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REVIEW ON SELF HEALING CONCRETE

Thesis · December 2021

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.26776.57600

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 REVIEW ON SELF HEALING CONCRETE

M. Ishtiaque Ahmed Anu

Afia Ibnat Anika

Mst. Farzana Akter

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

AHSANULLAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

December 2021
 REVIEW ON SELF HEALING CONCRETE

A Thesis/Project

Submitted by

M. Ishtiaque Ahmed Anu Student ID:16.01.03.027

Afia Ibnat Anika Student ID: 16.02.03.031

Mst. Farzana Akter Student ID: 17.01.03.109

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Under the supervision of

Ms. Sayka Banu

Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

AHSANULLAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

December 2021

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 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the thesis work entitled "Review On Self Healing Concrete”
submitted to the Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology done by the
members of this group collectively. We also state that the materials embodied in this
report have not been published or submitted anywhere before date for any other
purpose to award of any degree.

------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------

M. Ishtiaque Ahmed Afia Ibnat Anika

Student ID: 16.01.03.027 Student ID: 16.02.03.031

------------------------------------------------

Mst. Farzana Akter

Student ID: 17.01.03.109

This thesis titled “Review On Self Healing Concrete” has been accepted as
satisfactory in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of
Science in Civil Engineering on December 9, 2021.

-------------------------------------
Ms. Sayka Banu
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology

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 DEDICATION

To our beloved Parents & Teachers.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We express our utmost gratitude to the Almighty Allah for the successful
completion of the research work as planned.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude and profound respect to our
thesis supervisor Ms. Sayka Banu, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, AUST for giving us the opportunity to work under her cordial
supervision. Her invaluable suggestions, motivation in difficult times and
affectionate encouragement were extremely helpful in accomplishing this
study. Her comments, guidance and ideas benefited us a lot in preparing
our thesis. We are indebted to her for acquainting us with the world of
advanced research.

We would also like to express our gratefulness towards all the teachers of
Department of Civil Engineering, AUST for their relentless support during
the past few years.

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 ABSTRACT

Self-healing materials are defined as the materials that are able to partially or
completely restore their original functionality after they have been damaged. In
cementitious materials, such as concrete, this concept is referred to the capability of
material to seal the cracks without any manual interventions after damage,
accompanied by regaining of the mechanical properties, which results in a more
durable and sustainable structure. In addition to the available literature which fully
describes different methods of applying self-healing into cement-based materials and
evaluates their efficiency, new approaches and novel techniques have been
proposed for this purpose. This paper presents a brief review of both autogenous
and autonomous mechanisms of self-healing, with an emphasize on the recent
research advancements. Since the major concern regarding the application of
autonomous self-healing in concrete structures is the additional cost caused by the
healing agents, the improvement of autogenous self-healing which is an inherent
performance of cementitious materials by providing a favorable condition for the
process (e.g. high-performance fiber reinforced cementitious composites) may pave
the way towards construction industry. However, there are still a few aspects of self-
healing concrete missing in the literature that inhibits this technology from being
utilized in the construction. Therefore, a comprehensive section is proposed in this
paper discussing the major gaps and outlooks in the field of self-healing concrete.

Crack formation is very common phenomenon in concrete structure which allows the
water and different type of chemical into the concrete through the cracks and
decreases their durability, strength and which also affect the reinforcement when it
comes in contact with water, CO2 and other chemicals. For repairing the cracks
developed in the concrete, it requires regular maintenance and special type of
treatment which will be very expansive. So, to overcome from this problem
autonomous self-healing mechanism is introduced in the concrete which helps to
repair the cracks by producing calcium carbonate crystals which block the micro
cracks and pores in the concrete. The selection of the bacteria was according to their
survival in the alkaline environment such as B. pasteurii, Bacillus subtilis and B.
spharicus which are mainly used for the experiments by different researchers for their
study. The condition of growth is different for different types of bacteria. For the

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growth, bacteria were put in a medium containing different chemical at a particular
temperature and for a particular time period. Bactria improves the structural properties
such as tensile strength, water permeability, durability and compressive strength of
the normal concrete which was found by the performing different type of experiment
on too many specimens had varying sizes used by different researchers for their study
of bacterial concrete in comparison with the conventional concrete and from the
experiment it was also found that use of light weight aggregate along with bacteria
helps in self healing property of concrete. For gaining the best result a mathematical
model was also introduced to study the stress-strain behavior of bacteria which was
used to improve the strength of concrete.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
DECLARATION 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3
ABSTRACT 4
LIST OF FIGURES 10
LIST OF TABLES 12
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 13

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General 14
1.2 Background of The Study 14
1.3 Objective of the Study 16
1.4 Organization of the Thesis 16
1.5 Scope of the Study 17

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Self-Healing Concrete 20
2.2.1 Autonomous Self-Healing 21
2.2.2 Autogenous Self-Healing 22
2.2.3 Improved Autogenous Self-Healing 23
2.3 Advantages of Self-Healing Concrete 23
2.4 Disadvantages of Self-Healing Concrete 24
2.5 General Applications of Self-Healing concrete 24
2.6 Physical Properties of Self Healing Concrete 25
2.6.1 Density 25
2.6.2 Compressive Strength 25
2.6.3 Durability 25
2.6.4 Water-Cement Ratio 26
2.6.7 Size of Cracks in Concrete 26
2.6.8 Effect of the pH on the Growth of the Bacteria 26
2.7 Concrete Sample 26

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2.8 Ureolytic Mixed Culture 27
2.9 Encapsulation with Light-Weight Aggregate 27
2.10 Suitable Bacteria Used In Self Healing Concrete 28
2.11 Previous Studies on Self-Healing Concrete 29

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 General 31
3.2 Bacteria Used In Self-Healing Concrete 31
3.2.1 B.pasteurii & B. sphaericus Bacteria 33
3.3 Autogenous Self-Healing 34
3.4 Autonomous Self-Healing 36
3.5 Chemical Reactions that Occurs Inside of Concrete 37
3.5.1 Production of Calcium Carbonate Through Biomineralization 37
3.5.2 Precipitation of Calcium Carbonate 38
3.5.3 Autotrophic pathway 39
3.5.4 Heterotrophic pathway 40
3.6 Calcium Lactate as an Additive 41
3.6.1 Application of Bacteria 42
3.6.2 Direct Application With Concrete Mix 42
3.6.3 Encapsulation Method 44
3.7 Methodology 46
3.8 Concrete Mix Design 46
3.8.1 Cement 47
3.8.2 Fine aggregate 47
3.8.3 Coarse aggregates 47
3.8.4 Water 48
3.8.5 Metal sheet 48
3.8.6 Bacteria 48
3.8.7 Additives 48
3.9 Condition of Curing for Self-Healing 49

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CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMNETAL RESULTS
4.1 Self-Healing with Mineral Admixtures without Bacteria 50
4.1.1 Materials 50
4.1.2 Mix Design for Experiment 51
4.1.3 Tests on Hardened Concrete 52
4.1.4 Compressive Strength Test 52
4.1.5 Flexural Strength Test 56
4.1.6 Split Tensile Strength Test 60

4.2 Self-Healing with (B. sphaericus, concentration of 105 cells/liter) 67

4.2.1 Materials 67
4.2.2 Split Tensile Strength Test 67
4.2.3 Stress-Strain Behavior of Concrete 68
4.2.4 Water Absorption Test 70
4.2.5 Graphical Comparison 70
4.2.6 Water Permeability Test 71
4.2.7 Self –Healing of Cracks 71

4.3 Self-Healing with B.pasteurii of Different Concentrations 75

4.3.1 Materials 75
4.3.2 Mix Design 75
4.3.2.2 Standard Method Design Stipulations 75
4.3.3 Mixing of Bacteria 76
4.3.4 Processing of Bacteria 77
4.3.5 Culturing and Isolation 77
4.3.6 Ability of the Bacterial Concrete to Repair the Cracks 78
4.3.7 Processing of Bacteria 78
4.3.8 Tests on Hardened Concrete 78
4.3.8.1 Compressive Strength 78
4.3.8.2 Split-Tensile Strength 79
4.3.9: Test Results 80
4.3.10 Split Tensile Test 85

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4.4 Self-Healing with B. megaterium of Different Concentration 94
4.4.1 General 94
4.4.2 Materials 94
4.4.3 Tests on Hardened Concrete 94
4.4.4 Concrete Mix Design 94
4.4.5 Effect of different concentrations of B. megaterium 96
4.4.6 Graphical Representation of Result 97

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion 100
5.2 Suggestions for Further Research 102

REFERENCES 105

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram illustrating self-healing mechanism. 25

Figure 3.1 Bacillus Bacteria 33

Figure 3.2 Electron Microscopic view of B. sphaericus 33

Figure 3.3 Autogenous self-healing in concrete cracks 35

Figure 3.4 Formation, Blocking, Hydration & Expansion 35

Figure 3.5 Autonomous self-healing concrete methods 36

Figure 3.6 a)Bacteria structure 38

b)Negatively charged cell wall & presence of positive ions 38

c) Bio-mineral production by means of binding ions to wall 38

Figure 3.7 a)SEM micrographs of calcite precipitation by B.sphaericus. 39

b)SEM micrographs of calcite precipitation by B.subtilis 39

Figure 3.8 Encapsulation Method 44

Figure 4.1 Used Materials for Experiment 54

Figure 4.2 Cubes of (100×100×100) mm specimens of M3 51

Figure 4.3 Comparison of Compressive strength forM1,M2 & M3 mix 55

Figure 4.4 Center point loading 56

Figure 4.5 Prisms of (100×100×400) mm 57

Figure 4.6 Comparison of Flexural strength for M1,M2 & M3 mix 59

Figure 4.7 Splitting Tensile Strength Test setup 60

Figure 4.8 Concrete cylinders of (150×300)mm 61

Figure 4.9 Comparison of Split tensile strength for M1,M2,M3 60

Figure 4.10 Different stages of self-healing 66

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Figure 4.11 Comparison of water absorption 70

Figure 4.12 Comparison of water penetration 71

Figure 4.13 Crack Measurement 0.2mm 72

Figure 4.14 Specimen is bracketed with PVC 72

Figure 4.15 0.246 mm crack is measured at initial stage 73

Figure 4.16 0.136 mm crack is measured after 14 days of curing 73

Figure 4.17 Crack is almost healed after 28 days of curing 74

Figure 4.18 View on Growing of Bacteria 77

Figure 4.19 Compressive strength test of the cube 79

Figure 4.20 Tensile testing on cylinders 79

Figure 4.21 Compressive Strength at initial crack comparison 84

Figure 4.22 Ultimate Compressive Strength comparison 89

Figure 4.23 Microscopic images of CaCO3 crystals precipitation 93

Figure 4.24 The bacterial identification colony 95

Figure 4.25 Flexural Strength Comparison 97

Figure 4.26 Compressive Strength Comparison 98

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 LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 2.1 Suitable Bacteria used in Self-Healing Concrete 28

Table 3.1 Some Bacteria which can survive in the alkaline environment 32

Table 4.1 Mix Proportions 51

Table 4.2 Healing Agents as Partial Replacement of Cement 52

Table 4.3 Comparison of compressive strength 68

Table 4.4 Stress-Strain behavior of Conventional & Bacterial Concrete 69

Table 4.5 Physical Properties of Materials 76

Table 4.6 Quantity of Material per m3 of Concrete 76

Table 4.7 Compressive Strength of Conventional Concrete 80

Table 4.8 Compressive Strength with 10ml Addition of Bacteria 80

Table 4.9 Compressive Strength of Concrete with 20ml Bacteria 81

Table 4.10 Split Tensile Strength of Conventional Concrete (MPa) 85

Table 4.11 Split Tensile Strength of Concrete with 10ml Bacteria (N/mm2) 86

Table 4.12 Split Tensile Strength of Concrete with 20ml of Bacteria 86

Table 4.13 Concrete Mix Proportions for Different Grade Concrete 95

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SHC Self Healing Concrete

SEM Super Electronic Microscope

SP Super Plasticizer

SC Sulfo Aluminate Cement

JCI Japan Concrete Institute

SAP Super Absorbent Polymers

RHA Rice Husk Ash

VMA Viscosity modifying agent

LWC Light weight aggregate

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

GGBFS Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

SCC Self-Compacting Concrete

LWC Light weight Concrete

SHC Self Healing Concrete

SEM Super Electronic Microscope

LWSCC Light-weight self-compacting concrete

JRMCA Japanese Ready-Mixed Concrete Association

MICCP Microbial-Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General:

Concrete is very good material to resist the compressive load to a limit but if the load
applied on the concrete is more than their limit of resisting load, it causes the strength
reduction of concrete by producing the cracks in the concrete and the treatment of the
cracks in very expensive. Some of the property like durability, permeability ad
strength of the concrete structure is also decreases. Due to increase in the permeability
of the concrete the water easily pass through the concrete and come in the contact
with the reinforcement of the concrete structure and after some time corrosion start
due to this strength of the concrete structure will decreases so it will be necessary to
repair the cracks [1]. By introduce the bacteria in concrete it producing calcium
carbonate crystals which block the micro cracks and pores in the concrete [2]. In
concrete micro cracks are always avoided but to some extent they are responsible to
their failure in strength. However, the continuous inspection of cracks and repairing
them is difficult, especially when it comes to cracks in infrastructures such as
bridges, highways or tunnels. In spite of the fact that cracks in infrastructures
are not easily accessible and require a considerable amount of labor and budget, many
of these infrastructures are in continuous service which makes repairing even more
difficult. It was also reported that in Europe, 50% of the annual construction budget
is spent on repair works to prolong the service life of the structures. Apart from the
high costs demanded for repair, most of the conventional repairs can only last for
ten to fifteen years . Under such circumstances, the most effective method for
repairing the cracks is to provide an automatic healing MA11-2 mechanism that
triggers upon necessity and regains the functionality of the concrete structure
without human intervention.

1.2 Background of The Study:

Self-healing materials are defined as the materials that are able to partially or
completely restore their original functionality after they have been damaged. In
cementitious materials, such as concrete, this concept is referred to the capability of

Page | 14
material to seal the cracks without any manual interventions after damage,
accompanied by regaining of the mechanical properties, which results in a more
durable and sustainable structure. In addition to the available literature which fully
describes different methods of applying self-healing into cement-based materials and
evaluates their efficiency, new approaches and novel techniques have been proposed
for this purpose. This paper presents a brief review of both autogenous and
autonomous mechanisms of self-healing, with an emphasize on the recent research
advancements. Since the major concern regarding the application of autonomous self-
healing in concrete structures is the additional cost caused by the healing agents, the
improvement of autogenous self-healing which is an inherent performance of
cementitious materials by providing a favorable condition for the process (e.g. high-
performance fiber reinforced cementitious composites) may pave the way towards
construction industry. However, there are still a few aspects of self-healing concrete
missing in the literature that inhibits this technology from being utilized in the
construction. Therefore, a comprehensive section is proposed in this paper discussing
the major gaps and outlooks in the field of self-healing concrete.

