CrimSoc1 Module 1

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF PUBLIC SAFETY
SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE I
In
CRIM 1: Introduction to Criminology
Prepared by:
TESSIE B. NANGLIHAN
Instructor
(09755270586)
VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

DIFFUN CAMPUS
Module 1 CRIM SOC 1: Introduction to Criminology

Competencie  Determine the importance and purpose of studying criminology.
s  Know the different allied sciences in the study of crimes.
 Know the classification of crimes and criminals.
 Determine the different approaches in the study of crime.
 Know the different theories of crime causation.
Discussion
Criminology is the scientific study of criminals, criminal behavior and its causes. Criminologist
attempt to build theories that explain why crimes occur and test those theories by observing
behavior. Criminological theories help shape society’s response to crime both in terms of
preventing criminal behavior and/or responding to it after it occurs.
DEVELOPMENT OF CRIMINOLOGY
The discipline of criminology has evolved in three phases, beginning of the 18 th century.
Although crime and criminals have been around for as long as the societies have existed, the
systematic study of these phenomena did not begin until the late 1700s. Prior to that time,
most explanations of the crime equated with sin- the violation of a sacred obligation.
The first phase involved when scholars first distinguished crime from sin, they made
possible explanations of criminal behavior that were not theological (religious). This, in turn,
allowed the dispassionate, scientific study of why crime occurs. The development of this study
is now known as the era of classical criminology.
The second phases, which began in the 19 th century, is referred to as the modern
criminology. During this era, criminology distinguished itself as a subspecialty within the
societies and founded criminology journals. Criminologist conducted empirical test
(observations and experiments) of their theories, rather than relying solely on speculation, and
consequently developed a wide range of theories.
The third phase, beginning in the second half of 20th century, may best be called as
independent criminology. During this period, criminology began to assert its independence from
the traditional disciplines that spawned it. In Western Europe, the United States, and Canada,
criminologist expanded their professional associations and published an increasing number of
journals. A number of universities developed graduate programs in criminology. Criminological
independent criminologist seeks to understand crime itself rather than study crime as one
aspect of an overall sociological or psychological theory.
THE GOALS OF CRIMINOLOGY

The classical criminologist of the 18 th century was primarily concerned with the ending
brutality and inequality against criminals by enforcing limitations on government power. They
believe that criminal behavior was the product of the offender’s rational choice, and that crime
could be prevented through the speedy and certain application of penalties that attached
painful and unattractive consequences to such behavior.
Beginning in the era of modern criminology, the emphasis of the discipline shifted.
Criminologist sought to develop theories to explain why crime occurred. They no longer relied
as strongly on explanations of crime based on the offender’s rational choice.
Contemporary scholars believed that criminal motivation is the product of one or more of
complex set of factors. These factors are so numerous and so varied that no system of
classification can describe the current theories of crime causation with complete accuracy.
However, broadly speaking, these theories may be considered in one of the following three
categories: (1) theories attributing criminal behavior to biological or congenital (inherited)
defects of the offender, (2) theories relating crime to psychological factors or mental disorders,
and (3) theories relating crime to environment or social factors. Many criminologists have
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suggested theories of multiple causation involving factors from more than one of these
categories.
IMPORTANT AREAS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. The development of criminal law and in defining crime.

2. The cause of law violation; and
3. Methods used in controlling criminal behavior.
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT OF CRIMINOLOGY

In studying criminology, there are three important components namely:
1. Criminal Etiology
Criminal Etiology involved the application of scientific analysis of the causes of
crime. An individual perpetrating a crime had no single reason; hence, there is no single
and only explanation of causes of crimes. A different theory has evolved in studying the
causes of crime such as Biological, sociological and psychological theories.
2. Sociology of Law
Sociology of law entails the importance of law or the criminal law as a process of
formal social control. Criminal law seeks to protect the public from harm by inflicting
punishment upon those who are tempted to do harm. Thus, criminal law often strives to
avoid harm by forbidding conduct that may lead to harmful results.
3. Penology
Penology, the study of criminal punishment, is a sub-field of criminology.
Criminologists theorize about why people commit crimes and deviate from society’s
norms of behavior. They also study how society punishes criminals because different
method of punishment may cause people to alter their behavior in different ways. Thus,
criminologist devise theories that not only to explain the causes of crime but also
address its prevention, control and treatment.
Today, one of the concerns in criminology is the detection and investigation of

crime. Criminologists are also engaged in studying the criminal things. Forensic science,
sometimes referred to as Criminalistics, is therefore covered in the broad field of
criminology.
IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING CRIMINOLOGY

