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Communication Systems
 Communication System

A communication system is the set-up used in transmission

of information from one place to another.

Irrespective of its nature, every communication system has

three essential elements:

Input Communication Output

signal Transmitter Receiver
Channel signal

Noise
 Transmitter

It transmits the information after modifying it to a

form suitable for transmission.

Parts of a transmitter:
T r a n sm i t t i n g
Antenna
Input
signal Transducer Modulator Amplifier

T r a n s d u c e r s are devices which
convert signal of various physical form
into electrical signal, and vice versa.
• Microphone
• Piezoelectric sensors
• Photo detectors
Transmitter
• The signals obtained from
transducer can not be
transmitted over long
distances.
• These signals are loaded or
superimposed on a high
frequency wave, which acts as
a carrier wave. This process is
known as modulation.
• The loss of strength of a signal
while propagating through a
medium is known as attenuation.
• The power of the signal is boosted
using a suitable amplifier.
• The modulated signal is then
radiated into space with the help
of an antenna called transmitting
antenna.
 Communication Channel

• The communication channel carries the modulated

wave from the transmitter to the receiver.

Free space Transmission lines

 Communication Channel

Input Communication Output

signal Channel signal

Noise

• During this process, signal may get distorted.

• Moreover, addition of noise also corrupts the signal.
Noise refers to the unwanted signals that tend to disturb the
transmission and processing of signals in a communication system.
 Receiver

It receives the signal at receiving antenna and modifies

it to a recognizable form of output signal.

Parts of a receiver:

Receiving Output
antenna Demodulator Amplifier Transducer signal

• Receiving antenna picks up the signal.

• Demodulator separates the low frequency signal from the modulated signal.
• Amplifier boosts up the signal.
• Transducer converts this signal into suitable output signal.
 Antenna

An antenna is a structure that is capable of transmitting or

receiving electromagnetic waves.

• Transmitting antenna converts high frequency

current into electromagnetic waves.
• Receiving antenna converts electromagnetic
waves into high frequency current.
• Length of the antenna should at least be equal
to a quarter of the wavelength of radio signals to
be transmitted or received.

𝜆
𝑙≥
4
 Transmission Medium

Transmission medium

Guided transmission Unguided

medium transmission medium
 Guided Transmission Medium

This communication medium or channel is used in signal communication, for

point-to-point contact between the transmitter and receiver.

Transmission lines Guided transmission medium is used in

line communication:
1. Two wire transmission line
2. Co-axial cable transmission
3. Optical fiber cable communication
Unguided Transmission Medium

This communication medium

is used in signal
communication, where there
is no point-to-point contact
between the transmitter and
receiver. It is used in
space communication and
satellite communication.
 Message Signals

Message signals are electrical signals generated from the original

information to be transmitted, using an appropriate transducer.

A message signal is a single valued function of time

that conveys the information.

Message Signals

Analog Signals Digital Signals

 Analog Signals

An analog signal is that in which current or voltage value

varies continuously with time.

• E.g., speech, music, sound produced

E 𝑇 by a vibrating tuning fork, variations
2𝜋 in light intensity etc.
𝜔 =
E0 𝑇 • These are converted into current/
𝑡 voltage variations using suitable
transducers.
• The information bearing signals are
Sinusoidal signal called base band signals.

E = E0 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 )
 Digital Signals

In digital signal, current or voltage value does not

vary continuously with time.

Pulse • The signal is usually present in the

𝑖, E Width form of pulses. Each pulse has two
levels of current or voltage,
1 1 1 represented by 0 (low) and 1 (High).
Pulse
Amplitude Examples:
0 0 0
• Output of a digital computer
Pulse Pulse 𝑡
Rise Fall • Electronic transmission of a
document at a distant place
Digital Signal via telephone line i.e., FAX etc.
 Bandwidth of Signals

Bandwidth refers to the frequency range over which an equipment operates,

or the portion of the frequency spectrum occupied by the signal.

Message signals have different ranges of frequencies. The type of

communication system needed for a given signal depends on the band of
frequencies which is considered essential for the communication process.