Concrete is an absolutely essential element of infrastructure throughout the world.

Concrete though is able to carry high compressive load but very weak in case of
tensile forces, for which steel bars are embedded in the concrete. Again, cracks are
inevitable in concrete that allows the ingress of corrosive materials and consequently
deterioration of the structural concrete starts with the corrosion of embedded steel.
This leads to the reduction in strength and durability of concrete. The aim of the study
is to investigate the performance of bacterial concrete. Concrete specimens of 100
mm cubical size were cast and cured for different ages in plain water to study the
strength aspect of bacterial concrete. Concrete specimens having different bacterial
concentrations have been studied. From the investigation it is found that concrete
specimens containing bacterial species show better performance than the identical
conventional concrete. Among them, concrete specimens of bacterial concentration
6.39 x 10 8 cells/ml showed better result regarding strength development due to
microbial activities in concrete.

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1.3 Objective of the study:

Self-healing concrete is defined as the ability of concrete to repair its cracks

autogenously or autonomously, while cracks in concrete are a common phenomenon
due to their relatively low tensile strength, it is also called self-repairing concrete. It is
an artificial or synthetically made material with an inherent ability to repair damage
on its own, without any external diagnosis or human intervention. Self-healing
concrete is often known as “Bio Concrete” or “Bacterial Concrete”, it is specifically
designed to increase the durability of concrete structure by self-healing action of that
concrete. This concrete was invented by a group of microbiology researchers under
the Henk Jonkers, while in most conventional concrete mixtures, 20–30% of cement
is left un-hydrated. If cracking of concrete occurs un reacted cement, grains may
become exposed with moisture entering the crack and the hydration process can
resume and the hydration products can fill and fix the crack.

Objectives of self healing concrete:

• To heal cracks by bacterial precipitation.

• To investigate the effect of bacillus species bacteria in gaining strength.
• To enhance the durability and compressive strength of concrete.
• To confirm the efficient use of bio concrete in the marine structure.
• To enhance the flexural strength of concrete.
• To enhance the split tensile strength of concrete.
• To reduce the water permeability through concrete cracks.

1.4 Organization of the Thesis :

For clear and through understanding of the work done, the entire thesis has been
divided into five chapters. A brief description of each chapter is given below:

Chapter 1: This introductory chapter contains the background and objectives of the
research, advantage, disadvantage and application of self-healing concrete.

Chapter 2: This chapter contains a concise and selective review of the relevant
literature which provides brief discussion on physical properties of self -healing
concrete, materials &methods and bacteria’s used in self-healing concrete.

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Chapter 3: The chapter describes the experimental steps, materials, investigations
carried out the present study. It includes different types of bacteria’s used in self-
healing concrete, chemical reactions that occurs inside of concrete, application of
bacteria, mix design, condition of Micro-organisms and its growth, condition of
curing for self-healing.

Chapter 4: This chapter presents the various test results conducted in the study along
with relevant discussion on obtained test results.

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations were drawn from the present

investigations are provided in this chapter. In addition, some relevant future research
opportunities are also discussed.

1.5 Scope of the Study:

The demand for concrete in the construction industry has nearly doubled from 2002-
2012, but even though the versatile building material is in high demand, there is one
considerable fault: it cracks. In this Smart Bid Net Tech find we’ll take a look at how
this building material is evolving to meet the demands of the construction industry
through inflatable concrete. When a concrete structure cracks, water seeps into its
crevices and corrodes the steel reinforcements holding up the structure. Once the
corrosion is bad enough, the structure can collapse. Imagine a crumbling concrete
building or bridge that is able to patch itself back up without any help from human
hands. Professor Henk Jonkers at Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands
has created a way to make this happen and give concrete a longer life. The
contributing factor to Delft University’s creation was the discovery of a bacteria that
thrives in high-alkaline substances. The trick was to have this bacteria stay intact
while the concrete was mixed and to remain inactive until cracks form in the concrete
and water leaks in. The second part of the challenge was to activate the bacteria and
have it repair the concrete once a crack occurs. This concept of self-healing concrete
is still a thing of the future for commercial and residential buildings due to the
production cost. However, this concrete is currently being looked at for use in
building underground containers for hazardous waste. As this technology continues to

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develop in the future, the self-healing concrete could make a huge impact on the
construction industry, as well as the environment.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction:

Studies have been performed to investigate the Self-healing concrete is a new type of
concrete. It imitates the automatic healing of body wounds by the secretion of some
kind of material. Studies clearly show that to create self-healing concrete, some
special materials (such as fiber or capsules), which contain some adhesive liquids, are
dispensed into the concrete mix. By introduce the bacteria in concrete it producing
calcium carbonate crystals which block the micro cracks are always avoided but some
extent they are responsible to their failure in strength.

Different types of bacteria used by different researchers for the study of bacteria such
as Junker et al. The selection of the bacteria is depend on the survive capability of
bacteria in the alkaline environment. Most of the microorganisms die in an
environment with pH value of 10 or above(1).Strains of the bacteria genus Bacillus
will be found to succeed in high alkaline environment. The bacteria survive in the
high alkaline environment that formed spores comparable to the plant seeds. The
spores are of very thick wall and they activated transude into the structure.

Bio-concrete was presented for the first time as a method for fixing Rushmore Mount.
The possibility of microorganisms interceded concrete was first presented by US
researchers. Which remained subject to the impact of the climate. Southern Mines
school and Technology developed up a bacteria and glass-bead method which is
assumed to extend the strength the concrete by 24%.Tragically the utilization of the
hypothesis was never taking forward because of an absence of intrigue among the
commercial e engineering division at the time.

Self-healing concrete is widely focused by research communities and academicians.

Basically, the repairmen capability of concrete which results to treatments its cracks
automatically is called self-healing concrete. Like every other scientific approach, it
has been derived and at them same time inspired from natural organisms like animals

Page | 19
or trees. The skin damages and fissures of animals and trees are able to repair
themselves autonomously. Late researchers focuses on biotechnology and civil
engineering aspect of developing self-healing concrete technology. Most of the
studies in this area are stated form late 1990s. Back in 1980s, only few papers are
available.

2.2 Self-Healing Concrete :

Self-healing mechanism is defined as “any process by the material itself involving the
recovery and hence improvement of a performance after an earlier action that had
reduced the performance of the material”. Different mechanisms of self-healing have
been introduced during the years, however the history of self-healing phenomena can
be tracked back to ancient structures and buildings, where cracks being filled with
white crystalline materials were observed. This intrinsic property of concrete that fills
the cracks with hydrated pozzolanic binders or crystalline materials in the proper
condition is called “autogenous self-healing”. By realizing the whole concept that
concrete is capable of sealing and healing the cracks without external
activation, the researchers were persuaded to develop “Autonomous self-healing” by
designing and adding engineered materials into concrete to act upon cracking. They
aimed at tailoring novel mechanisms that expected to be more efficient than
autogenous self-healing. However, the initial cost for these techniques used in this
category rises a significant concern for its industrial application. To overcome the
mentioned impediments, researchers came up with a self-healing mechanism called
"Improved autogenous" that follows the basics of autonomous self-healing, i.e.
engineered conditions, yet the whole function and healing products are identical to
autogenous self-healing. Figure 2.1 which is essentially based on Venn Diagram
of self-healing/repairing of cracking reported by the technical committee TC-075B
from the Japan Concrete Institute explains the relationship between different major
self-healing mechanisms.

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The scope of this paper is to present a brief review of all major mechanisms for self-
healing in cementitious materials, also express the most recent works on every
mechanism and highlight their flaws and strengths. Based on the existing research
gaps, outlooks for further investigation on self-healing in engineering practice are
proposed.

Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram illustrating self-healing mechanism.

2.2.1 Autonomous Self-Healing:

RILEM technical committee 221-SHC defines autonomous self-healing as the process

of healing with the material components that are specifically in concrete for this
purpose (engineered additions). Utilization of bacteria that results in the precipitation
of calcium carbonate when contacted with water, mineral admixtures that are capable
of forming crystalline or expansive productions in response to a crack are the main
methods of autonomous self-healing that have received the bulk of attention from
researchers in the past decades. Despite the promising results that have been reported,
the high initial cost of some of these techniques keeps them off the table when it
comes to industrial application. Cultivation of bacteria or tailoring encapsulation
techniques with materials that should withstand the harsh and alkaline environment of
concrete, may sometimes become more expensive than expected. Still, novel
approaches were carried out by researchers in this field that indicates the potential that
lies in this mechanism. Among all autonomous methods, the pace of development in

Page | 21
bacteria-based healing has been striking. Now researchers have identified types of
bacteria that not only show reliable results in self-healing of cracks; they can also
enhance the strength properties of concrete. Moreover, nano materials have been
introduced in the last few years as a suitable complementary mechanism for self-
healing in concrete. Faster hydration rate for cement and other pozzolanic binders,
reduction of porosity, plus improved interfacial bonding between hardened cement
paste and other components has been reported to be the main effects of nano
materials on concrete, which also have positive effects on self-healing as well.
Nevertheless, other applications such as inner water providing by nano clays or
increased formulation of C-S-H by nano silica were found to be also effective on
self-healing process.

2.2.2 Autogenous Self-Healing:

Autogenous self-healing can be considered as the pioneer of self-healing

mechanisms since this phenomenon was first observed about 200 years ago in water
retaining structures and pipes by the French Academy of Science (Lauer 1956).
Further hydration of un hydrated cement, calcite precipitation, and swelling of
cement paste are of the intrinsic characteristics of ordinary concrete that all together
could perform as a barrier against ingression of harmful substances, or might even
regain the mechanical properties of concrete in a favorable environment (Figure. 2).
However, the mentioned characteristics bring up limitations for this mechanism as
well. It is reported that almost 80% of the hydration process in concrete is completed
by the first 28 days. Besides, the formation of calcite which is the primary cause of
autogenous self-healing at later ages is extremely dependant on the surrounding
environment (e. g. Presence of water or moisture is mandatory; also sufficient
carbonates or bicarbonates should exist to react with 𝐶𝑎2+ ions). The shape of the
induced crack is also influential on the results. All these uncontrollable effective
parameters may explain the reason for the wide range of healed crack width (5 µm to
300 µm) reported by researchers due to autogenous self-healing.

Page | 22
2.2.3 Improved Autogenous Self-Healing:

Since the entire process of autogenous healing is quite recognized to the researchers,
favorable conditions have been engineered to improve the limitations discussed in the
previous section. As mentioned, the crack geometry is of utmost importance while
assessing the autogenous self-healing efficiency; thus, tailoring fibers in concrete such
that results in micro cracking behavior (restricted crack widths (<100µm) and
exhibiting a semi-uniform distribution of micro cracks instead of a major crack) will
significantly enhance the intrinsic self-healing of concrete. Moreover, by replacing the
cement content with other pozzolanic binders (e. g. fly ash and Ground Granulated
Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) that demonstrated to have slower hydration rates,
autogenous healing based on further hydration will be promoted even in later ages
Also, compatible supplementary materials that result in crystallization (CA) and
Super Absorbent Polymers that provide water into the cracks have been reported to be
effective in terms of autogenous healing.

2.3 Advantages of Self-Healing Concrete:

• This concrete has comparatively much lower permeability, greater durability,

and stress carrying capacity than conventional concrete.
• It can be applied to existing buildings in the form of spray which can reduce
the overall repair and maintenance costs of the buildings.
• This is an environmentally friendly technique because the carbon dioxide
produced is prevented due to the low use of concrete.
• SHC is a more effective shock absorber that protects during earthquakes
because it has a polymer membrane on its surface.
• It can operate at internal levels which means that the smallest cracks can be
reached & healed through the process.
• Un-hydrated cement that does not contribute to strong participation can be
used for this purpose.
• These types of concrete help to fill the crack.
• Improvement in the compressive strength of concrete.
• Better resistance to freeze-melting attack reduction.
• It reduces the permeability of concrete.

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 • Corrosion reduction of reinforced concrete.
• Also, helps to reduce maintenance and repair.

2.4 Disadvantages of Self-Healing Concrete:

• The cost of self-healing concrete is double that of conventional concrete.

• The growth of any bacteria is not good in any atmosphere media.
• Calcite precipitation investigations are expensive.
• Skilled labor is required.
• In this reaction mechanism, the 2 ammonium ions are generated
simultaneously for every carbonate ion, which can lead to extreme
environmental nitrogen load.
• The matrix of concrete changes and reduces the amount of mixing thus
reducing the strength of the concrete.
• Power boost is a fairly slow process.
• The matrix of concrete changes and reduces the amount of mixing thus
reducing the strength of the concrete.
• Power boost is a fairly slow process.

2.5 General Applications of Self-Healing concrete:

• It can be actively used in the case of roads to reduce traffic jams.

• Also used by the oil and gas industries, preventing small cracks from
spreading.
• It can be used to strengthen both existing and new types of structural building.
• It is effective in areas where buildings undergo freezing and thawing.
• This can prove to be economical in the case of irrigation works, dams that are
directly in contact with water.
• This concrete can be used for sectors such as tunnel-linings, structural
basement walls, highways, bridges, concrete floors, and marine structures.
• It is a new technology that can give way to sustainable roads.
• In high strength buildings with more bearing capacity.

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2.6 Physical Properties of Self Healing Concrete:

Self healing concrete also known as Bio-concrete along with its nutrient to keep it
alive for production of calcite to fill crack after Precipitation. Bacteria was added in
concrete along with calcium lactate to repair cracks. Many different materials are
combined with concrete like carbon fibers, fly ash, blast furnace slag etc.

2.6.1 Density:

The density of concrete varies, but it is around 2,400 kilograms per cubic meter (150
lb/cu ft). Reinforced concrete is the most common form of concrete. The density of
self healing concrete is a bit higher than conventional concrete. It varies around 2,500
kg/m3.

2.6.2 Compressive Strength

Compressive strength of concrete reduction in permeability of concrete reduction in

corrosion of reinforcement. The self healing bacterial and repair costs of steel
reinforced concrete structures. Oxygen is an agent that can induce corrosion, as
bacteria, feeds on oxygen tendency for the corrosion of reinforcement can be
reduced.