Studying crime is very important, not only to criminologists. Criminologists and non-
criminologist study crime because of various reasons. If we generalize these, they fall on any of
these reasons:
1. Criminology can be a source of philosophy of life. The knowledge derived from studying
crime is a good foundation for an individual’s philosophy and lifestyle.
2. Criminology is a profession not only for social service but for legal practice as well.
3. People, study criminology because criminals are legitimate object of interest. They
should be understood in order to know how to control them.
4. Authorities should know a bit of criminology because crime is very expensive problem of
the society. The value of property lost, medical expenses, and insurance, moving costs,
and intangible costs of pain and suffering is too high as a result of victimization.
PURPOSES OF STUDYING CRIMINOLOGY

Studying criminology is aimed towards the following:
1. The primary aim is to prevent the crime problem.
2. To understand crimes and criminals this is basic to knowing the actions to be done to
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prevent them.
3. To prepare for a career in law enforcement and scientific crime detection.
4. To develop an understanding of the constitutional guarantees and due process of law in
the administration of justice.
5. To foster a higher concept of citizenry and leadership together with an understanding of
one moral and legal responsibilities to his fellowmen, his community and the nation.
In reality, there are many and varied purpose of studying criminology. However, all these
purposes fall on either of the two (2) primary aims of studying criminology.
SCOPE OF CRIMINOLOGY
In 1889, an anthropologist named Paul Topinard, introduces the term criminology in the
English language. He derived the word from the Latin word crimen which means offense and
locus which is to study.
According to Prof. Cirilo Tradio, Criminology is a body of knowledge regarding crimes as a
social phenomenon. The scope of criminology covers:
1. The making of laws,
2. The breaking of laws, and
3. The reactions towards the breaking of the laws
NATURE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology is the study of crime and its various aspects. According to Edwin
Sutherland, it is the science regarding crime and delinquency as a special phenomenon. This is
the field that addresses the issue of crime and criminal behavior in the attempt to define,
explain and predict it.
Understanding crime is a complicated matter just like other social broad sciences. It
requires therefore a systematic and balances knowledge in the examination of why crime exists.
In this sense, criminology is:
1. Applied science- anthropology, psychology, sociology and other natural sciences may be
applied in the study of the causes of crime while chemistry, medicine, physics,
mathematics, etc. may be utilized in crime detection.
2. A social science- in as much as crime is a creation of the society and that it exists in a
society, its study must be considered a part of social science.
3. Dynamic- criminology changes as social condition changes. That means the progress of
criminology is concordant with the advancement of other sciences that has been applied
to it.
4. Nationalistic- the study of crime must always conform with the existing criminal law of
the land.
Criminology is a multidisciplinary study of crimes. This means that many disciplines are
involved in the collection of knowledge about criminal action, including psychology, sociology,
anthropology, biology, neurology, political science and economics. But over the years, study of
crime has been dominated by:
1. Sociology (sociological criminology) - this is the study if crime focused on the group of
people and society as a whole. It is primarily based on the examination of the
relationship of demographic and group of variables to crime. Variables such as
socioeconomic status, interpersonal relationship to the environmental factors that are
most conducive to criminal action such as time, place and circumstances surrounding
the crime.
2. Psychology (Psychological Criminology) –this is the science of behavior and mental
processes of the criminal. It is focused on the individual criminal behavior-how it is
acquired, evoked, maintained and modified.
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3. Psychiatry (Psychiatric Criminology) –this is the science that deals with the study of
criminal behavior in terms of motives and drives, better known today as forensic
psychiatry.
CRIME
In the legal point of view, it refers to any violation or infraction of the existing policies,
laws, rules and regulations of the society.
Crime is an anti-social act; act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms of
society.
Crime also refers to offense, felony and delinquency or misdemeanor.
Offense is an act or omission that is punishable by special laws ( a special law is a statute
enacted by Congress, penal in character, which is not an amendment to the Revised Penal
Code) such as RA’s, PD’s, E.O.’s, Memorandum Circulars, Ordinances and Rules and
Regulations.
Felony is an act or omission that is punishable by the Revised Penal Code, Criminal Law of the
Philippines.
Delinquency/Misdemeanor are acts that are in violation of simple rules and regulations
usually referring to acts committed by minor offenders.
Criminology is a serious problem. This may be explained by the following

