technical subject matter such as crops, animal husbandry and fisheries as well as
pedagogical skills to prepare the students to work in agriculture.
In-service training, on the other hand, is offered by the organization from time to time for
the development of skills and knowledge of the incumbents. In-service training is a process
of staff development for the purpose of improving the performance of an incumbent holding
a position with assigned job responsibilities. It promotes the professional growth of
individuals. “It is a program designed to strengthen the competencies of extension officers
while they are on the job”. In-service training is a problem-centred, learner-oriented and
time-bound series of activities which provide the opportunity to develop a sense of purpose,
broaden perception of the clientele, and increase capacity to gain knowledge and mastery of
techniques. Some of the categories of In-Service training are: (i) career development
training; (ii) Refresher training etc.
Topic 3: Determining training needs
What is a Training Need?

A training need is the gap between the actual and desired performance, behaviour and
attitude of employees at workplaces of farmers. It is also a shortage of skills or abilities,
which can be reduced or eliminated by means of training. The gaps may be caused by a
lack of skills, knowledge or understanding, or arise from a change in the organization. And
training is imparted to fulfill only this gap, the urgency depending upon the nature, size and
seriousness of the gap.
Fig.3. below shows a diagrammatic explanation of a training need.
Actual GAP in Knowledge,

Skills & attitudes (30%)
Desired Knowledge, Actual performance in

knowledge, skills (100%)
Knowledge, Skills & attitudes
Fig.3: Training Need

Training Needs Assessment (TNA)
Basically, training needs assessment is the method of determining if a training need exists
between "what is" and "what ought to be" in terms of the outcomes of extension
programmes and then determining the priority of these needs and, if it does, what training
is required to fill the gap.
When does training needs arise?
 When existing level of performance, behaviour and attitude of employees is not

contributing to the success of the organization;
 The Extension Officers or farmers lack subject – matter knowledge and skills;
 The Extension Officers or lead farmers do not conduct training well;
 When the level of motivation and morale is low among the employees in the
organization; and
 When employees or farmers convey to the organization through management about

the key areas in which they are not much competent.
 When the organization takes special interest in some employee, thereby intending his
development, for promotion or succession purposes;
 When there is a change in policies, systems, priorities, procedures, management

expectations and focus in the organization; and
A training needs assessment help avoid common mistakes in training design, such as:
 Wasting time by focusing on a topic farmers or extension officers are already familiar
with;

 Wasting time by focusing on a topic that has little relevance for the participants; and
 Missing an opportunity by omitting a topic that is useful for the participants.
A training needs assessment should spell-out the subject area, topic and target group. Table
2 below shows an example:
Table 1: Subject area, topic and target group
Subject areas Training topics Target groups
Group organisation Formation of Dairy Cooperatives Farmers

Field extension officers
Local leaders
Organic farming Compost making Organic farmers
Calf management Dehorning Cattle farmers

Field extension officers
Levels at which TNA is determined
Training needs identification is possible through different analytical procedures. The major
procedures used in determining training needs are the following:
i. Organizational level
ii. Task or job level, and
iii. Individual level.

Organizational level: Organizational analysis determines where training emphasis should be
placed within the organization and is based on the objectives of an organization and training
policy. Concerning what one should do in analysing an organization. Organizational analysis
determines where training emphasis should be placed within the organization and is based
on the objectives of an organization. At Organizational level, training is determined by
examining the internal and external environments, mission, organizational structure,
objectives, markets, customers, policies, procedures and interfaces within the organization.
Generally, the most successful training will be based around competencies and
organizational needs and customized for the organization.
Job level: Task analysis begins with job requirements and compares employee knowledge
and skills to determine training needs. Examining job descriptions and specifications provide
necessary information on expected performance and the skills employees need to
accomplish their work. Any gaps between performance and job requirements indicate a
need for task training.
Individual level: The final phase involves the person analysis, which determines who needs
training and what training is needed by each person. Individual analysis aims at identifying
specific training needs for an individual or group of employees so that training can be
tailored to their needs. This analysis centres on individuals and their specific needs
concerning the skills, knowledge or attitudes they must develop to perform their assigned
tasks. The assessment will be that which pertains to the present skills level of an individual
employee and what new or improved knowledge, skills or attitude are needed for current
job performance or to fulfil requirements of a new job.

The assessment done at these stages comprises:
 Observing workers performing normal duties;

 Interviewing workers;
 Studying routine reports and performance reviews e.g. Annual Performance Appraisal
Forms; and
 Identifying performance problems.
If you plan to build a house but never actually get started with construction you will
probably get wet when it rains. So it is with training when plans are not implemented. The
best plan alone will not accomplish anything. The trainer has to actually try to accomplish
the objectives developed during the planning phase.
In many developing countries, training programmes have not been very satisfactory. They
have been considered important, and yet they have met with comparatively little success.
Why is this? We may list the following problems:
1. The programmes have received too little proper evaluation. This is probably the often
and most neglected phase of training. Criteria for evaluation should be incorporated
into the training programme – or for that matter into any programme – for without
them it is easy to stray from original objectives, and it may be difficult to make
necessary adjustments to changing needs.
2. The programme objectives were vague-not specific and measurable.