2.6.3 Durability:

To improve durability aspects of synthetic fiber-based repair mortars,Sierra-Beltran

and coworkers proposed to incorporate a biotechnology agent composed of alkali-
resistant bacteria-based self-healing concrete and the concrete liquid repair system.
Durability issues arise in concrete when under early age shrinkage or service loads,
micro-cracks form and propagate on the cementitious media. Due to material quasi-
brittle nature and heterogeneous multi-scale composition, micro-cracks build dense
networking, making macro-crack formation inevitable. This complex material
response to damage is acquainted since antiquity, therefore smart lime crystallization
mechanisms as in Roman concrete were introduced.

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2.6.4 Water-Cement Ratio:

A higher water- cement ratio includes more un-reacted cement particles that can be
used for further hydration to boost the generation of calcium carbonate.

2.6.5 Size of Cracks in Concrete:

According to the analysis and study by different authors, that the cracks healed by
autogenously healing was observed in various sizes such as0.05 mm to 0.87 mm, 5 to
10μm, 100μm , 200μm , 205μm and 300μm [5].

2.6.6 Effect of the pH on the Growth of the Bacteria:

The bacterial growth is also depending upon the pH. Each microbial species have the
different range of pH. The nutrient of different range of pH from 4 to 12 was prepared
in test tube. Introducing the bacterial culture into it and growth was observed, the test
was carried out by measuring the turbidity of the sample using Photo calorimeter and
it was observed that the growth in pH range 7.5-9.0. Bacillus pasteurii had the growth
in pH range of 7-9 and Bacillus sphaericus was 8-9 [12].

2.7 Concrete Sample:

Willem De Muynck made a concrete specimen to study and for performing the test on
the self-healing nature of concrete by using the ordinary Portland cement CEM 152.5
N, Sand, Aggregate and Water. The mould having the following dimension 150 mm
X 150 mm X 150 mm, 150 mm X 150 mm X 600 mm and 160 mm X 160 mm X 70
mm were used. The specimens were placed in the room for 27 days at 20 – 25°C.
After 28 days the compression test is done the prepared cube 150 mm X 150 mm X
150 mm and it is found that the mean compressive strength was 55.2 N/mm2with a
standard deviation of 2.19 N/mm2. Preparing the specimen of the concrete having the
following ingredient such as 53 grade cement, Fly ash, Fine and Coarse aggregate and

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microorganism of Bacillus cultured and added to the water during the mixing of
concrete in difference concentration like 105 cells/liter, 106 cells/liter and 107
cells/liter. Prepared M40 grade concrete cube of size 150 mm X 150 mm 150mm for
measuring the mechanical properties a cylindrical specimen of 150 mm diameter and
height of 300 mm were casted. Srinivasa Reddy V et al. made a specimen to find the
stress-Strain of the concrete sample were made of high strength grade of concrete
such as M60. A cylindrical specimen were made of diameter 150mm and height
300mm. total 12 number of specimen were casted with bacterial concrete [12].

2.8 Ureolytic Mixed Culture:

This culture was obtained by the active biomass in a of semi-continuous reactor. It

was filled with 1 liter activated sludge collect from an aerobic wastewater treatment
plant which was then sediment occurs, tap water replaced the 0.3 liter of supernatant,
containing 2 g/ltnutrient broth powder, 10 g/lt SLM 1228 where 1 g/lt of SLM 1228
represent a chemical oxygen demand of 1135 mg/lt, 10 g/lt urea, a phosphorus
concentration of 50 mg/lt and a Kjeldahl N concentration of 44 g/lt. the reactor
continuously rotated and mix at 100 rpm and at 28°C this process gives the ecological
advantages to the ureolytic bacteria and reproduce their growth [13].

2.9 Encapsulation with Light-Weight Aggregate:

LWA is also used for improving the self healing property of the concrete. The
ordinary aggregate of size 2-4mm which was replaced by the light weight aggregate
of same size corresponding to a healing agent content of 15 kg m-3 concrete [14] this
change will affect its compressive strength [15].

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2.10 Suitable Bacteria Used In Self-Healing Concrete

Table 2.1: Suitable Bacteria Used in Self-Healing Concrete

No. Application Types of Bacteria

B. pasteurii
Deleya Halophila
1. As a crack healer Halomonasrurihalina

Myxococcus Xanthus

B. megaterium

2. For surface treatment B. sphaericus

Bacilllussubitilis

3. B. spharicus B. sphaericus

Thiobacillus
However, when bacterial spores were directly added to the concrete mixture, their
lifetime appeared to be limited to one-two months [11]. The decrease in lifetime of
the bacterial spores from several decades when in dry state to only a few months
when embedded in the concrete matrix may be due to continuing cement hydration
resulting in matrix pore diameter widths typically much smaller than the 1 micrometer
sized bacterial spores [11]. Another concern is whether direct addition of organic bio-
mineral precursor compounds to the concrete mixture will not result in unwanted loss
of other concrete proper-ties. In the preceding study it was indeed found that various
organic bio-cement precursor compounds such as yeast extract, peptone and calcium
acetate resulted in a dramatic decrease of compressive strength. The only exception
appeared to be calcium lactate what actually resulted in a 10% increase in
compressive strength compared to control specimens . In order to substantially
increase the lifetime and associated functionality of concrete incorporated bacteria,
the effect of bacterial spore and simultaneously needed organic bio-mineral precursor
compound (calcium lactate) immobilization in porous expanded clay particles was
tested in this study. It was found that protection of the bacterial spores by
immobilization inside porous expanded clay particles before addition to the concrete
mixture indeed substantially prolonged their life time. Currently running viability
experiments show that still after 6 months concrete incorporation no loss of viability

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is observed, suggesting that their long term viability as observed in dried state when
not embedded in concrete is maintained. In subsequent experiments the expanded clay
particles loaded with the two component bio-chemical healing agent were applied as
additive to the concrete mixture to test SHC potential of bacterial concrete. [16]

2.11 Previous Studies on Self-Healing Concrete

Self-Healing Concrete is a relatively new concept and area of research and study.
Though there are some important research review done already.

One of the first application of bacteria to seal cracks in concrete was mentioned by
Gallopudi [10] The use of bacteria modified mortars, which could be applied
externally for concrete repair was the topic of many research project, Lorial et al.
(2002); De Muynck et al.(2008); Van Tillolboom; Pamakrishnan et al.(2013).Recently
the use of bacteria for self-healing concrete was also studied. [8]

Some review researches have been conduct in self-healing concrete. Among those
reviews, the last review was by Talaiekhozan et al. (2014) which described self-
healing concrete briefly with its three mentioned process [2].

Wu et al.(2012) states the natural although at the same time mean-made self-healing
concrete. It although focuses and add a comprehensive explanation of biological and
chemical methods [3].

Meanwhile, It was reviewed bacteria usages for designing and it’s efforts in self-
healing concrete [7]. Additionally, Some mechanisms for the enhancement of the
sand strength by using ureolysis bacteria and calcium carbonate. Another study “on
biological techniques to structure self-healing concrete dependent on calcium
carbonate downfall.”[4]

After that it was explored some materials such as micro vascular as self healing
concrete.

Some researchers focuses on chemical self-healing concrete. Some on natural

processing and even some touches all three parts of the self -healing concrete.

Although most researches were based on material and there characteristics

development, there is a research paper by on Industrial application and economical

Page | 29
feasibility of Self-Healing Concrete. It shows that despite of the lower costs estimated
for the non axenic production process, active ureolytic bacterial spores are still too
costly for practical application [16].

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 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY
3.1 General:

As we know that when crack forms in concrete, it allows the water and different type
of Chemical into the concrete through the cracks and decreases their durability,
strength and which also affect the reinforcement when it comes in contact with water,
CO2 and other chemicals. For repairing the cracks developed in the concrete, it
requires regular maintenance and special type of treatment which will be very
expansive. So, to overcome from this problem autonomous self-healing mechanism is
introduced in the concrete which helps to repair the cracks by producing calcium
carbonate crystals which block the micro cracks and pores in the concrete. The
selection of the bacteria was according to their survival in the alkaline environment
such as B. pasteurii, Bacillus subtilis and B. spharicus which are mainly used for the
experiments by different researchers for their study. The condition of growth is
different for different types of bacteria. For the growth, bacteria were put in a medium
containing different chemical at a particular temperature and for a particular time
period. Bacteria improves the structural properties such as tensile strength, water
permeability, durability and compressive strength of the normal concrete which was
found by the performing different type of experiment on too many specimens had
varying sizes used by different researchers for their study of bacterial concrete in
comparison with the conventional concrete and from the experiment it was also found
that use of lightweight aggregate along with bacteria helps in self healing property of
concrete. For gaining the best result a mathematical model was also introduced to
study the stress-strain behavior of bacteria which was used to improve the strength of
concrete.

3.2 Bacteria Used In Self-Healing Concrete

The selection of the bacteria is depend on the survive capability of bacteria in the alkaline
environment. Most of the microorganisms die in an environment with pH value of 10 or
above. Strains of the bacteria genus Bacillus will be found to succeed in high alkaline

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 environment. The bacteria survive in the high alkaline environment that formed spores
comparable to the plant seeds. The spores are of very thick wall and they activated when
concrete start cracking and water transude into the structure. The pH of the highly alkaline
concrete lowers to the values in the range 10 to11.5 where the bacterial spores become
activated. There many bacteria other then Bacillus which can survive in the alkaline
environment [19] shown in Table 3.1

Table 3.1.Some Bacteria which can survive in the alkaline environment :

B.pasteurii B. sphaericus

Deleya Halophila Bacilllus subitilis

Halomonasrurihalina B. megaterium

Myxococcus Xanthus Thiobacillus

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 Figure 3.1: Bacillus Bacteria

Figure 3.2: Electron Microscopic view of B. sphaericus

3.2.1 Bacillus pasteurii & Bacillus sphaericus:

The suitability of using a spore-forming ureolytic strain, Bacillus sphaericus, was

evaluated for self-healing of concrete cracks. The main focus was on alkaline
tolerance, calcium tolerance, oxygen dependence, and low-temperature adaptability.
Experimental results show that B. sphaericus had a good tolerance. It can grow and

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germinate in a broad range of alkaline pH. The optimal pH range is 7 ∼ 9. High
alkaline conditions (pH 10 ∼ 11) slow down but not stop the growth and germination.
Oxygen was strictly needed during bacterial growth and germination, but not an
essential factor during bacterial urea decomposition. B. sphaericus also had a good Ca
tolerance, especially at a high bacterial concentration of 108 cells/ml; no significant
influence was observed on bacterial ureolytic activity of the presence of 0.9M Ca2+.
Furthermore, at a low temperature (10 °C), bacterial spores germinated and revived
ureolytic activity with some retardation. However, this retardation can be
counteracted by using a higher bacterial concentration and by supplementing yeast
extract. It can be concluded that B. sphaericus is a suitable bacterium for application
in bacteria-based self-healing concrete. [20]

Purpose of B.pasteurii in improving construction material as in concrete or mortar.

Concrete is one of the most used materials in the world but it is susceptible to forming
cracks which can be costly to fix. One solution is to embed this bacterium in the
cracks and once it is activated using MICP. Minerals will form and repair the gap in a
permanent environmentally-friendly way. One disadvantage is that this technique is
possible only for external surfaces that are reachable.

Another application is to use B.pasteurii in bio self-healing of concrete which

involves implementing the bacterium into the concrete matrix during the concrete
preparation to heal micro cracks. This has a benefit of minimal human intervention
and yields more durable concrete with higher compressive strength. [20]

3.3 Autogenous Self-Healing:

The intrinsic self-healing methods are defined as the autogenous healing in concrete
duetoit’scompositionofvariouscementitiouscomponentsinthemixture.Thisapproachis
dependentonthepropertiesthatmakeupthe mixture itself. When the cracks occur,
water is an essential factor (Fig.3.3) for autogenous healing of concrete. Addition of
fly ash and bacterial spores into the cementitious composition, for instance, can
explain the autogenous self-healing of concrete. When adding fly ash as pozzolanic
(materials that can react with calcium hydroxide) materials instead of cement in the
concrete mixture, hydration of the un-hydrated parts should promote the autogenous

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healing of concrete cracks when occurred. Furthermore, complementing bacterial
spores into the cementitious mixture and after the hardening and cracking, the water
enters into the crack to stimulate a chemical reaction that will result as an agent to
fill that crack. Based on the experiment, it is conceivable that water plays an
essential role in autogenous self-healing as water was the medium for the diffusion
of ions and the formation of reaction products. So it can be said that wet-dry cycles
have an effect of efficiency of autogenous self-healing of crack in the cement paste.
Cycle of 12 hours wetting and then 12 hours drying has a higher efficiency than
cycle of 1 hour of wetting and 23 hours of drying.

Figure 3.3: Autogenous self-healing in concrete cracks due to water contact.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig 3.4 (a) Formation of calcium carbonate (b) Blocking by impurities

(c) Hydration of un reacted cement (d) Expansion of the hydrated cement.

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3.4 Autonomous Self-Healing:

This type of crack healing in concrete is the type that includes closed capsules
(either spherical or cylindrical) shown in (Fig.3.5) that contain a healing agent.
When crack happens, the capsule breaks and the inside agent (sometimes special
Bacteria) fills the crack due to gravitation forces. Generally, this type is called
autonomous self-healing. To facilitate the production of self-healing concrete,
encapsulated healing agents are preferably added to the concrete mix during
preparation. The efficiency of such encapsulated agents can be observed in the
aggressive conditions related to temperatures that can produce very difficult cracks
to handle. When temperature differences and cyclic loads cause the crack to grow
wider or become more narrow, elastic behavior of the hardened agent is wanted. In
order not to lose the bond between the repair agent and the cementitious matrix, and
thus preserve the crack sealing ability. On the other hand, water as medium can
have other significance as the autonomous healing action can start with different
types of trigger mechanisms. [21] For example, the ingress of liquids into the crack,
however that has some throwbacks. A disadvantage is that as long as the required
agent does not intrude into the crack, healing is not activated. In the period between
formation of damage and activation of healing, degradation of the concrete matrix
can still occur.

Figure 3.5:Autonomous self-healing concrete methods.

(a) The spherical capsules with agents. (b) The cylindrical capsules with a gents.