Message Signal Frequency range Bandwidth

Speech signals 300 𝐻𝑧 to 3100 𝐻𝑧 2800 𝐻𝑧
Music signals 20 𝐻𝑧 to 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧 ~20 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Video signals 4.2 𝑀𝐻𝑧
T.V. signals 6 𝑀𝐻𝑧
 Bandwidth of Transmission Medium

Similar to message signals, different types of transmission

media offer different bandwidths.

Transmission Media Frequency range Bandwidth

Coaxial cable 5 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 1.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 750 𝑀𝐻𝑧

Radio wave 540 𝑘𝐻𝑧 to 4.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 ~4.1 𝐺𝐻𝑧

Optical fiber 1 𝑇𝐻𝑧 to 1000 𝑇𝐻𝑧 > 100 𝐺𝐻𝑧

• The frequency range of radio wave is further subdivided and allocated for
various services like FM broadcast, Television, Satellite Communication etc.
 A telephonic communication service is working at carrier
frequency of 10 𝐺𝐻𝑧. Only 10% of it is utilized for transmission. How
many telephonic channels can be transmitted simultaneously if
each channel requires a bandwidth of 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧 ?

Solution:

Frequency of carrier wave = 10 𝐺𝐻𝑧 = 1010 𝐻𝑧

Available bandwidth = 10% 𝑜𝑓 1010 𝐻𝑧 = 109 𝐻𝑧

Bandwidth of each channel = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧

109
No. of telephonic channels = = 2 × 105
5000
Ground Waves
For transmitting the signals of longer wavelengths (i.e.,
lower frequencies), the antennas have large physical
size, and they are located on or very near to the ground.

For such antennas, the wave glides over the surface of

Earth. This mode of propagation is called surface wave
propagation or Ground wave propagation.
• The ground has a strong influence on the propagation of
the signal. The wave induces current in the ground over
which it passes, and it is attenuated as a result of
absorption of energy by the Earth.
• The attenuation of surface waves increases very rapidly
with increase in frequency.
• The maximum range of coverage depends on the
transmitted power and frequency (up to few 𝑀𝐻𝑧).
• In standard AM broadcast, ground based vertical towers
are generally used as transmitting antennas.

Advantage: due to large wavelength, it bends over the

obstacle easily (diffraction)
Sky Waves
To transmit signal in the frequency
range of a few 𝑀𝐻𝑧 up to 40 𝑀𝐻𝑧, long
distance communication can be
achieved by ionospheric reflection of
electromagnetic waves back towards
the Earth. This mode of propagation is
called
sky wave propagation.

• Ionization occurs due to the

absorption of the ultraviolet and
other high-energy radiation coming
from the sun by air molecules.
• The degree of ionization varies with
the height.
• Higher the ionization lower will be
the refractive index of layer.
Space Waves
• For signals at frequencies above 40 𝑀𝐻𝑧, the
waves passes through ionosphere and
communication is essentially limited to
line-of-sight paths.
• Because of line-of-sight nature of
propagation, direct waves get blocked at
some point by the curvature of the Earth.

• To send the signal beyond the

horizon, satellites are used.
• Therefore, the space waves are used
for the line-of-sight communication
as well as for the satellite
communication.
 Space Waves

Maximum distance for line of sight communication:

𝑑𝑀 = 2𝑅ℎ 𝑇 + 2𝑅ℎ𝑅 𝑅 = Radius of Earth

𝑑𝑀

𝑑𝑇 = 2𝑅ℎ 𝑇 𝑑𝑅 = 2𝑅ℎ𝑅

ℎ𝑇 ℎ𝑅
 The T.V. transmission tower in Delhi has a height of 240 𝑚. The
distance, up to which the broadcast can be received, ( taking the
radius of earth to be 6.4 × 106 𝑚) is

Given: ℎ 𝑇 = 240 𝑚, 𝑅 = 6.4 × 106 𝑚

To find: 𝑑𝑇 = ?