Conclusion
In this unit, you have been introduced to what an extension organization is all about as well
as the concept of management. You were also taken through the necessary skills required
for managers of agricultural extension organizations. You have seen that the rationale for
developing a training programme relies heavily on identifying training needs and justifying
the costs and benefits to the organization. Without a clear understanding of needs, training
efforts are at best randomly useful and at worst, useless.
Activity
1. How would you improve on the tasks of programme planning, programme

implementation and programme evaluation?
2. Visit an extension organisation and find out what criteria they use to select farmers or
staff to attend workshops/seminars.
3. Identify three procedures for determining training needs in an agricultural extension

organisation
Prescribed Readings
Buhler, P. (1993). Administering discipline in the Organization.
Mosher, A.T. (1975). Serving Agriculture as an Administrator, Agricultural Development

Council, INC. New York.
Obinne, C.P.O. (2008). Rural Development and Leadership. (Module 1, Unit 5), National
Open University of Nigeria, Lagos, pp. 30 – 39.
Swanson, B.E. (1997). Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual. (3nd Ed.). FAO of the
United Nations, Rome.
Swanson, R. A. and Holton, E. F. (2009). Foundations of Human Resource Development,

(2nd Ed.). Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Werner, J. M. & DeSimone, R. L. (2008). Human Resource Development ,(5th Edition).

South-Western College Pub.
Wilson, J. P. Wilson, J. P. (2005). Human Resource Development: Learning and Training for
Individuals and Organizations. Kogan Page Publishers.

UNIT 12
CHALLENGES OF MANAGING AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

ORGANISATIONS
Unit introduction
Many of us could have seen workers who perform their jobs by doing as little as possible.
They may report for work very late and leave early. They miss deadlines and when they
complete a task, they do only the minimum required. Sometimes you find them politicking,
reading newspapers, gossiping other fellow workers and many other retrogressive activities.
On the other hand, at one time, you may have come across someone who does more than
100% of work on the job. Such officers are punctual, honest, committed and hardworking.
The question that you may ask is why such differences between these workers? You may be
quick to categorically state that it is an aspect of motivation! But before answering these
questions, think critically. This unit focuses only on administrative challenges which are
germane to the Zambian agricultural extension system.
Administration in extension lays emphasis on the management of recourses in any sector to

achieve organizational goals. The principles of extension administration serve as pillar in
which other discipline hang on. It will enable the students to define the concept of
extension administration. The knowledge acquired from the course will help the students to
identify and manage resources required to make successful and friendly organization.

Learning Outcomes
 Identify major challenges faced in managing extension organisations as well as

solving them.
 Explain the concept of supervision.
Stakeholder collaboration
Multi-sectoral and inter-sectoral coordination is very necessary. In pluralistic era, a good
extension administrator would consider what contribution he could make to ensure effective
coordination and how to go about it. Regular contact (formal and informal) with similar
extension organisations would promote a better understanding of how best to serve the
needs of overall agricultural development through sharing experiences.
However, in many areas, there is an apparent lack of collaboration among extension service
providers. As a result, there have been duplication and implementation of approaches that
conflict with one another. For example, the presence of both relief operations and
development programmes in the same locations has created confusion besides sending
conflicting messages.
Low staff morale

Another challenge is the dependency on Performance incentives for extension officers. The
effectiveness performances of extension personnel depend not only upon training but also
upon institutional support, rewards, and incentives. Because of poor conditions of services
and a lack of incentives and low promotion prospects extension officers lack motivation for
taking initiative in developing the agricultural sector.

When one thinks about it, the success of any facet of the business can almost be traced to
motivated employees. This is especially true and important in today’s turbulent and often
chaotic environment where success depends on employees using their full talents. An
extension organisation may have good manager, a good vision and a good goal; however, if
it neglects its employees, that organisation is practically in turmoil. Unsatisfied employees
produce unsatisfactory results, therefore, it is very vital for top management to take care of
their employees to ensure that they are satisfied in their jobs; when they are satisfied; they
strive for the company's goals and aim.
An important aspect of human resource management which needs special attention in

extension organizations is the development of a reward system which will attract, retain,
and motivate extension personnel, as well as provide training and promotional
opportunities. However, many extension service providers are run by government agencies
and operate under rules and regulations of public administration. These rules do not have
provisions for rewarding superior performance or for a wage system based on merit.
Promotion criteria are based on seniority and length of service. Thus the bureaucratic
structure of extension services is a basic hindrance to designing a better reward system.
Career development refers to all of the technical and managerial skills employees acquire to
achieve their career plans. Career advancement, which gives a picture of future
opportunities in terms of promotion, is a motivating factor for performance and
development of skills. Unfortunately, no career structure exists for extension personnel. In
developing countries like Zambia, there are many cases where one joins as a Camp
Extension Officer and retires in the same position after serving thirty to thirty-five years.