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3.5 Chemical Reactions that Occurs Inside of Concrete

Autogenous healing is the natural process of repairing concrete cracks that can occur
in the presence of moisture or water. Autogenous healing fills cracks through
hydration of un hydrated cement particles or carbonation of dissolved calcium
hydroxide. Hydration of calcium oxide produces calcium hydroxide, which can react
with carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. Calcium carbonate crystallization
within the crack fracture surface is the major mechanism for self-healing of matured
concrete. [22]

In particular a calcite formation in the region of water effecting cracks takes place in
the material arrangement CaCO3-CO2-H2O corresponding to the following

reactions:

These reactions result in production of calcium carbonate. Due to abundance in

nature and compatibility with cementitious compositions, calcium carbonate is one
of the most useful and versatile fillers to plug the voids, porosities and cracks in
concrete. [20]

3.5.1 Production of Calcium Carbonate Through Biomineralization:

Biomineralization refers to the process of mineral formation by living organisms

which is a widespread phenomenon in nature. Biomineralization can be
accomplished through biologically induced mineralization process. Biologically
induced mineralization usually occurs in an open environment as an uncontrolled
consequence of microbial metabolic activity. In this process, bio minerals are formed
through reaction of metabolic products generated by microorganisms with the
surrounding environment. Bacterial structure and a schematic diagram of calcium
carbonate production are shown in Fig 5. Mineral precipitation occurs by successful
attachment of the positively charged ions to the negatively charged microbial cell
walls. Biologically induced mineralization usually occurs in an anaerobic
environment or at oxic–anoxic boundary. Its effectiveness highly depends on the

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 concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon, nucleation site, pH, temperature.
Among widespread production of minerals through bio mineralization, precipitation
of calcium carbonate has drawn interest due to the efficient bonding capacity and
compatibility with concrete compositions. [23]

Fig 3.6: a) Bacteria structure. b) Negatively charged cell wall and the presence of
positive charged ions. c) Bio mineral production by means of binding ions to cell wall

3.5.2 Precipitation of Calcium Carbonate :

Calcium carbonate precipitation It is known that microorganisms, specifically

bacteria, are able to produce a wide range of minerals such as carbonates, sulphides,
silicates and phosphates. Calcium carbonate is one of the most suitable fillers for
concrete due to high compatibility with cementitious compositions. Calcium
carbonate can be precipitated through biologically induced mineralization process in
the presence of a calcium source. In this process, carbonate is produced by
microorganisms extra cellularly through two metabolic pathways namely autotrophic
and heterotrophic. [25]

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 Fig 3.7: .a) SEM micrographs of calcite precipitation by B. sphaericus.

b) SEM micrographs of calcite precipitation by B.subtilis

3.5.3 Autotrophic pathway :

Autotrophic pathway happens in the presence of carbon dioxide for which microbes
convert carbon dioxide to carbonate through three distinct ways, namely (i) non-
methylotrophic methanogenesis (by methanogenic archaea), (ii) oxygenic
photosynthesis(by Cyanobacteria) and (iii) anoxygenic photosynthesis. Non-
methylotrophic methanogenesis pathway converts carbon dioxide and hydrogen to
methane. Accordingly, anaerobic oxidation of methane by electron acceptors such as
sulphate, results in the production of bicarbonate. Produced carbonate will then result
in calcium carbonate precipitation in the presence of calcium ions. Photosynthesis
process is also an autotrophic pathway to produce calcium carbonate in the presence
of calcium ions. There are two groups of photosynthetic bacteria namely oxygenic
and anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria. Oxygenic and anoxygenic photosynthesizing
organisms utilize different types of electron donors to produce methanal. Then water
acts as an electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis. In anoxygenic photosynthesis,
however, hydrogen sulphide acts as an electron donor in the redox reaction, therefore,
oxygen is not generated. Removal of carbon dioxide during microbial photosynthesis
from bicarbonate solutions results in carbonate production. This phenomenon leads in
localized increase in pH and finally calcium carbonate precipitation in the presence of

Page | 39
calcium ions. Despite the possibility of calcium precipitation through photosynthesis,
this method is only possible in the presence of carbon dioxide in the surrounding
environment. This indicates that photosynthesis pathway can only be used in the areas
that concrete structure is exposed to carbon dioxide and light. [24]

CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2 O

CH4 + SO2− − −
4 → HCO3 + HS + H2 O

Ca2+ + 2HCO−
3 ↔ CaC03 + CO2 + H2 O

3.5.4 Heterotrophic pathway:

Microbial communities may precipitate crystals as a result of their growth in different

natural habitats. Crystal formation is attributed to the medium composition used to
growth heterotrophic bacteria and is a common phenomenon in nature. Heterotrophic
growth of different genera of bacteria such as Bacillus, Arthrobacter and
Rhodococcus species on organic acid salts (acetate, lactate, citrate, succinate, oxalate,
malate and glycosylate) results in production of carbonate minerals. These bacteria
use organic compounds as a source of energy. Based on the salts and carbon sources
present in the medium, these bacteria are able to produce various crystals such as
calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. Chemical reactions to form calcium
carbonate in the presence of calcium acetate as a source of low molecular weight acid
and calcium ion. Calcium carbonate precipitation through utilization of organic acid
has been widely documented in different substrate environments. It was noted that
utilization of heterotrophic bacterial communities (Arthrobacter and Rhodococcus)
isolated from stalactite in the cave could produce calcium carbonate in the presence of
calcium acetate. Moreover, the contribution of Arthrobacter and Rhodococcus species
isolated from polar environments on precipitation of calcium carbonate crystal with
calcium citrate and calcium acetate as carbon source has been extensively investigated
and it was found that Bacillus and Arthrobacter species are capable of precipitating
calcium carbonate under alkaline carbonate medium. The presence of organic acid as
the sole source of carbon and energy is the most significant advantage of this
pathway. It is also worth noting that the cell surface properties of bacteria (as
nucleation sites), proteins and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) have crucial
effect on the morphology and mineralogy of produced calcium carbonate. Therefore,
different morphologies of calcium carbonate such as calcite (rhombohedra crystal),

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vaterite (hexagonal crystal) or aragonite (needle-like crystal) can be precipitated based
on chemical properties of bacteria cell wall. The sulphur cycle and the nitrogen cycle
are other mechanisms of producing calcium carbonate. Sulphur cycle follows by
dissimilatory reduction of sulphate. In this process, calcium carbonate is produced if
calcium source, organic matter and sulphate are present in the medium. The increase
in pH as a result of degasification of hydrogen sulphide shifts the reaction towards
precipitation of calcium carbonate. Production of calcium carbonate through reducing
calcium sulphate (CaSO4 ) to calcium sulphide (CaS) by sulphate reducing bacteria
can be done. Production of carbonate or bicarbonate through nitrogen cycle can be
established through three main pathways, namely (i) uric acid degradation (ureolysis),
(ii) ammonification of amino acids and (iii) dissimilatory nitrate reduction. As a result
of the nitrogen cycle, calcium carbonate is precipitated upon the presence of sufficient
calcium ion in the medium.

3.6 Calcium Lactate as an Additive:

Calcium lactate is a white crystalline salt with formula C6H10CaO6 consisting of

two lactate anions H3C(CHOH)CO−2 for each calcium Ca2+. It forms
several hydrates, the most common being the penta hydrate C6H10CaO6·5H2O.
Calcium lactate can be prepared by the reaction of lactic acid with calcium
carbonate or calcium hydroxide. [26]

As we know that calcium nutrient source also acts as an additional food source for the
bacteria to precipitate calcium carbonate at a higher rate, which helps increase the
strength of concrete and aids in self-healing of micro cracks. Calcium lactate is an
organic calcium source which is used in many milk, cheese, and food products. This
concentration can produce a significant amount of calcium carbonate within a short
period. Calcium lactate comes in a liquid form and is added as a supplement in the

Page | 41
water used for concrete mixing. The bacteria liquid culture and calcium lactate are
added directly to the concrete mix. Researchers have used calcium lactate to enhance
the compressive strength and the self-healing of cracks.

The production of calcium carbonate in bacterial concrete is limited to the calcium

content in cement. Hence calcium lactate is externally added to be an additional
source of calcium in the concrete. The influence of this addition on compressive
strength, self-healing capability of cracks is significant. Calcium lactates with
concentrations of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, and 2.5% of cement can be added to
increase the effectiveness of bacteria. [27]

3.6.1 Application of Bacteria:

In self-healing concrete, ingredient is mixed with bacterial water replacing potable

water. Bacterial water has a concentration of 105 cells of Bacillus megaterium or
sphaericus per ml of water. The bacterium goes into dormant state, when cracks
occur in future by obvious reason, the bacteria get exposed to the air and water and
they start precipitating calcite crystals. The spores of such bacteria have a thick cell
which can help them to remain intact up to 200 years while waiting for a better
environment to germinate. While many of them propose mixing the bacteria and
mineral admixtures straight into the concrete, others propose polymer capsules filled
with different solutions to be mixed into the concrete. This has created the issue of
equal dispersion throughout the concrete as well as the problem of taking up more
space inside the mixture and causing less strength in the original material. However,
studies have shown that these polymer capsules can be equally distributed quite
easily and do not take up enough space to cause any sort of strength reduction. Here
we will discuss on two types of application (i) Direct Mixing & (ii) Encapsulation

3.6.2 Direct Application With Concrete Mix:

In recent decades, the utilization of mineral and chemical admixtures in concrete

techno-logy has led to changes in the formulation and mix design which has, in turn,
made the concrete stronger and more durable. Light weight concrete (LWC) is an

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excellent solution in terms of decreasing the dead load of the structure, while self-
compacting concrete (SCC) eases the pouring and removes construction problems.
Combining the advantages of LWC and SCC is a new field of research. Considering
its light weight of structure and ease of placement, Light-weight self-compacting
concrete (LWSCC) may be the answer to the increasing construction requirements of
slender and more heavily reinforced structural elements. Twenty one laboratory
experimental investigations on the mix proportion, density and mechanical properties
of LWSCC have been published in the last 12 years and these are analyzed in this
study. The collected information is used to investigate the mix proportions including
the chemical and mineral admixtures, light weight and normal weight aggregates,
fillers, cement and water. Analyzed results are presented in terms of statistical
expressions. It is very helpful for future research to choose the proper components
with different ratios and curing conditions to attain the desired concrete grade
according to the planned application.

This paper proposes a new mix design method for self-compacting concrete (SCC).
First, the amount of aggregates required is determined, and the paste of binders is then
filled into the voids of aggregates to ensure that the concrete thus obtained has flow
ability, self-compacting ability and other desired SCC properties. The amount of
aggregates, binders and mixing water, as well as type and dosage of super plasticizer
(SP) to be used are the major factors influencing the properties of SCC. Slump flow,
V-funnel, L-flow, U-box and compressive strength tests were carried out to examine
the performance of SCC, and the results indicate that the proposed method could
produce successfully SCC of high quality. Compared to the method developed by the
Japanese Ready-Mixed Concrete Association (JRMCA), this method is simpler, easier
for implementation and less time-consuming, requires a smaller amount of binders
and saves cost.

Mix design of Self Compacting Concrete or SCC is not straight forward because
many parameters control its rheological properties. The case becomes more
complicated if high compressive strength is also to be achieved. Therefore simpler
approach is used, that is by firstly determining the flow mortar mix which is easier to
be designed even with the requirement of ultra-high compressive strength. The mix
design of SCC is then determined by simply adding the coarse aggregate with a
certain amount of that mortar mix. In this research the ultra-high compressive strength

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flow mortar was made of Type I cement, 15% of cement weight silica fume, weight
ratio of cement and curve No IV sand was 1: 0.35. The water-cementious ratio was
0.22 and the amount of plasticizer was 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5% and 1.6% of the cement
weight. For the SCC, the used coefficient was taken to be 1.4, 1.6, and 1.8 of the
volume of that aggregate void for mortars, the aggregate value was at the volume of
the remaining count of mortar and its size was 4.8mm - 9.6 mm. Test results show
that the mortar flow ability was 170 mm, 180 mm, 220 mm and 250 mm, where the
achieved compressive strength was 83.1 MPa, 96.8 MPa, 111.4 MPa, and 135.5 MPa
respectively. Mortar mix with 1.6% super plasticizer was then used for making the
SCC and the results show that the concrete flow were 460 mm, 580 mm and 660 mm
and the compressive strength were 88.2 MPa, 100.0 MPa, and 97.9 MPa. It can be
concluded that using this simpler approach the SCC can have 580 mm flow and 100
MPa compressive strength. [30]

3.6.3 Encapsulation Method:

Fig 3.8: Encapsulation Method

Throughout concrete structures’ service life span, deterioration inevitably occurs. A

typical phenomenon of deterioration in concrete structures is cracking, which affects
durability and integrity of these structures. Repair and maintenance of concrete
structures are labor and capital intensive; it can also be difficult to access the degree
of damage after the construction is completed. Self-healing is a possible solution. An
encapsulation strategy is widely considered as a versatile and effective strategy for

Page | 44
self-healing. In this review, attention is focused one valuation of different healing
agents and encapsulation techniques.

Eight key factors that affect the effectiveness of self-healing by encapsulation are
discussed; these are

• robustness during mixing

• probability of cracks encountering the capsules
• curing time and condition
• effect of empty capsules on concrete strength
• controllability of release of healing agent
• stability of healing agent
• sealing ability and recovery of durability and strength of concrete matrix (as a
result of self-healing)
• repeatability of self-healing action. Finally, gaps in current research and
important areas for future research are identified.

self-healing concrete for sustainable infrastructure through reduction of maintenance

and repair in the use phase. To realize this goal, self-healing must observe at least six
robustness criteria–long shelf life, pervasive, quality, reliable, versatile, and
repeatable. Five broad categories of self-healing approaches, namely chemical
encapsulation, bacterial encapsulation, mineral admixtures, chemical in glass tubing,
and intrinsic healing with self-controlled tight crack width, are evaluated against the
robustness criteria. It is suggested that while significant progress has been made over
the last decade in laboratory studies, important knowledge gaps must be filled in all
categories of self-healing approaches to attain the goal of smart sustainable
infrastructures that possess self-repair capability in the field. [40]

It has become an intelligent and environmental protection method to repair concrete

cracks based on microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP). However,
due to the high-alkali environment in concrete, even the microbial spores with strong
alkali resistance find it difficult to survive for a long time, which affects the long-term
self-healing effect of concrete cracks. In this paper, low-alkali sulfo-aluminate cement
(SC) was used as a carrier to encapsulate spores, and the effects of the spore group
and microbial group on the basic performances of concrete were studied. Then, the
area repair ratio, water permeability, the repair ratio of anti-chloride ion penetration,

Page | 45
and ultrasonic velocity were used to evaluate the self-healing efficiency of cracks, and
the self-healing effects of two kinds of microbial self-healing agents on concrete
cracks with different curing ages were further studied. Moreover, the growth, enzyme
activity, and microbial morphologies of spores with and without encapsulation
immersed in the simulated pore solution of cement-based materials at different times
were studied to discuss the protective effect of the carrier on spores. Compared with
the reference group, the results showed that the addition of two microbial self-healing
agents would slightly affect the basic performances of concrete, but both were within
the control range of concrete materials. For the early-age cracks, the two kinds of
microbial self-healing agents could achieve a good self-healing effect, but for the
later-age cracks, the concrete cracks of the microbial group could still be repaired
well, while the self-healing effect of the spore group was greatly reduced. Moreover,
the white precipitates generated at the crack mouth were all calcite CaCO3. In
addition, the self-healing mechanism of different microbial self-healing agents on
concrete cracks was discussed carefully. This study provides a new idea and method
for the engineering application of microbial self-healing concrete. [24]

3.7 Methodology:

In the future we may be surrounded by concrete structures, which are able to self-heal
cracks in their structure, with special bacteria doing the job for us. Tiny cracks in
concrete do not necessarily affect structural integrity in the short term, but they do
allow water and other chemicals to seep into the structure, which may cause big
problems over time. Self-healing concrete has dormant bacteria and a food source
(starch) embedded in the concrete. When a crack appears in the concrete, water seeps
in and reactivates the bacteria. After they awaken, the bacteria eat their packed lunch
and then conveniently excrete calcite, which heals the crack. The bacteria can survive
dormant in the material for 50 years.