Solution:

𝑑𝑇 = 2𝑅ℎ 𝑇

= 2 × 6.4 × 106 × 240

𝑑 𝑇 = 55.42 𝑘𝑚
 Need of Modulation

Suppose we wish to transmit an electrical signal in the audio frequency (𝐴𝐹) range (20 𝐻𝑧 𝑡𝑜 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧) over a long
distance. We cannot do it, because of:

• Size of Antenna or Aerial:

For an audio frequency signal of frequency = 15 𝑘𝐻𝑧,

𝑐 3 × 108
Wavelength of signal, 𝜆 = = = 20000 𝑚
𝜈 15 × 103
𝜆
Length of a vertical antenna = = 5000 𝑚,
4

To set up an antenna of vertical height 5000 𝑚 is practically impossible.

Therefore, we need to use high frequencies for transmission.

• Effective Power radiated by antenna:

𝑙 2
Power of signal, 𝑃 ∝
𝜆

As high power signals are needed for good transmission, wavelength 𝜆

should be small, for which frequency should be high.
 Need of Modulation

• Mixing up of signals from different transmitters:

Free space

To distinguish between the signals from each user, communication at high

frequencies and allotting a band of frequencies to each user is needed. This
is what is being done for different radio and T.V. broadcast stations.
 Types of Modulation

The original low frequency message/information signal can not be

transmitted to long distances. Therefore, at the transmitter, information
contained in the low frequency message signal is superimposed on a high
frequency wave, which acts as a carrier of the information. This process is
known as modulation.

Carrier wave

Sinusoidal wave Pulsed wave

 Types of Modulation

Sinusoidal carrier wave:

Any one of three characteristics (E0 , 𝜔, 𝜙)

can be varied in accordance with
modulating baseband signal, giving rise to
E 𝑇
2𝜋
𝜔 = Amplitude Modulation (AM)
E0 𝑇
𝑡

Frequency Modulation (FM)

E = E0 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙 ) Phase Modulation
 Types of Modulation

Pulsed carrier wave:

The significant characteristics of a pulse

can be varied in accordance with the
Pulse modulating baseband signal, giving rise to
𝑖, E Width

1 1 1
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Pulse
Amplitude
0 0 0
Pulse Pulse 𝑡
Rise Fall
Pulse Width Modulation (PTM)

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

 Amplitude Modulation

When a modulating audio frequency (AF) wave is superimposed on a high

frequency carrier wave in a manner that the frequency of modulated wave is
same as that of the carrier wave, but its amplitude is made proportional to
the instantaneous amplitude of the AF modulating signal, the process is
called amplitude modulation (AM).

𝑐(𝑡) = A𝑐 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡) = A𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡

𝑐(𝑡) 𝑚(𝑡)

𝑡 𝑡

Carrier wave Modulating signal

 Amplitude Modulation

Carrier wave Modulating signal Amplitude Modulated wave

𝐴
𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑐(𝑡)
𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑚

𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

𝑐(𝑡) = A𝑐 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡) = A𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = ( A𝑐 + A𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 ) 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡

Frequency of AM wave is equal to the frequency of carrier wave.

 Amplitude Modulation

𝑚(𝑡)

𝑡 𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = ( A𝑐 + A𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 ) 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡

• Variation of amplitude takes

place with angular frequency 𝜔𝑚 .

𝐴 • The envelope represents the

𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 Envelope frequency of the modulated signal.
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡
 Amplitude Modulation

𝐴 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑚

𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛

A𝑚𝑎𝑥 − A𝑚𝑖𝑛 A𝑚𝑎𝑥 + A𝑚𝑖𝑛

A𝑚 = A𝑐 =
2 2
 Modulation Index

𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜇= =
𝐴 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐴𝑐 • In practice 𝜇 is kept ≤ 1 to
𝐴𝑚
avoid distortion.
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
• Modulation index determines the
𝑡 quality of the transmitted signal.

• As the modulation index increases,

the audio signal on reception
becomes clearer.
 Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave

The modulated signal (𝑐𝑚 (𝑡)) can be written as

𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = ( A𝑐 + A𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 ) 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡

𝐴𝑚
𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐 1 + 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝐴𝑐

𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴 𝑐 𝜇 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡

𝜇𝐴𝑐
𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
2

𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝜇𝐴𝑐
𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = A𝑐 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡]
2 2
 Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave

𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝜇𝐴𝑐
𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = A𝑐 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡]
2 2