characteristics of crime:
1. It does not respect age, sex, culture, customs and tradition, race, and religion of the
society.
2. Crime is a worldwide phenomenon.
3. It occurs in all the existing economic strata.
4. Its causes are multifarious.
5. It is difficult to eradicate.
People cannot avoid offending others. Some offensive actions are considered abnormal
behavior while some are classified as crime. What therefore is the requirement before an
act is considered a crime? The following is the “Differentiae of Crime”
1. An act maybe called a crime if there is a certain external consequence or harm.

Physical injury is the most obvious external consequence of an offensive action.
2. The harm must be legally forbidden and prescribed action.
3. There must be a conduct; that is, there must be an intentional or reckless action that
results to harmful consequence.
4. “Mens rea” must be present.
5. There must be a fusion or concurrence or mens rea and conduct.
6. There must be a causal relationship between the legally forbidden harm and the
voluntary misconduct.
7. There must be legally prescribed punishment of the misconduct.
CLOSE EXAMINATION OF CRIME
1. Before saying that a crime has been committed, you must have a “personal knowledge”
of its actual commission or that you must have caught the offender “inflagrante delicto”.
2. An act can only be called a crime if there is a law that defines it, prohibits its
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commission, and provides for punishment for its commission.

3. In a criminal act, there should be malicious intent- a harmful consequence is an
inherent result.
4. There should be a continuity of the criminal act before the offender is criminally charged.
RELATIVITY OF CRIME
What are the changing concepts of crime and criminal laws?
1. Most of the existing laws define acts as crimes when some acts were not crimes a few
years ago.
2. Laws differ from one jurisdiction to another and so with acts, which are considered as
crimes.
3. Interpretation and implementation of laws vary in terms of:
a. Characteristics of crime
b. Age
c. Status of offender
d. Status of enforce
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES

1. As to atrocity- severity/gravity of the criminal act or offense
a. Grave offense-punished by capital/afflictive penalty
b. Less grave offense-correctional penalty
c. Minor/light offense- light penalty
2. As to intent
a. Crime mala in se- acts which are evil in themselves
b. Crime mala prohibita- acts which are prohibited because the law has defined it to be
a crime.
3. As to motive
a. Economic crimes
b. Sexual crimes
c. Political crimes
d. Miscellaneous crimes
4. As to statistical purposes
a. Crimes against property
b. Crimes against persons
c. Crimes against morals
d. Crimes against public orders
e. Crimes against security
f. Crimes against chastity
5. As to penalty
a. Crime punishable by afflictive penalty
b. Crimes punishable by correctional penalty
c. Crimes punishable by light penalty
CRIMINOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF CRIME

Crimes are classified in order to focus a better understanding on their existence.
Criminologists consider the following as criminological classification of crimes.
1. Acquisitive crime- when the offender acquires something as a consequence of his
criminal act.
2. Extinctive crime- when the result of the criminal act is destruction.
3. Seasonal crime- committed only at a certain period of the year.
4. Situational crime-committed only when given a situation conducive to its commission.
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5. Episodal/serial crime- committed by series of acts within a lengthy period of time.