3.8 Concrete Mix Design:

The concrete mix design is defined as the art of choosing appropriate elements of
concrete and deciding the relative extents with the thought process of preparing

Page | 46
concrete to obtain quality, functionality, and toughness as practical as could be
expected under any circumstances. The rate of self-healing depends on grade of
concrete, selection of type of materials, and quantity of materials used for producing
concrete. Though it should be noted that there are no established codes to conduct
this mix design as the whole process is under experimental researches. [39] [31]

A series of concrete samples should be assembled utilizing standard Portland

cement, coarse, fine aggregate, and water. The control concrete samples can be made
of customary Portland cement (16%), sand (4%), and aggregate (40%) with water to
cement proportion of 0.6.To setup the bio-based concrete, the supplements including
40 g/L calcium chloride anhydrous, 65 g/L urea, and 2 g/L yeast extract were
liquefied in water. The samples should be restored for 24 h, demoulded, and put
away in a vibration free wet condition [12]. The M20 grade concrete involves
cement (300 kg/m3), fine aggregate (1172 kg/m3), and coarse aggregate (1020 kg/m3)
in water 135 l/m3. The solid shapes with a measurement of 100mm x 100mm x
100mm can be produced utilizing recorded M 20-53 grade homogeneous blend of
concrete with and without joined bacterial cells. For bacterial culture expansion, a
medium term developed culture of Bacillus sp. and B. megaterium MTCC1684 can
centrifuged or we can add bacterial water directly with additives [13].

3.8.1 Cement:
Cement is a binder material, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of 40-53grade can be
used. The physical and chemical properties of cement are as per IS:12269

3.8.2 Fine aggregate:

River sand passing through 4.75mm IS sieve can be used. The specific gravity can
be around 2-2.4.

3.8.3 Coarse aggregates:

It is crushed stones of maximum size 20mm and retained on 4.75mm IS sieves. The
specific gravity was found to be 3.13.

Page | 47
3.8.4 Water:
Potable water for conventional concrete or Bacterial water consisting of 105cells of
Bacillus/ml of water.

3.8.5 Metal sheet:

Thin metal sheet of thickness 0.3mm to introduce an artificial crack in the
unhardened concrete specimen up to a depth of 10mm.

3.8.6 Bacteria:
Cement and water have a very high pH value of around 13 when it mixed together. In
such high pH environment, most micro-organisms die. [33] The bacteria which need
to be added should fit such special norms should be alkali resistant and it should also
be able to withstand the harsh environmental conditions of the concrete. Example of
such bacteria is shown below:

• Bacillus megaterium
• Bacillus pasteurii
• Bacillus subtilis
• Bacillus aerius
• Sporosarcina pasteurii
• Shewanella Species
• Bacillus flexus

It is found that Bacillus megaterium can precipitate maximum amount of calcite when
compared to other urea se positive bacteria, which results in more increase in
compressive strength and higher efficiency of crack-healing. [36]

3.8.7 Additives:
Calcium lactate as additive which is a white crystalline salt with formula C6H10CaO6 .
Calcium chloride & Yeast extracts are also used.

Page | 48
3.9 Condition of Curing for Self-Healing

Specimens are prepared using concrete and are cured in water for certain period. The
specimens are subjected to cracking after curing process. For the process of self-
healing, the specimens are placed in different conditions. Specimens can be placed in
water, outdoor and indoor environmental conditions. [20]

The pre-split specimens are then put in three unique situations for 90 days to assess
their self-healing performance. The main condition is a steady dry condition, in
which the specimens are set in an advanced de-humidifying box, with a controlled
temperature of 21-25°C. The second condition is the water condition, which is
utilized to assess the medium term self-healing execution of SHC in submerged
structures. This condition is simulated by inundating SHCC examples in tap water
with a controlled temperature of 21-25°C. The last condition is normally high-
humidity condition. The SHC specimens set in an outside area that enables them to
be specifically presented to changes in the climate. The normal temperature and
humidity in the open-air condition are 21.4°C [14].

The process of curing involves hydration of cement in presence of moisture to attain

strength to the concrete. The curing was done for 3, 7, 14, and 28 days. The strength
and self-healing rate of concrete depends on the period of curing.

The concrete specimens were tested after 180 days of curing and after 150 days of
further water restoring including past the initial 180 days (330 days); the specimens
are pre-stacked up to 75% of their mid-span beam deflection capacities on their
180th day and then released and again re-loaded up to failure [12]. Mortar prisms of
4cm x 4cm x16 cm were cast in two layers and compacted per layer by 15 strokes
with a pole to restrict the incorporation of air. After one day, the prisms were
demoulded and kept in plastic foil until 3, 7, 14, 28 or 56 days. Prisms were tested at
these setting times for mechanical quality under bending and compression [13].

Page | 49
 CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMNETAL RESULTS

4.1 Self-Healing with Mineral Admixtures without Bacteria

4.1.1 Materials

The materials used in this experiment are:

Cement: Ordinary Portland cement. The cement test conforms toIQS:5/1984.

Fine Aggregate: Natural sand. The sand grading is within the limit specified by
IQS:45/1984

Coarse Aggregate: Natural gravel with a nominal aggregate size of (5-20mm). The
grading and physical and chemical properties conform toIQS:45/1984.

Mixing Water: Ordinary tap water.

Admixtures: Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2&CrystallizationMaterialNa2CO3

(a) Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 (b) Crystallization Material Na2CO3

Page | 50
 (c) Gravel 5-20 mm (d) Ordinary Portland Cement

Fig 4.1: Used Materials for Experiment

4.1.2 Mix Design for Experiment:

Design of Concrete mixes were made according to ACI 211.1-91.

Concrete with compressive strength of 35MPa, slump of 75 to 100mm, and unit mass
equal to 2280 kg/cubic meter (142.4 lb/cubic feet) was used during this experiment.

Table 4.1: Mix Proportions:

Materials Cement Gravel Sand Water

Mix Proportion
by Weight 456 1040 555 205
(Kg/𝐦𝟑 )

Mix Proportion 1 2.281 1.217 0.45

Page | 51
 Table 4.2: Healing Agents as Partial Replacement of Cement:

Calcium Hydroxide Crystallization

Mix Types Ca(OH)2 Material Na2CO3
𝐊𝐠/𝐦𝟑 𝐊𝐠/𝐦𝟑
Type 1 (M1) 0 0
Type 2 (M2) 20 2
Type 3 (M3) 30 3

4.1.3 Tests on Hardened Concrete:

• Compressive Strength Test

• Flexural Strength Test
• Splitting Tensile Strength Test

4.1.4 Compressive Strength Test:

Compressive strength is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its
surface without any crack or deflection. A material under compression tends to reduce
the size, while in tension, size elongates.

Compressive strength formula for any material is the load applied at the point of
failure to the cross-section area of the face on which load was applied.

Load
• Compressive Strength = Cross−sectional Area

•
Specimen for the Test: 9 cubes of (100mm ×100mm ×100mm) specimens were
used to determine the compressive strength at 7, 28 and 90 days. In addition, it
consisted of 30 cubes of (100 mm ×100 mm ×100 mm) specimens to determine the
self-healing of cracks that introduced due to compressive stresses and cured for 90
days.

Page | 52
 Fig 4.2: Cubes of (100×100×100) mm specimens of M3

Calculation of M1 for 7 days:

Size of the cube =100mm x100 mm x100 mm
Area of the specimen (mean size of the specimen)= 10,000 mm2
Maximum load applied after 7 days = 163.88 KN
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 163.88 x 1.2 = 196.67 KN
M1 Compressive strength after 7 days = 196666.67 N / 10000 mm2
=23.6 N/mm2=23.6 MPa

Calculation of M1 for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days = 295833.34 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 295833.34 x 1.2 = 355 KN
M1 Compressive strength after 28 days = 355000 N / 10000 mm2
=35.5 N/mm2
=35.5 MPa

Calculation of M1 for 90 days:

Maximum load applied after 90 days = 339166.67 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 339166.67 x 1.2 = 407 KN
M1 Compressive strength after 90 days = 407000 N / 10000 mm2
=40.7 N/mm2=40.7 MPa

Page | 53
Calculation of M2 for 7 days:
Size of the cube =100mm x100 mm x100 mm
Area of the specimen (mean size of the specimen) = 10,000 mm2
Maximum load applied after 7 days = 197500N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 197500 x 1.2 = 237KN
M1 Compressive strength after 7 days = 237000N / 10000 mm2
=23.7N/mm2=23.7 MPa

Calculation of M2 for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days = 298333.33N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 298333.33x 1.2 = 358000N
M1 Compressive strength after 28 days = 358000N / 10000 mm2
=35.8N/mm2=35.8 MPa

Calculation of M2 for 90 days:

Maximum load applied after 90 days = 370833.33N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 370833.33 x 1.2 = 445000N
M1 Compressive strength after 90 days = 445000N / 10000 mm2
=44.5N/mm2=44.5 MPa

Calculation of M3 for 7 days:

Size of the cube =100mm x100 mm x100 mm
Area of the specimen (mean size of the specimen) = 10,000 mm2
Maximum load applied after 7 days = 201250N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 21250x 1.2 = 241500N
M1 Compressive strength after 7 days = 241500N/ 10000 mm2
=24.15N/mm2=24.15MPa

Calculation of M3 for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days = 302500N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 302500x 1.2 = 363000N
M1 Compressive strength after 28 days = 363000N / 10000 mm2
=36.3N/mm2=36.3MPa

Page | 54
Calculation of M3 for 90 days:
Maximum load applied after 90 days = 376666.67N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 376666.67 x 1.2 = 452000N
M1 Compressive strength after 90 days = 445000N / 10000 mm2
=45.2N/mm2=45.2 MPa

Graphical Comparison of Results from Compressive Strength Test:

Compressive Strength (MPa) Comparison

50 44.5 45.2
40.7
35.5 35.8 36.3
40

30 23.6 23.7 24.15

20

10

0
M1 M2 M3
7 Days 28 Days 90 Days

Fig 4.3: Comparison of Compressive strength for

M1,M2 & M3 mix for different ages.

• The test results showed that the compressive strength of self-healing

concrete is higher than that of normal concrete.
• At day 28 M3 achieved the compressive strength of 36.3 MPa and that is
0.8 MPa higher than the normal concrete of M1 mix. The differences
became 4.5 MPa at day 90.
• We can see that the increase in compressive strength appears slightly in the
first week and continues to the final age of tests.
• The increase in healing agents as a partial replacement of cement increased
the compressive strength and it is clearly visible from the results of M1 &
M3 mix.

Page | 55
4.1.5FlexuralStrengthTest:
Flexural strength of concrete is the measure of the tensile strength of concrete and to
resist failure in the bending it is a measure of an un-reinforced concrete beam. With a
span length at least three times the depth, flexural strength of concrete is measured as
Modulus of Rupture in MPa, the flexural strength is expressed and by standard test
methods ASTM C78 (third-point loading) or ASTM C293 (center-point loading) it is
determined.
In this experiment we have used center point loading.

Fig 4.4: Center point loading

The specimen size and type of loading does impact the measured flexural strength and
comparisons or requirements should be based on the loading configuration and same
beam size. It is also observed that with larger beam specimens, a lower flexural
strength of concrete will be measured.

pxl
• Flexural strength Fb = b x d2

Where, b is the width of specimen.

d is the depth.

l is the supported length.

p is the maximum load.

Page | 56
Specimen for the Test: Consisted of 3 prisms of (100×100×400) mm specimens
to determine the flexural strength at 7, 28, and 90 days& some extra specimens for
observing cracks.

Fig 4.5: prisms of (100×100×400) mm

Calculation of M1 for 7 days:

Size of the Prism = Width 100 mm Depth 100mm Length 400mm
Here, l= 400mm b=100mm & d=100mm
pxl
Flexural strength Fb = b x d2

Maximum load applied after 7 days = 9666.67 N

Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 9666.67N×1.2=11600 N
M1 Flexural strength after 7 days = (11600 x 400) / (100 x 1002 )
=4.64 N/mm2=4.64MPa

Calculation of M1 for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days = 11333.33N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 11333.33N×1.2= 13600N
M1 Flexural strength after 28 days = (13600 x 400) / (100 x 1002 )
=5.44 N/mm2=5.44MPa

Calculation of M1 for 90 days:

Maximum load applied after 90 days = 12083.33N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 12083.33N×1.2= 14500N

Page | 57
M1 Flexural strength after 90 days = (14500 x 400) / (100 x 1002 )
=5.8N/mm2=5.8MPa

Calculation of M2for 7 days:

Size of the Prism = Width 100 mm Depth 100mm Length 400mm
Here, l= 400mm b=100mm & d=100mm
pxl
Flexural strength Fb = b x d2

Maximum load applied after 7 days = 9895.83N

Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 9895.83N×1.2= 11875N
M1 Flexural strength after 7 days = (11875 x 400) / (100 x 1002 )
=4.75 N/mm2=4.75MPa

Calculation of M2for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days = 10687.5N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 10687.5N×1.2= 12825N
M1 Flexural strength after 28 days = (12825x 400) / (100 x 1002 )
=5.13N/mm2=5.13MPa

Calculation of M2for90 days:

Maximum load applied after 90days = 13812.5N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 13812.5N×1.2= 16575N
M1 Flexural strength after 28 days = (16575x 400) / (100 x 1002 )
=6.63N/mm2=6.63MPa

Calculation of M3for 7 days:

Size of the Prism = Width 100 mm Depth 100mm Length 400mm
Here, l= 400mm b=100mm & d=100mm
pxl
Flexural strength Fb = b x d2

Maximum load applied after 7 days = 10333.33N

Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 10333.33N×1.2= 12400N
M1 Flexural strength after 7 days = (12400 x 400) / (100 x 1002 )
=4.96N/mm2=4.96MPa

Page | 58
Calculation of M3for28 days:
Maximum load applied after 28 days = 11354.17N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 11354.17N×1.2= 13625N
M1 Flexural strength after 28 days = (13625x 400) / (100 x 1002 )
=5.45 N/mm2=5.45MPa

Calculation of M3for90 days:

Maximum load applied after 90days = 14000N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 14000N×1.2= 16800N
M1 Flexural strength after 28 days = (16800x 400) / (100 x 1002 )
=6.72N/mm2=6.72MPa

Comparison of Flexural Strength at Different Days:

Flexural Strength (MPa)

6.63 6.72
7 5.8
5.44 5.13 5.45
6 4.96
4.63 4.75
5
4
3
2
1
0
M1 M2 M3
7 Days 28 Days 90 Days

Fig 4.6: Comparison of Flexural strength for

M1,M2& M3 mix for different ages

• The test results showed that the flexural strength of self-healing concrete is
higher than that of normal concrete.
• At day 90 M3 achieved the flexural strength of 6.72 MPa and that is 0.92
MPa higher than the normal concrete of M1 mix.
• We can see that the increase in flexural strength appears slightly in the first
week and continues to the final age of tests.