Extension supervision
Supervision is the act of working with a group of people over whom authority is exercised in
a way as to achieve their greatest combined effectiveness in getting work done. Supervision
is a dynamic, enabling process by which individual workers who have a direct responsibility
for carrying out some parts of an agency’s programme or plan are helped by a designated
staff member to make the best use of their knowledge and skills and to improve their
abilities to do a more effective job and satisfy the objectives of the employing agency. Its
major components are: motivation, direction or control and coordination.
However, supervision in most extension programmes and activities is inadequate and

questionable especially in government extension organisations. If it is conducted, the quality
of supervision is haphazardly and questionable. However, if done properly, it can determine
the efficiency and effectiveness of an extension system. Supervisors require great skills,
high common sense, good foresight and high intelligence. Therefore, a supervisor is
expected to ensure that work is done as planned of course with flexibility.
Discipline in extension service

The other task of an extension administrator is to ensure that staff abides by the rules,
regulations and agreements that govern the extension service. Obedience to rules would
make the running of the extension organization to be smooth. In recent times, we have
begun seeing workers especially in government offices misbehaving and go scot free
without instilling discipline. This being the case, both the administrator and the workers
should exhibit discipline at work. Effective discipline is directed against the act, not against
the individual. When disciplining workers, the focus must be on the behaviour – not on
personality.

The other challenges include:
 Poor facilities and infrastructures;

 Nepotism;
 Personal favouritism;
 Low esteem given to extension; and
 Lack of efficient transportation system.
Conclusion
Extension is an essential pillar for research and development. However, unfortunately, a
somewhat unhealthy perception of extension prevails in many developing countries, caused
by a weak extension lobby, faulty initial organizational set-up, an inherent lack of trust in
extension by most of the research organizations, and traditionally poor career development
conditions in the profession of extension
Activity
Visit any agricultural extension organisation (e. g, Governmental, NGO, Commercial) to
identify various challenges which are policy-related, organizational, strategic or operational.
Hold discussions with relevant government officials, farmers, specialists at these
institutions, and find out its successes and challenges in its quest to develop rural areas.
Prescribed Readings
Qamar, M.K.(2002). Global trends in agricultural extension: Challenges facing Asia and the
Pacific Region. Keynote paper presented at the FAO Regional Expert Consultation on
Agricultural Extension, Research-Extension-farmer Interface and Technology
Transfer, held in Bangkok, 16–19 July.

Akinsorotan, A.O. (2006). Elements of Agricultural Extension Administration. Bounty Press
Limited, Ibadan. ISBN 978-8129-49-8.
Armstrong, M. (2007). A Handbook of Human Resource Practice. Kogan Page Ltd, London.
ISBN 0-7494-4631-5. 982p.

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ZAMBIAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

Course code : AGG 112

Course title : Agricultural Extension & Rural Sociology

Course writer/Developer: Mr. C. Sondo (Cert. in Agric. & Hort; CAE,

Agricultural Extension Module – C.S Page 1

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Unity Road, Lusaka West, Off Mumbwa Road,

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Agricultural Extension Module – C.S Page 2

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Generally, the module aims at:

 Helping you acquire an understanding of agricultural extension perspectives in the

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This Agricultural Extension module is divided into eight units.

Unit 1: Basic concepts and development of Rural Sociology

Unit 2: Rural Life

Unit 3: Culture and socialisation

Unit 4: Social Stratification

Unit 5: Sociology of development and underdevelopment

Unit 6: A brief history of agricultural extension.

Unit 7: Philosophy and principles of extension.

Unit 8: Extension Methods and Techniques.

Unit 9: Participatory approaches in extension

Unit 10: Research-Extension-Farmer linkages.

Unit 11: Extension Training

Unit 12: Challenges of managing agricultural extension organisations.

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The course will be assessed in two aspects. These are:

Continuous Assessments (CAs)

Final Examination and Grading

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IF YOU NEED HELP

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Objectives and assessment...........................................................................

Unit One: Basic concepts and Development of Rural Sociology …………

Unit Two: Rural Life …………………………………………………………………

Unit Three: Culture and socialization ……………………………………………..

Unit Four: Social Stratification …………………………………………………….

Unit Five: Sociology of Development ………………. …………………………

Unit Six: A brief history of Agricultural Extension...................................

Unit Eight: Extension Methods and Techniques………………………………..

Unit Nine: Participatory approaches in extension …………………………….

Unit Ten: Research-Extension-Farmer linkages..........................................

Unit Eleven: Extension Training ………………………………………………………..

Unit Twelve: Challenges of managing agricultural extension Organizations

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Basic Concepts and Development of Rural Sociology

 Explain the importance of studying rural sociology;

Topic 1: Definitions of rurality and rural sociology

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Topic 2: Development of Rural Sociology

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Topic 4: Importance of studying rural sociology

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All these would contribute to the welfare of rural people.

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