6. Instant crime- committed the shortest possible time
7. Static crime- committed only in one place
8. Continuing crime- committed in several places
9. Rational crime- committed with intent, offender is in full possession of his mental
faculties
10.Irrational crime- committed without intent, offender does not know the nature of his
act.
11.White collar crime- committed by person of responsibility in the course of his
occupation
12.Blue collar crime- committed by ordinary professional to maintain their livelihood
13.Upper world crime- committed by individual belonging to the upper class of society
14.Underworld crime- committed by the members of the lower or the under-privilege class
of society
15.Crime by imitation- “copycat crime”, committed by mere duplication of what was done
by others
16.Crime by passion- committed because of the fit of emotion, such as anger
17.Occupational (service related) crime- committed by rendering all service class of
society.
OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES

1. Traditional crimes- crimes that is committed every now and then.
2. Poverty crimes - Crimes due to changing society (social change).
3. Emergency crime- crime that is committed to take advantage of an abnormal situation,
or the nature of a social problem, or the vulnerability of a parson or group of persons.
HOW ARE CRIMES COMMITTED UNDER THE RPC?

Crimes are committed by means of:
1. Dolo- deceit
2. Culpa- fault, negligence, lack of foresight or lack of skill
WHAT IS A VICTIMLESS CRIME?

Victimless crime refers to acts committed by consenting adult in private. In victimless
crimes, the acts involve only the participants and do not directly harm others.
WHAT ARE INDEX CRIMES?

Index crimes are violent crimes. Criminal acts that involve threats or actual physical
harm to a victim by an offender. It presents not only offenses that we recognize as violent or
other acts involving force and intimidation but not also “violent crimes” that are commonly
considered as “social crimes” such as domestic crimes, child abuse, elder abuse, etc.
WHO IS A CRIMINAL?
On the basis of the definition of crime, a criminal may be defined in three ways:
1. A criminal is a person who has committed a crime and has been convicted of final
judgment by a competent court. (Legal definition).
2. A criminal is a person who violated a social norm or one who acted an anti-social act.
(Sociological definition).
3. A criminal is one who violated rules of conduct due to behavioral maladjustment.
(Psychological definition).
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CLASSIFICATIONS OF CRIMINALS
A. Based on Etiology
a. Acute criminal- one who violates a criminal law by impulse or due fit of passion.
b. Chronic criminal- one who acted with deliberation or premeditation, one who
plans the crime ahead of time.
B. Based on Behavioral System
a. Ordinary criminal-considered as the lowest mammal in the criminal profession,
he was forced by opportunity, pushed to commit crime.
b. Professional criminal- one who is engaged in criminal activities with high degree
of skill, he uses crime to maintain his living.
C. Based on Mental Attitude
a. Active criminal- one who commit crime due to aggressiveness
b. Passive criminal- one who commits crime because they are force by a reward or
promise
c. Socialized delinquent- individual with defective socialization process or
development thus he lacks proper moral values or ethical standards
D. Other Classification of Criminal
a. Accidental criminal- one who commits crime when the situation is conducive
b. Habitual criminal- one who consciously develop the habit of committing crime
due to lack of self-control
WHAT IS CRIMINAL BAHAVIOR?

Criminal behavior is an intentional behavior that violates the criminal law. Criminal
behavior, therefore, is beyond the normal behavior since it is used to describe conducts or
actions that do not belong to the standard behavior of man.
GENERAL APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF CRIME

There are numerous theories that must be considered in studying he causes of crime.
There is a need, therefore, to categorize or group these theories for the purpose of more
systematic and simplified discussion. The three general groups of criminological approaches
are: subjective, objective, and contemporary approaches.
SUBJECTIVE APPROACHES
Subjective approaches deal mainly on the biological explanation of crimes. Subjective
explanations are focused on identifying the forms of abnormalities that was experienced by
criminals before, during and after committing the crime. They are the following:
1. Anthropological approach- focused in studying the physical characteristics of offenders
in the attempt to discover physical differences between the criminal and non-criminals.
(Earnest Hooton’s theory)
2. Medical Approach- the application of medical examinations of offenders in order to
explain the mental and physical condition of the individual prior and after committing a
crime. (Positivist theory)
3. Biological Approach- the evaluation of genetics in explaining criminal behavior under
this approach, heredity is the main factor that pushes people to commit crimes.
(Positivist theory).
4. Physiological Approach- focused on the study of the nature of human beings-how they
satisfy their physical needs. This approach explains that the cause of crimes is the
deprivation of the physical body from the basic needs of life. (Maslow’s theory)
5. Psychological Approach- explains the development of criminal behavior is caused by
deprivation from the psychological needs of man. (theories of Freud and Maslow)
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6. Psychiatric Approach- cause of criminal behavior, according to this approach, is mental