Page | 59
 • The increase in healing agents (M1<M2<M3) as a partial replacement of
cement increased the flexural strength and it is clearly visible from the
results of M1 & M3 mix.

4.1.6 Split Tensile Strength Test:

One of the important properties of concrete is “tensile strength” as structural loads
make concrete vulnerable to tensile cracking. Tensile strength of concrete is much
lower than its compressive strength. It has been estimated that tensile strength of
concrete equals roughly about 10% of compressive strength.
To determine the tensile strength, indirect methods are applied due to the difficulty of
the direct method. Noting that the values obtained of these methods are higher than
those got from the uni axial tensile test. One of these indirect techniques is split
cylinder test. The split tensile strength of concrete is one of the basic and important
properties which greatly affect the extent and size of cracking in structures. The
concrete is not usually expected to resist the direct tension due to its low tensile
strength and brittle nature. However the determination of split tensile strength of
concrete is necessary to determine the load at which the concrete members may crack.
The test split tensile strength of concrete is very simple to perform and the most
important fact is that it gives uniform results than the other tension tests like ring
tension test and double punch test.
2P
• Formula for split tensile strength of concrete: T=πDL

Fig 4.7: Splitting Tensile Strength Test setup

Page | 60
Specimen for the Test:

Consisted of 3 cylinders of M1, M2 & M3 (150×300) mm to determine the tensile

strength at 7, 28 and 90 days. Other specimens are to observe cracks.

Fig 4.8: Concrete cylinders of (150×300)mm

Apparatus for the Test:

• Balance
• Trowel
• Tamping Rod
• Mould for Specimen
• Compression Testing machine
Others

Fig: 4.9 Apparatus for the Test

Page | 61
Calculation of M1for 7 days:

Size of the Prism = Diameter of Cylinder 150mm & Height 300mm

Here, D= 150mm L=300mm & π=22/7

2P
Split tensile strength of concrete: T=πDL

Maximum load applied after 7 days = 130179.75N

Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 130179.75 N×1.2 =
156215.7N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 156215.7) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.21 N/mm2=2.21 MPa

Calculation of M1 for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28days = 145495.35 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 145495.35 N×1.2 =
174594.42N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 174594.42) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.47N/mm2=2.47MPa

Calculation of M1 for 90 days:

Maximum load applied after 28days = 153153 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 153153 N×1.2 =183783.6N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 183783.6) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.6N/mm2
=2.6MPa

Calculation of M2 for 7 days:

Size of the Prism = Diameter of Cylinder 150mm & Height 300mm
Here, D= 150mm L=300mm & π=22/7
2P
Split tensile strength of concrete: T=πDL

Maximum load applied after 7 days = 138426.75N

Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 138426.75N×1.2 =
166112.1N

Page | 62
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 166112.1) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.35 N/mm2 =2.35MPa

Calculation of M2 for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28days = 149029.65 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 149029.65 N×1.2 =
178835.58N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 178835.58) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.53N/mm2=2.53MPa

Calculation of M2 for 90 days:

Maximum load applied after 28days = 156098.25N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 156098.25N×1.2
=187317.9N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 187317.9) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.65N/mm2=2.65MPa

Calculation of M3 for 7 days:

Size of the Prism = Diameter of Cylinder 150mm & Height 300mm
Here, D= 150mm L=300mm & π=22/7
2P
Split tensile strength of concrete: T=πDL

Maximum load applied after 7 days = 139015.8 N

Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 139015.8 N×1.2 =
166818.96N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 166818.96) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.36 N/mm2=2.36MPa

Page | 63
Calculation of M3 for 28 days:
Maximum load applied after 28days = 150207.75 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 150207.75 N×1.2 =
180249.3N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 180249.3) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.55N/mm2=2.55MPa

Calculation of M3for 90 days:

Maximum load applied after 28days = 159632.55 N

Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 159632.55 N×1.2
=191559.06N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 191559.06) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.71N/mm2=2.71MPa

Graphical Comparison of Split tensile Strength for Three different Mix:

Splitting Tensile Strength (MPa)

3 2.71
2.47
2.6 2.53 2.65 2.55
2.35 2.36
2.5 2.21

1.5

0.5

0
M1 M2 M3
7 Days 28 Days 90 Days

Fig4.9: Comparison of Split tensile strength for

M1, M2, M3 mix for different ages

Page | 64
• The test results showed that the Split tensile strength of self-healing
concrete is slightly higher than that of normal concrete.
• At day 90 M3 achieved the Split tensile strength of 2.71 MPa and that is
0.11 MPa higher than the normal concrete of M1 mix.
• We can see that the increase in Split tensile strength appears slightly in the
first week and continues to the final age of tests.
• The increase in healing agents Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 & Crystallization
Material Na2CO3 as a partial replacement of cement increased the Split

tensile strength and it is clearly visible from the bar chart.

Page | 65
Self-healing process during three months of curing for M3 mix:

Here are the pictures of M3 mix concrete with micro cracks that were healed with
curing for 3 months process. Un-hydrated cement reacts with water & with the help of

additives the cracks can be healed.

Fig 4.10: Different stages of self-healing

• Micro cracks of concrete were healed through self-healing process.

• Half of the cracks were healed after 30 days of curing.
• No visible cracks after 90 days of curing.
• Cracks of 0.2 mm wide were autogenously sealed inside 90 days & cracks of
0.1 mm were sealedinside30days.

Page | 66
4.2 Self Healing with (B.sphaericus , concentration of 105cells/liter)

4.2.1 Materials:

• Ordinary Portland Cement

• Sand
• Water
• B. sphaericus

Specimen: The specimen of the bacterial concrete having the following ingredient
such as cement, fly ash, fine and coarse aggregate and micro-organism of Bacillus
sphaericus is cultured and added to the water during the mixing of concrete indifferent
concentration like105cells/liter. Cubes of 150x150x150mm were made.
Other cubes of same dimension were made without bacteria.

4.2.2 Split Tensile Strength Test:

One of the important properties of concrete is “tensile strength” as structural loads
make concrete vulnerable to tensile cracking. Tensile strength of concrete is much
lower than its compressive strength. It has been estimated that tensile strength of
concrete equals roughly about 10% of compressive strength.

To determine the tensile strength, indirect methods are applied due to the difficulty of
the direct method. Noting that the values obtained of these methods are higher than
those got from the uni axial tensile test. One of these indirect techniques is split
cylinder test.

The split tensile strength of concrete is one of the basic and important properties
which greatly affect the extent and size of cracking in structures. The concrete is not
usually expected to resist the direct tension due to its low tensile strength and brittle
nature. However the determination of split tensile strength of concrete is necessary to
determine the load at which the concrete members may crack. The test split tensile
strength of concrete is very simple to perform and the most important fact is that it
gives uniform results than the other tension tests like ring tension test and double
punch test.

Page | 67
 2P
• Formula for split tensile strength of concrete: T=πDL

Table 4.3:Comparison of compressive strength of conventional and bacterial concrete

Split tensile Split tensile

strength of strength
conventional B. sphaericus % increase
No. of
S. No. concrete cylinders concrete cubes, in Strength
days
N/mm2 N/mm2

1. 3 3.78 4.30 13.75

2. 7 4.62 5.28 14.28

3. 28 4.85 5.74 18.35

4.2.3 Stress-Strain Behavior of Concrete

The stress-strain behavior of concrete gives the value of toughness. The test were
performed on the cylindrical specimen prepared in universal testing machine of
3000KN capacity and the following data was obtained as shown in table.

Page | 68
 Table 4.4:
The Stress-Strain behavior of bacterial concrete as compare to controlled concrete.

Controlled concrete Bacterial concrete

Strain Stress (MPa) Strain Stress (MPa)

0 0 0 0
0.0001 3.27 0.0001 2.83
0.0002 6.41 0.0001 5.66
0.0003 9.01 0.0002 8.49
0.0004 12.98 0.0003 11.32
0.0005 15.32 0.0003 14.15
0.0006 18.65 0.0004 16.99
0.0007 21.10 0.0004 19.82
0.0008 24.55 0.0005 23.20
0.0009 28.56 0.0006 25.70
0.0010 36.00 0.0007 31.00
0.0011 38.80 0.0008 34.60
0.0012 42.30 0.0010 40.00
0.0014 47.60 0.0011 46.70
0.0016 61.00 0.0012 54.90
0.0023 72.61 0.0014 61.00
0.0027 65.70 0.0015 82.40
0.0033 36.80 0.0023 94.21
0.0034 30.30 0.0033 51.00
0.0035 29.15 0.0035 36.08

Page | 69
4.2.4 Water Absorption Test:
The test was conducted as per ASTM C642-97 [36] to determine the increased
resistance towards water penetration in concrete. Cubic molds of 70mm size were
prepared with and without bacteria. The specimens are cured for 28 days. After
curing, the surfaces of the samples were allowed to dry and their saturated surface
masses were determined after immersion. For this purpose, the specimens were oven
dried at 115±5 and water absorption of the specimens were calculated using the
following formula:
Absorption after immersion( %) = {(B – A)/A} x 100
Where,
A is the mass of oven dried sample in air.
B is the mass of the sample after immersion with a dry surface. [30]

4.2.5 Graphical Comparison:

The water absorption of the bacterial concrete surface has improved when compared
with conventional concrete because of precipitation of calcite on the surface of
specimen. The decrease in water absorption was found to be 0.45%.

4
3.5

2.5

1.5 %of water

1 absorption

0.5

A1 A2

Fig 4.11: Comparison of water absorption of

Normal Concrete (A1) vs Bacterial Concrete (A2)

Page | 70
4.2.6 Water permeability test:
Permeability test is aimed to determine the depth of water penetration under pressure.
In this study, the test is performed by clamping the cube specimens 152.4 mm height
and 165 mm diameter in size between two flanges with special circular gaskets. The
water under controlled pressure (0.5 N/mm) is applied to the surface of the concrete
specimens. The specimens are placed in the apparatus for 72h; then the water
penetration is measured by breaking the specimens. [30]

Graphical Comparison for Water Permeability :

The depth of penetration of water in bacterial concrete is also decreased when
compared to conventional concrete due to the filling of micro-pores by calcite.

5
4

2
water
1
penetration depth
in (mm)

C1 C2

Fig 4.12:- Comparison of water penetration between

Conventional concrete [C1] and bacterial concrete [C2].

4.2.7 Self –Healing of Cracks:

Different stages of self healing is shown with pictures below. Initial crack was found
About 0.2 to 0.246 mm and then the specimen was cured for 30 days.

Page | 71
 Fig 4.13: 0.2 mm crack is measured.

Fig 4.14: Specimen is bracketed with PVC

Page | 72
 Fig 4.15: 0.246 mm crack is measured at initial stage.

Fig 4.16: 0.136 mm crack is measured after 14 days of curing.

Page | 73
 Fig 4.17:Crack is almost healed after 28 days of curing

Introducing the bacteria into the concrete makes it very beneficial it improves the
property of the concrete which is more than the conventional concrete. Bacteria repair
the cracks in concrete by producing the calcium carbonate crystal which block the
cracks and repair it. Many researchers done their work on the self healing nature of
concrete and they had found the following result that bacteria improves the property
of conventional concrete such as increase in 13.75 % strength increased in 3 days,
14.28% in 7 days and 18.35% in 28 days. The development of calcium carbonate
crystal decreases the water permeability by decreasing the width of cracks from 0.5
mm to 0.35 mm. Compressive strength was increases by 30.76% in 3 days, 46.15% in
7 days and 32.21% in 28 days and in mathematical modal, it was found that the
bacterial concrete shows the better value of stress and strain as compared to controlled
concrete for the high strength grade of concrete [22]. According to De Muynck et al.
[21] the regular inspection for the concrete will be less need due to use of self healing
material used in the concrete. In a publication [23] quantified the cracks healing
capacity of the concrete containing LWA (light weight aggregate) Encapsulation self
– healing agent. They observe that the width of the cracks were less than 0.46mm for
bacteria-based specimens. From the capillary water suction test it was found that the
bacterial concrete shows the lower values of relative capillary index as compare to the
ureolytic mixed culture and from the gas permeability tests it was found that the
permeability decreases in bacterial concrete as compare to the conventional concrete.