𝐿𝑆𝐵 = Lower side band

Ac 𝐶
𝑈𝑆𝐵 = Upper side band

𝜇A𝑐 𝐿𝑆𝐵 𝑈𝑆𝐵

Bandwidth of AM wave = 𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 − 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵
2 𝜔𝑚 𝜔𝑚
= 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 − (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 )
(𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 ) 𝜔𝑐 (𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 ) f re q u e n c y
= 2𝑓𝑚
 Production of AM Wave

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑥 2(𝑡)

𝑚(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡) Bandpass Filter AM Wave

+ Square Law
Device Centered at 𝜔𝑐
A𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡
𝑐 𝑡

A𝑐 s i n 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡

A2𝑚 + A2𝑐 CA2𝑚 CA2𝑐

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐵 A𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐵 A𝑐 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐶 − 𝑐 𝑜 𝑠 2 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − 𝑐 𝑜 𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 +
2 2 2

𝐶 A𝑚 A𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐶 A𝑚 A𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
 Production of AM Wave

A2𝑚 + A2𝑐 CA2𝑚 CA2𝑐

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐵 A𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐵 A𝑐 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐶 − 𝑐 𝑜 𝑠 2 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − 𝑐 𝑜 𝑠 2 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 +
2 2 2

𝐶 A𝑚 A𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐶 A𝑚 A𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡

• The band pass filter rejects DC and the sinusoids of frequencies 𝜔𝑚 , 2𝜔𝑚 and
2𝜔𝑐 and retains the frequencies 𝜔𝑐 , 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 and 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 .

• The output of the band pass filter is therefore an AM wave.

 Detection of AM Wave

Detection is the process of recovering the modulating signal

from the modulated carrier wave.

Receiving IF Output
Amplifier Detector A m p l i f i er
antenna Stage signal

• The receiving antenna is followed by an amplifier and a detector.

• To facilitate further processing, the carrier frequency is usually changed to a

lower frequency by what is called an intermediate frequency (IF) stage
preceding the detection.
• The detected signal may not be strong enough to be made use of
and hence is required to be amplified.
 Detection of AM Wave

AM Wave AM Wave Envelope 𝑚(𝑡)

Rectifier
Detector

𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

AM input wave Rectified wave Output

 For a carrier frequency of 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧 and a modulating frequency of 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧,
T what is the width of 𝐴𝑀 transmission.

Given: 𝑓𝑐 = 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝑓𝑚 = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧

Solution: Width of 𝐴𝑀 transmission = 2𝑓𝑚 = 2 × 5 = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧

𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚

Width of 𝐴𝑀 transmission
 An amplitude modulated signal is given by
𝑉 𝑡 = 10[1 + 0.3 cos(2.2 × 104 𝑡)] sin(5.5 × 105 𝑡). Here 𝑡 is in seconds.
T The side band frequencies (in 𝐾𝐻𝑧) are,[Given 𝜋 = 22/7]

Given: 𝑉 𝑡 = 10[1 + 0.3 cos(2.2 × 104 𝑡)] sin(5.5 × 105 𝑡) ………….(1) 𝐽𝐸𝐸 2019

Solution:
Comparing equation (1) with 𝑉 𝑡 = [𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑚 𝑡)] sin(𝜔𝑐 𝑡)

We get, 𝜔𝑚 = 2.2 × 104 ⇒ 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 = 2.2 × 104 ⇒ 𝑓𝑚 = 3.5 𝐾𝐻𝑧

and 𝜔𝑐 = 5.5 × 105 ⇒ 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 = 5.5 × 105 ⇒ 𝑓𝑐 = 87.5 𝐾𝐻𝑧

Upper side band frequency, 𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 = 87.5 + 3.5 = 91 𝐾𝐻𝑧

Lower side band frequency, 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 = 87.5 − 3.5 = 84 𝐾𝐻𝑧

 A 100 𝑉 carrier wave is made to vary between 160 𝑉 and 40 𝑉 by a
T modulating signal. What is the modulation index?

𝐽𝐸𝐸 2019

Given: Modulated voltage, 𝐴𝑐 = 100 𝑉

Range of modulated voltage,

𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 = 160 𝑉 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚 = 40 𝑉

Solution: 𝐴𝑐 = 100 𝑉, 𝐴𝑚 = 60 𝑉

Hence , modulation index

𝐴𝑚
𝜇= = 0.6
𝐴𝑐