disease as diagnosed by a trained authorized person. (Positivist theory)
7. Psychoanalytical Approach- explanation of crime based on the Freudian theory- this
theory states that criminal behavior is caused by repression of the basic drives. (Freud’s
theory)
OBJECTIVE APPROACHES
These approaches deal on the study of groups, social processes and instructions as
factors that influence the human behavior. They are primarily derived from social sciences.
1. Geographic Approach- topography, natural resources, geographical location, and
climate are factors that lead a person to commit crime. (Adolph Quetelet theory)
2. Ecological approach- the biotic grouping of men resulting to migration, competition,
social discrimination, division of labor, and social conflict are factors that cause crime.
(Ezra Park’s Theory)
3. Economic Approach- financial insecurity and inadequacy of the necessities to support
life are important factors to criminality. (Robert King Merton’s Theory)
4. Socio-Cultural Approach- causes of crimes can be traced from the effects of
institutions, economics, education, politics, and religion to the people. (Albert Cohen’s
Theory)
Criminologist today put emphasis on scientific explanation of crime and criminal behavior.
Contemporary approaches are focused on the psychoanalytical, psychiatric, and sociological
explanations of crime in an integrated theory. Integrated theory is an explanatory statement
that combines ideas or concerts from different sources.
Demonology is the study of demons or beliefs about demons. They may be human, or
nonhuman, separable souls, or discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body.
THEORIES OF CRIME
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Theory of crime Advocator/s Concept/s

Demonological __________________ -Individuals were thought to be possessed
theory by good or evil spirits, which caused good
or evil result.
Neo-Classical Gabriel Tarde -Children and lunatics cannot calculate
theory pain and pleasure, therefore, must be
exempted from criminal liability.
-Neoclassical theories of crime assert that
deterring, reducing or eliminating crime
can occur through stricter child-rearing
practices, enhanced punishments, and/or
an increase in surveillance and security.
Published the book “Penal Philosophy”. A
French sociologist and founder of the
neoclassical criminology school.
Classical Theory Cesare Beccaria and -Utilitarian hedonism which explains that
Jeremy Bentham a person always acts in such a way as to
seek pleasure and avoid pain. (Bentham)
-Men are rational being who has the
freewill to choose between good or evil.
(Beccaria)
-the rational choice perspective assumes
that all human beings have free will, they
know all of their choice options, and will
make choices that maximize pleasure and
minimizing pain.
Positivist Theory Raffaele Garofalo, Criminals are like sick people who
Enrico Ferri and requires rehabilitation rather than the
Cesare Lombroso (the imposition of punishment
holy 3 of criminology) -Let the punishment fit the crime.
Anomie Theory David Emile Durkheim -Crime is an important ingredient to all
healthy societies.
-crime is normal and functional
Psychoanalytical Sigmund Freud. -Crime is a symbolic expression of one’s
Theory inner tension which a person has but fails
to control.
Somatotyping William Sheldon -Heredity is the primary determinant of
Theory one’s behavior and
-Body physique is a reliable indicator of
one’s personality.
Differential Edwin Sutherland -Criminal behavior is learned through
Association theory (most important social interaction in the process of
Criminologist in the communication.
21st century, the dean
of modern criminology)
Strain Theory Robert King Merton -It maintains that the failure of man to
achieved a higher status of life caused
them to commit crime in order for that
status or goal to be attained.
Cartographic Adolphe Quetelet -Crimes against person increase during
School of summer and crimes against property
Criminology increases during winter.
General Inferiority Earnest Hooton -Criminals are originally inferior and that
Theory crime is the result of the impact of the
environment
Evolution Theory Charles Darwin -Humans, like animals, are parasites.
-Man is an organism having an animalistic
behavior that is dependent on other
animals for survival. Thus, man steals and
VISION kills to live. MISSION
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Howard Becker
Differential “Molding
Lloyd Ohlin Minds, Shaping Future”
-It explains that society leads the lower
Opportunity class to want things and society does
Theory things to people.
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Rubrics for Learning Exemplary Superior Satisfac Needs Improvement