Page | 74
4.3 Self-Healing with B.pasteurii of Different Concentrations
4.3.1 Materials

The ordinary concrete used in the test program consisted of cementing materials,
mineral aggregates and corrosion inhibitor with the following specifications:

• Ordinary Portland Cement (53 Grade)

• Graded fine aggregates.
• Graded coarse aggregates.
• Water.
• Bacteria : Bacillus pasteurii

4.3.2 Mix Design

The aim of studying the various properties of materials of concrete, plastic concrete
and hardened concrete is to design a concrete mix for particular strength. Design of
concrete mix needs complete knowledge of the various properties of the constituent
material, the implications in place of change on the conditions at site, the impact of
the properties of plastic concrete on the hardened concrete and the complicated
interrelationship between the variables. Mix design can be defined as the process of
selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative proportions
with the object of producing concrete of certain minimum strength and durability as
economically as possible. The mix design procedure is explained in the following
section. [35]

4.3.2.2 Standard Method Design Stipulations

• Concrete grade : M25

• Exposure : Mild
• Quality control : Fair
• Size of aggregate : 20 mm
• Degree of workability : 0.9
• Cement used : OPC 53 grade cement
• Sand grading zone :III

Page | 75
 Table 4.5: Physical Properties of Materials

Specific Bulk Density

Material
gravity (kg/m3)

Cement 3.14 1450

Fine aggregate 2.7 1650

Coarse
2.7 1575
aggregate

Water 1 1000

Table 4.6: Quantity of Material per m3 of Concrete

Weight
Material Volume(𝒎𝟑 )
basis(kg)

Cement 425.73 0.294

F.A 539.54 0.327

C.A 1231.77 0.782

Water 191.58 0.191

Mix proportion by weight = 1:1.27:2.89:0.45

Mix proportion by volume = 1:1.11:2.66:0.65

4.3.3 Mixing of Bacteria:

Luria Berta-powder form (6.75gms)+500ml of distilled water + peptone (3gm) +

yeast extract (1.5gm) + Beef extract (1.5gm) +sodium chloride (3gm/100ml) +1 Loop
of Bacteria (gel medium) at Incubator 37C [21]

Page | 76
4.3.4 Processing of Bacteria:
In this method Bacteria are added during casting of concrete. The amount of Bacteria
added in the range of 10ml & 15 ml/m3 of concrete. Concrete could soon be healing its
own hairline cracking. Holes and pores of wet concrete are healed. Combined calcium
with oxygen and carbon dioxide to form calcite is essential for healing tiny cracks
which arrest the seepage of water. [22]

Figure 4.18: View on Growing of Bacteria

4.3.5 Culturing and Isolation:

The technique of using soil bacterium is highly desirable because the mineral
precipitation induced as a result of microbial activities, is pollution free and natural.
Bacillus spharecius was yet another partially characterized species, having the
capability of precipitating calcium carbonate. It’s Far better would be to use bacillus
sphaericus as a material that heals itself just as the cell divines and produces a visible
mass. The colony isolated from other colonies, isolated colonies are assumed to be
pure culture. Culturing and Isolation Micro organism must have a constant nutrient
supply if they are to survive. Media may be liquid (broth) or solid (agar). Any desired
nutrients may be in corporate in to the broth (or) agar to grow bacteria. Organism
grown in broth cultures causes turbidity, (or) cloudiness, in the broth. On agar, masses
of cells known as colonies, appear on agar so that as the cell divines and produces a
visible mass. The colony isolated from other colonies, isolated colonies are assumed to
be pure culture. [23] [24]

Page | 77
4.3.6 Ability of the Bacterial Concrete to Repair the Cracks:
Both attention will be given on closure of cracks (blocking the path for ingress of
water and ions) and on regaining mechanical properties. Cracks in concrete specimen
subjected to various loading situations will be investigated before and after the
healing. For this impregnation techniques and SEM will be applied. (scanning electron
microscope). On the other hand the micro-organisms such as bacteria, cyanobacteria,
algae, lichens, yeasts, fungi and mosses etc. Which are omnipresent and omnipotent are
responsible for metabolism action that results in a microbial deposition of a protective
CaCO3 layer. This process results in re-establishment of the cohesion b\n particles of
mineral building materials and protects against further decay of stone material. To
prove the positive effects of microbial CaCO3 precipitation. The increase in porosity
in concrete leads to increase in capillary water uptake, increase in gas permeability
along with higher carbonation rate, high chloride migration and freeze-thaw damage.

4.3.7 Processing of Bacteria:

Concrete could soon be healing its own hairline cracking. Holes and pores of wet
concrete are healed. Combined calcium with oxygen and carbon dioxide to form
calcite is essential for healing tiny cracks which arrest the seepage of water. [25]

4.3.8 Tests on Hardened Concrete:

• Compressive Strength Test

• Splitting Tensile Strength Test

4.3.8.1 Compressive Strength:

The compression test is used to determine the hardness of cubical and cylindrical
specimens of concrete. The strength of a concrete specimen depends upon cement,
aggregate, bond, water-cement ratio, curing temperature, and age and size of
specimen. Mix design is the major factor controlling the strength of concrete Cubes of
size 15cm x 15cm x 15cm (as perIS:10086-1982 ) should be casted. The specimen
should be givens sufficient time for hardening and then it should be cured for 3, 7, 14
and 28 days. After 3, 7, 14 and 28 days, it should be loaded in the compression testing
machine and tested for maximum load. Compressive strength should be calculated by
dividing maximum load by the cross- sectional area. [26]

Page | 78
Compressive Strength (N/mm2) = Ultimate load

Fig. 4.19: Compressive strength test of the cube.

4.3.8.2 Split-Tensile Strength:

Split-tensile strength is indirect way of finding the tensile strength of concrete by
subjecting the cylinder to a compressive force. Cylinders of size 150mm diameter and
300mm long were cast. After 24 hours the specimen were demoulded and subjected to
water curing. After 3, 7, 14 and 28 days of curing the cylinders were taken allowed to
dry and tested in compression testing machine by placing the specimen horizontal.
The ultimate load of the specimen horizontal. The ultimate load of the specimen is at
which the cylinder failed.

Fig. 4.20: Tensile testing on cylinders.

Page | 79
Here,
Tensile stress (MPa) = 2P / ΠDL

And the stress value is obtained in N/mm2.

P is the ultimate load at which the cylinder fails.

D and L are the diameter and length of the cylinder.

4.3.9: Test Results

Compressive Strength

Table 4.7: Compressive Strength of Conventional Concrete (MPa)

No. of Compressive Strength Ultimate Compressive

Days at first Crack Strength
(mm) (MPa)
3 DAYS 4.30 20.21
7 DAYS 6.13 23.54
14 DAYS 5.78 27.16
28 DAYS 7.56 30.52

Table 4.8: Compressive Strength of Concrete with 10ml Addition of Bacteria (MPa)

No. of Compressive Ultimate

Days Strength at first Compressive
Crack Strength
(mm) (MPa)
3 DAYS 6.67 29.78
7 DAYS 6.28 24.11
14 DAYS 5.92 27.56
28 DAYS 7.61 30.84

Page | 80
 Table 4.9: Compressive Strength of Concrete with 20ml Addition of Bacteria (MPa)

Ultimate
Compressive Strength
Compressive
No. of Days At first crack
Strength
(mm)
(N/mm2)
3 DAYS 6.72 29.84
7 DAYS 6.34 24.25
14 DAYS 6.03 27.82
28 DAYS 7.87 31.11

Compressive Strength of Conventional Concrete :

Calculation for 3 days:
Size of the cube =100mm x100 mm x100 mm
Area of the specimen (mean size of the specimen) = 10,000 mm2
Maximum load applied after 3 days = 140.34KN
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 140.34 x 1.2 = 168.41667 KN
M1 Compressive strength after 3 days = 168416.67 N / 10000 mm2
=20.21 N/mm2=20.21 MPa

Calculation for 7 days:

Maximum load applied after7 days = 163472.33 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety
=163472.22 x 1.2 = 196166.67N
M1 Compressive strength after 7 days = 196166.67 N / 10000 mm2
=33.54 N/mm2=23.54MPa

Calculation for 14 days:

Maximum load applied after 14 days = 188611.11N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 188611.11 x 1.2
= 226333.33 N
M1 Compressive strength after 14 days = 226333.33N / 10000 mm2

Page | 81
=27.16 N/mm2=27.16 MPa

Calculation for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days = 211944.44N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety
= 211944.44x 1.2 = 254333.33N
M1 Compressive strength after 28 days = 254333.33/ 10000 mm2
=30.52 N/mm2
=30.52 MPa

Compressive Strength of Conventional Concrete With 10 ml Addition of

Bacteria:

Calculation for 3 days:

Size of the cube =100mm x100 mm x100 mm
Area of the specimen (mean size of the specimen) = 10,000 mm2
Maximum load applied after 3 days = 206805.56 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 206805.56x 1.2
= 248166.67 N
M1 Compressive strength after 3 days = 248166.67 N / 10000 mm2
=29.78N/mm2=29.78 MPa

Calculation for 7 days:

Maximum load applied after 7 days = 167430.56 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety
= 167430.56x 1.2 = 200916.67N
M1 Compressive strength after 7 days = 200916.67 N / 10000 mm2
=24.11 N/mm2
=24.11MPa

Calculation for 14 days:

Maximum load applied after 14 days = 191388.89N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety
= 191388.89 x 1.2 = 229666.67N

Page | 82
M1 Compressive strength after 14 days = 229666.67/ 10000 mm2
=27.56 N/mm2
=27.56MPa

Calculation for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days =214166.67 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 214166.67 x 1.2 = 257000 N
M1 Compressive strength after 28 days = 257000/ 10000 mm2
=30.84N/mm2
=30.84 MPa

Compressive Strength of Conventional Concrete With 20 ml Addition of

Bacteria:

Calculation for 3 days:

Size of the cube =100mm x100 mm x100 mm
Area of the specimen (mean size of the specimen) = 10,000 mm2
Maximum load applied after 3 days = 207222.23 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 207222.23x 1.2 = 248666.67N
M1 Compressive strength after 3 days = 248666.67 N / 10000 mm2
=29.84N/mm2=29.84 MPa

Calculation for 7 days:

Maximum load applied after 7 days = 168402.78 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 168402.78 x 1.2 =
202083.33N
M1 Compressive strength after 7 days = 202083.33 N / 10000 mm2
=24.25N/mm2
=24.25MPa

Calculation for 14 days:

Maximum load applied after 14 days = 193194.44 N
Calculated load =Maximum Load x Factor of Safety =193194.44 x 1.2= 231833.33 N
M1 Compressive strength after 14 days = 231833.33/ 10000 mm2

Page | 83
=27.82 N/mm2=27.82 MPa

Calculation for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days =216041.67N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 216041.67 x 1.2 = 259250 N
M1 Compressive strength after 28 days = 259250 / 10000 mm2
=31.11 N/mm2
=31.11 MPa

Compressive Strength at Initial Crack

35
30.84 31.11
29.78 29.84 30.52
27.56 27.82
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

30 27.16
24.11 24.25
23.54
25
20.21
20

15

10

0
3rd Day 7th Day 14th Day 28th Day
Conventional Concrete Concrete with 10ml of additional Bacteria
Concrete with 20ml of additional Bacteria

Fig 4.21: Compressive Strength at initial crack comparison between conventional

concrete and Concrete with additional Bacteria

Page | 84
 Ultimate Compressive Strength
7.87
7.56 7.61
8
Compressive Strength (N/mm2) 6.67 6.72
7 6.34
6.13 6.28 6.03
5.78 5.92
6

5 4.3

0
3rd Day 7th Day 14th Day 28th Day

Conventional Concrete Concrete with 10ml of additional Bacteria

Concrete with 20ml of additional Bacteria

Fig 4.22: Ultimate Compressive Strength comparison between Conventional Concrete

and Concrete with additional Bacteria

4.3.10 Split Tensile Test:

Table 4.10: Split Tensile Strength of Conventional Concrete (MPa)

Ultimate Tensile Strength

No. of Days
(MPa)

3 DAYS 1.70

7 DAYS 2.09

14 DAYS 2.12

28 DAYS 3.26

Page | 85
Table 4.11: Split Tensile Strength of Concrete with 10ml Bacteria (N/mm2)

Ultimate Tensile Strength

No. of Days
(MPa)

3 DAYS 1.81

7 DAYS 2.12

14 DAYS 2.18

28 DAYS 3.32

Table 4.12: Split Tensile Strength of Concrete with 20ml of Bacteria (N/mm2)

Ultimate Tensile Strength

No. of Days
(MPa)

3 DAYS 1.86

7 DAYS 2.24

14 DAYS 2.26

28 DAYS 3.35

Split Tensile Strength of Conventional Concrete

Calculation for 3 days:

Size of the Prism = Diameter of Cylinder 150mm & Height 300mm

Here, D= 150mm L=300mm & π=22/7
2P
Split tensile strength of concrete: T=πDL

Maximum load applied after 3 days = 100138.5 N

Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 100138.5N×1.2 = 120166.2 N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 3 days = (2 x 120166.2 N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=1.70 N/mm2=1.70 MPa

Page | 86
Calculation for 7 days:
Maximum load applied after 7 days = 123111.45 N
Calculated load= Maximum Load x Factor of Safety= 123111.45 N×1.2= 147733.74N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 147733.74 N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.09 N/mm2
=2.09 MPa

Calculation for 14 days:

Maximum load applied after 14 days = 124878.6 N
Calculated load= Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 124878.6 N×1.2 =149854.32 N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 14 days = (2 x 149854.32 N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.12 N/mm2
=2.12 MPa

Calculation for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days = 192030.3 N
Calculated load=Maximum Load x Factor of Safety =192030.3 N×1.2 =230436.36 N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 28 days = (2 x 230436. 36N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=3.26 N/mm2
=3.26 MPa

Split Tensile Strength With 10ml Addition of Bacteria :

Calculation for 3 days:

Size of the Prism = Diameter of Cylinder 150mm & Height 300mm
Here, D= 150mm L=300mm & π=22/7
2P
Split tensile strength of concrete: T=πDL

Maximum load applied after 3 days = 100138.5 N

Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 100138.5 N×1.2 = 120166.2N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 3 days = (2 x 120166.3) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=1.81 N/mm2
=1.81 MPa

Page | 87
Calculation for 7 days:
Maximum load applied after 7 days = 124878.6 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety =124878.6 N×1.2 =149854.32 N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 149854.32 N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.12 N/mm2
=2.12 MPa

Calculation for 14 days:

Maximum load applied after 14 days = 128412.9 N
Calculated load =Maximum Load x Factor of Safety =128412.9 N×1.2 =154095.48 N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 14 days = (2 x 154095.48N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.18 N/mm2
=2.18 MPa

Calculation for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days = 195564.6 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety =195564.6N×1.2 =234677.52 N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 28 days = (2 x 234677.52 N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=3.32 N/mm2
=3.32 MPa

Split Tensile Strength of Conventional With 20ml Addition of

Bacteria :

Calculation for 3 days:

Size of the Prism = Diameter of Cylinder 150mm & Height 300mm
Here, D= 150mm L=300mm & π=22/7
2P
Split tensile strength of concrete: T=πDL

Maximum load applied after 3 days = 109563.3 N

Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety =109563.3 N×1.2 =131475.96 N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 3 days = (2 x 131475.96 N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=1.86 N/mm2=1.86 MPa

Page | 88
Calculation for 7 days:
Maximum load applied after 7 days = 131947.2 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety = 131947.2 N×1.2 =
158336.64 N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 7 days = (2 x 158336.64 N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.24 N/mm2
=2.14 MPa

Calculation for 14 days:

Maximum load applied after 14 days = 133125.3 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety =133125.3 N×1.2 =159750.36 N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 14 days = (2 x 159750.36 N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=2.26 N/mm2
=2.26 MPa

Calculation for 28 days:

Maximum load applied after 28 days = 197331.75 N
Calculated load = Maximum Load x Factor of Safety =197331.75 N1.2 =236798.1 N
M1 Split Tensile strength after 28 days = (2 x 236798.1N) / (3.1416 x 300 x 150)
=3.35 N/mm2
=3.35 MPa

Fig. 4.23: Microscopic images of CaCO3 crystals precipitated by

Bacillus pasteurii at different ages.

Page | 89
B. pasteurii was used to induce calcite precipitation which is highly desirable
because the mineral precipitation induced as a result of microbial activities is
pollution free and natural. The workability test of the bacterial concrete resulted in
90mm of slump value. We have found out that the compressive strength of the
bacterial concrete with 10% and 20% of addition of bacillus pasteurii as 13.07% and
13.75% respectively. Same way we have found out that the split tensile strength of the
bacterial concrete with 10% and 20% of addition of bacillus sphaericus as 3.15% and
7.25% respectively. We have also casted a beam of size 500mm x 100mm x 100mm
with 20% addition of bacillus sphaericus and made some tiny cracks by giving little
load and the observation of the healing process of the crack is going on. [27]

Bacteria will not survive in water. So it cannot be mixed with water and it was found
out in the Research when the bacteria mixed with Buffer - solution give better results.
Even it will not change the pH value when added with acid (or) alkali is added to it.
The bacteria will be mixed in different ratios in the specimen concretes for testing and
research. The cost of bacterial concrete when compared to conventional concrete is
more. But this self healing concrete will help in regaining of strength and healing of
cracks automatically without any human intervention. [28]

Page | 90
4.4 Self-Healing with B. megaterium of Different Concentration

4.4.1 General

Five different cell concentrations of Bacillus megaterium (10×105 to 50× 105

cfu/ml) were introduced in structural concrete to achieve the optimum
concentration of bacteria. The significant increase in the strength was obtained
in the case of 30 × 105 cfu/ml at different ages. The strength of highest grade
of bacterial concrete had improved (24%) as compared to lowest grade
(12.8%) due to calcification mechanism. Microbial calcite precipitation was
quantified using X-ray diffraction analysis, visualized by scanning electron
microscopy and analyzed by energy dispersive spectrometer. It was found that
the optimum concentration of B. megaterium had a positive effect on high
strength structural concrete.

4.4.2 Materials:
• Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
• Fine sand with a fineness modulus of 2.8
• Coarse aggregates of 10 mm
• Normal water
• B. megaterium(10×105to50×105cfu/ml)

4.4.3 Tests on Hardened Concrete:

• Compressive Strength Test

• Flexural Strength Test

4.4.4 Concrete Mix Design:

Concrete mix design was carried out to obtain the desired strength of
structural concrete based on the DOE method of British standard. Table
4.13 demonstrates the concrete mix proportions for different grades of
structural concrete. The normal type of cement (OPC) with two types of
aggregate (crushed and uncrushed) and a different ratio of W/C (0.38–
0.53) with free water quantity (213.34 kg/m3) was applied to achieve the
desired compressive strength. [30]

Page | 94
 Table 4.13: concrete mix proportions for different grades of structural
concrete

Fig. 4.24. The bacterial identification colony morphology in agar plate.

Colony morphology indicates the colony characteristics that are different in

appearance when compared to other bacterial species. The identification of
bacterial colonies, present in agar medium showed that they are circular, smooth
with flat elevation and entire edges having cream color. To obtain pure colonies,
a loop full of nutrient broth was streaked onto nutrient agar plate containing
(peptone 5.0 g/L, yeast Extract 3.0 g/L, agar. agar 12.0 g/L, distilled water) for
each sample and the agar plates were placed in incubator for the growth of
bacteria at 37 °C for 24 h. The colony morphology of the isolated soil bacteria
present in agar. The Gram staining test [18] was used to identify, whether the

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bacteria is Gram positive or Gram negative including the shape of bacterial cell
under the microscope. During Gram staining test, the bacterial strain is considered
to be Gram positive, when its color becomes purple which is due to the presence
of thick cell wall, whereas a bacterial strain is known to be Gram negative, when
its color appears pink due to the presence of thin cell wall. The morphology of
bacterial cell under microscope can be seen. Moreover for the isolated bacteria
used in this study appears to be purple in color and rod shaped with chain like
arrangement under microscope. These characteristics resemble to Bacillus species
[19],while further confirmation was made using biochemical tests and observation
under scanning electron microscopy for concrete pores and its tiny cavities. Based
on the DOE method, coarse aggregate and cement contents are found to be increased
because the amount of fine aggregate decreased towards the using of higher concrete
grade. Therefore, higher grade concrete provides better condition to precipitate more
minerals due to the precipitation space and bacterial activity. [32]

4.4.5 Effect of different concentrations of B. megaterium on

improving the compressive and flexural strength:
Five different cell concentrations of bacteria (10 x 105to 50 x 105 cfu/ ml) were
applied to the concrete for achieving the optimum concentration of bacteria. The
effect of bacteria on the compressive and flexural strengths of structural concrete
(BS 1881-116:1983 and BS 1881-118:1983) with different cell concentration of
bacteria based on 35 MPa are shown in Fig. 5. It was found that bacterial
concentration of 30 105 cfu/ml resulted in the increasing of compressive and
flexural strength of structural concrete. [33]

The compressive and flexural strength of the specimens were found to be

decreased along with the bacterial concentration of 40x105 and 50x105 cfu/ml,
when compared to the structural concrete specimens in the absence of bacteria.
This was due to the presence of more number of bacteria(more population)and
for the nutrient competition in comparison to the bacterial concentration of
30x105cfu/ml. The dimensions of structural concrete samples were 100x100x100
mm and 100x100x500 mm for compressive and flexural strength tests

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respectively. Subsequently, this optimal cell concentration (30x105 cfu/ml) was
applied to different grades of structural concrete (30, 35, 40, 45, and 50 MPa) by
mixing water (per ml) for the current experimental approach. The microbial effect
on improving the compressive strength of different structural concrete grades are
shown chart. [34]

In this research, the focus was on structural concrete (30, 35, 40,45 and 50 MPa)
and it covered high strength bacterial concrete (40, 45 and 50 MPa). The
~ Concrete Institute (ACI) defines high strength concrete as concrete with
American
compressive strength greater than 6000psi (40 MPa). The marginal difference
(5MPa) in the compressive strength was chosen based on the standard. Microbial
activity has important role in deter- mining the compressive strength of different
concrete grades. The highest compressive strength was achieved using the highest
grade of concrete in the presence of the microbial concentration (30 × 10 5
cfu/ml). This improvement was due to the biological activity of bacteria to
produce more CaCO3 as a filler material. [38]

4.4.6 Graphical Representation of Result:

Fig 4.25: Flexural Strength Comparison of different concentrations.

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 Fig4.26: Compressive Strength Comparison of different concentrations.

Optimum concentration was found from the results as 30x105 cfu/ml

This study provides the insight for a new biotechnological method based on
calcite precipitation for improving the strength of structural concrete. It is clear
that mineral precipitation has the potential to enhance the resistance of
construction material towards the process of degradation. The consequences of
this research provides a significant contribution towards the under- standing of the
effects of bacteria on the performance of structural concrete mix. The following
conclusions can be drawn according to the findings of this research:

The bacterial concentration of 30 105 cfu/ml obtained at the appropriate serial

dilution stage (10—5) showed increment in the compressive and flexural strength
of structural concrete. [40] [39]

It was found that the strength of higher grade of structural bacterial concrete
improved as compared to lower grade due to the higher amount of calcite
precipitation. The maximum rate of strength development (24%) was achieved in
highest grade of structural concrete (50 MPa) due to the maximum rate of CaCO3
precipitation intensity.
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The micro-structural investigation results showed that bacterial suspension of 105
cfu/ml (from serial dilution) and concentration of 30 105 cfu/ml was found to
be ideal for enhancing the concrete characteristics, which was confirmed with
SEM analysis.

It is found that optimum concentration of bacteria had a positive effect on high

strength structural concrete. Therefore, the bacterial concrete made using B.
megaterium can be recommended to be used as a green building material in the
construction industry.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions:

• The bacteria into the concrete makes it very beneficial it improves the property
of the concrete which is more than the conventional concrete. Bacteria repair
the cracks in concrete by producing the calcium carbonate crystal which block
the cracks and repair it.
• Many researchers done their work on the self healing nature of concrete and
they had found the following result that bacteria improves the property of
conventional concrete such as increase in 13.75% strength increased in 3 days,
14.28% in 7 days and 18.35% in 28 days.
• The development of calcium carbonate crystal Decreases the water
permeability by decreasing the width of cracks from 0.5 mm to 0.35 mm.
Compressive strength was increases by 30.76% in 3 days, 46.15% in 7 days
and 32.21% in 28 days and in mathematical modal it was found that the
bacterial concrete shows the better value of stress and strain as compared to
controlled concrete for the high strength grade of concrete.
• Autonomous healing is efficient in crack healing (300 µm to 1 mm), but the
initial cost is still a matter. Autogenous healing is a free method but requires
time and is highly dependent on the surrounding environment. On the other
hand, the initial cost for Improved-autogenous healing is not considerable
compared to autonomous healing, plus it performs in a reasonable time and
heals crack up to 100-150 Mm (Good results for ECC).
• self-healing efficiency of bacteria-based healing agent sand types of
encapsulation materials currently present for bacteria. Based on the previous
studies, the most common approaches to encapsulate bacteria are polymers
and lightweight aggregates. The study has also identified that the maximum
crack width healed is around 1.8mm by encapsulation in diatomaceous earth.

Page | 100
• Furthermore, lightweight aggregates and nano materials have a positive effect
on the mechanical properties of the concrete in contrast to other
encapsulation materials.

• The common characteristic of bacteria-based healing agents was the recovery

of durability properties like the decrease in water absorption and increased
resistance to chloride permeability. The recovery of mechanical properties was
the most common micro structural adopted by the majority of the researchers,
followed by durability and quantification of precipitated crystals.
• The bacteria into the concrete makes it very beneficial it improves the property
of the concrete which is more than the conventional concrete. Bacteria repair
the cracks in concrete by producing the calcium carbonate crystal which block
the cracks and repair it.
• self-healing efficiency of bacteria-based healing agent sand types of
encapsulation materials currently present for bacteria. Based on the previous
studies, the most common approaches to encapsulate bacteria are polymers
and lightweight aggregates. The study has also identified that the maximum
crack width healed is around 1.8mm by encapsulation in diatomaceous earth.
• Furthermore, lightweight aggregates and nano materials have a positive effect
on the mechanical properties of the concrete in contrast to other
encapsulation materials.
• The common characteristic of bacteria-based healing agents was the recovery
of durability properties like the decrease in water absorption and increased
resistance to chloride permeability. The recovery of mechanical properties was
the most common micro structural adopted by the majority of the researchers,
followed by durability and quantification of precipitated crystals.
• This study provides the insight for a new biotechnological method based
on calcite precipitation for improving the strength of structural concrete.
It is clear that mineral precipitation has the potential to enhance the
resistance of construction material towards the process of degradation. The
consequences of this research provides a significant contribution towards
the under- standing of the effects of bacteria on the performance of
structural concrete mix.

Page | 101
 • One of the important properties of concrete is “tensile strength” as structural
loads make concrete vulnerable to tensile cracking. Tensile strength of
concrete is much lower than its compressive strength. It has been estimated
that tensile strength of concrete equals roughly about 10% of compressive
strength.

• Autonomous healing is efficient in crack healing (300 µm to 1 mm), but the

initial cost is still a matter. Autogenous healing is a free method but requires
time and is highly dependent on the surrounding environment. On the other
hand, the initial cost for Improved-autogenous healing is not considerable
compared to autonomous healing, plus it performs in a reasonable time and
heals crack up to 100-150 Mm (Good results for ECC).

• The development of calcium carbonate crystal Decreases the water

permeability by decreasing the width of cracks from 0.5 mm to 0.35 mm.
Compressive strength was increases by 30.76% in 3 days, 46.15% in 7 days
and 32.21% in 28 days and in mathematical modal it was found that the
bacterial concrete shows the better value of stress and strain as compared to
controlled concrete for the high strength grade of concrete.

5.2 Suggestions for Further Research:

• Powder compression allows the development of particles with healing

agents composed almost entirely of ingredients that can be used for
healing. This type of healing agent, therefore, needs much less volumetric
healing agent than light porous particles, which is highly advantageous
because a pore particle-based healing agent does not reduce concrete
strength .

• The importance of this work is to introduce the urea positive bacteria (the
bacteria which can precipitate calcium carbonate) such as Bacillus subtilis,
bacillus pasterui, bacillus megaterium and to understand the healing procedure
of cracks in concrete by them.

Page | 102
• The study reviewed about different types of bacteria that can be used for
remedying cracks in concrete.
• The study has also showed that there is enhancement of compressive strength
of concrete.
• It also showed that use of such bacteria has positive effect on water absorption
and water permeability in concrete.
• The present study represent that using self-healing-concrete can be a
competent alternative and high quality concrete sealant which is eco-friendly.
• The crack treatment of concrete structures is a research hotspot and has
caused long-term problems for the development of the engineering
community. At present, the research on self-healing concrete technology at
home and abroad has been carried out in a variety of ways, and good
progress has been made in different research directions, but most of the
research is in a state of theoretical feasibility and laboratory feasibility.
There are few proposals for projects that can make use of a large amount of
self-healing concrete. Many key issues need to be addressed, such as the
compatibility of new materials with concrete matrices, the optimal choice of
materials to be incorporated, and the optimal choice of blending amounts,
long-term work stability of repair materials, reliability of multiple repairs
and inspection standards for repair effects. At the same time due to other
non-uniformity and randomness of cracks in the concrete matrix, it is
difficult to determine the actual repair effect in the experiment.
• Although many key technologies are still in the state of research, in the
general trend of green buildings and green materials, self-healing concrete
technology has great potential, which can save the high cost of artificial
repair, improve the service life of concrete materials and further ensure the
safety and durability of the building. The technology from the self-healing
concrete will be an important part of intelligent buildings and green
buildings in the future.
• A characteristic of these powders is water solubility, which facilitates
matrix cracking and water absorption, dispersing the healing agent in crack
volume. These scalable particles are consisting almost entirely of active
ingredients produced by roller compacting the healing agent to thin wafers

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 by applying heat, then milling these wafers into powders that are sieved to
obtain a sand-size range (0.5-1 mm).
• In addition to the following procedure, a freeze-drying method is adopted to
eliminate the obtained powder viscosity. IN the encapsulation process, the
active ingredients include bacterial spores (bacteria-Bacillus Cohnii),
nutrients (yeast extract), and carbon substrates.

Page | 104
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