Assessment episodes (5) (4) tory (3) (2)
Learning All tasks were All or nearlyNearly Fewer than half of the
activities done with all tasks all tasks tasks were done; or
outstanding were done were most objectives were
quality; work with high done met but need
exceeds quality with improvement
expectations. accepta
ble
quality
Assignment All tasks were All tasks Tasks Tasks were not
accomplished were were not accomplished;
completely; in accomplish accompl grammar and spelling
depth ed ished are unsatisfactory.
answers; completely; complet
thoroughly clear ely;
grounded on connection vaguely
theories with with related
exemplary theories, to the
grammar and grammar theories;
spelling. and spelling gramma
are r and
superior. spelling
are
accepta
ble.
Assessment All questions There is one Two Three mistakes were
were mistake mistake committed.
answered with committed. s were
perfect score. committ
ed.
Submission Submitted Submitted Submitt Submitted two days
of learning before the on the ed a day or more before the
episodes/req deadline. deadline. after the deadline.
uirements deadline
.
TRANSMUTATION OF SCORE TO GRADE/RATING

Score 20
19- 17 16 15 14 13-12 11 10 9-8 7
18 below
Grade 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.0 3.5 5.0
99 96 93 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 71
below
Grading Written/Performance activities 30% worksheets, exercises, essays,

System narrative, critics, audio/video
recordings
Major Requirements 25% term papers, research papers,
portfolio
Major Exams 45% 3 summative tests
Total 100%
Answer
Reference Tancangco, Danilo L. Theories and Causes of Crimes, 2018.
Tancangco, Danili L. Victimology, 2018.
Asalan, Jamilla Gay L. et.al Introduction to Criminology and Psychology
of Crime, 2012.
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Rao, Digumarti Bhaskara. Criminology, 2012.

Kalalang, Sally S. Introduction to Criminology and Psychology of Crimes,
2011.
Siegel, Larry J. Criminology Theories, Patterns and Typologies 9 th.ed,
2008.
Asalan, Jamilla Gay L. Fundamentals of Criminal Justice System, 2014.
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QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE I

CRIM 1: Introduction to Criminology

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

Module 1 CRIM SOC 1: Introduction to Criminology

THE GOALS OF CRIMINOLOGY

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

IMPORTANT AREAS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRIMINOLOGY

1. The development of criminal law and in defining crime.

PRINCIPAL COMPONENT OF CRIMINOLOGY

Today, one of the concerns in criminology is the detection and investigation of

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING CRIMINOLOGY

PURPOSES OF STUDYING CRIMINOLOGY

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

Criminology is a serious problem. This may be explained by the following

1. An act maybe called a crime if there is a certain external consequence or harm.

CLOSE EXAMINATION OF CRIME

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

commission, and provides for punishment for its commission.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES

CRIMINOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF CRIME

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

5. Episodal/serial crime- committed by series of acts within a lengthy period of time.

OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES

HOW ARE CRIMES COMMITTED UNDER THE RPC?

WHAT IS A VICTIMLESS CRIME?

WHAT ARE INDEX CRIMES?

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

WHAT IS CRIMINAL BAHAVIOR?

GENERAL APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF CRIME

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

6. Psychiatric Approach- cause of criminal behavior, according to this approach, is mental

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

Theory of crime Advocator/s Concept/s

Rubrics for Learning Exemplary Superior Satisfac Needs Improvement

TRANSMUTATION OF SCORE TO GRADE/RATING

Grading Written/Performance activities 30% worksheets, exercises, essays,

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

Rao, Digumarti Bhaskara. Criminology, 2012.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

You might also like