ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
MARIE VONNE OLIVAR VENUS
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● Compared to other organs of the body,
the organs of the endocrine system are
small and unimpressive. Indeed, to collect
1 kg (about 2.2 pounds) of
hormone-producing tissue, you would
need to collect all the endocrine tissue
from eight or nine adults!
● The endocrine organs also lack the
structural or anatomical continuity typical
of most organ systems. Instead, bits and
pieces of endocrine tissue are tucked
away in widely separated regions of the
body. However, functionally the endocrine
organs are very impressive, and when
their role in maintaining body
homeostasis is considered, they are true
giants.
CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
● The key to the incredible power of the
endocrine glands is the hormones they
produce and secrete. Hormones may be
defined as chemical substances, secreted
by cells into the extracellular fluids, that
regulate the metabolic activity of other
cells in the body. Although many different
hormones are produced, nearly all of
them can be classified chemically as either
amino acid-based molecules (including
proteins, peptides, and amines) or
steroids. Steroid hormones (made from
cholesterol) include the sex hormones
made by the gonads (ovaries and testes)
and the hormones produced by the
adrenal cortex. All others are nonsteroidal
amino acid derivatives. If we also consider
the local hormones called prostaglandins,
we must add a third chemical class,
because the prostaglandins are made
from highly active lipids found in the cells'
plasma membranes.
CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
- Hormone: chemical substances
secreted by cell into the
extracellular fluid that regulate the
metabolic activity of other cells in
the body
- Basic Classification of Hormones:
1. Endocrine - passing into the
blood and act on distant
target cells
2. Local - acts locally without
first entering the
bloodstream
3. Paracrine - acts on
neighboring cells
4. Autocrine - act on the same
cell that secreted them
CHEMICAL TYPES OF HORMONES
1. Amino acid-based hormones
a) Proteins
b) Peptides
c) Amines
2. steroid hormones (lipid-soluble)
MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTIONS
● Although the blood-borne hormones
circulate to all the organs of the body, a
given hormone affects only certain tissue
cells or organs, referred to as its target
cells or target organs. In order for a target
cell to respond to a hormone, specific
protein receptors must be present on its
plasma membrane or in its interior, to
which that hormone can attach. Only
 when this binding occurs can the hormone
influence the workings of a cell.
● The term “hormone” comes from a
Greek word meaning "to arouse". In fact,
the body's hormones do just that. They
"arouse" or bring about their effects on
the body's cells primarily by altering
cellular activity — that is, by increasing or
decreasing the rate of a normal, or usual,
metabolic process rather than by
stimulating a new one. The precise
changes that follow hormone binding
depend on the specific hormone and the
target cell type, but typically one or more
of the following occurs:
1. Changes in plasma membrane
permeability or electrical state.
2. Synthesis of proteins or certain
regulatory molecules (such as
enzymes) in the cell.
3. Activation or inactivation of
enzymes.
4. Stimulation of mitosis.
▶ STEROID HORMONES
- Despite the huge variety of
hormones, there are really only
two mechanisms by which
hormones trigger changes in cells.
Steroidal hormones use the
mechanism of "steroid hormone
action”. Being lipid-soluble
molecules, the steroid hormones
can (1) diffuse through the plasma
membranes of their target cells.
Once inside, the steroid hormone
(2) enters the nucleus, and (3)
binds to a specific receptor protein
there. The hormone-receptor
complex then (4) binds to specific
sites on the cell's DNA, (5)
activating certain genes to
transcribe messenger RNA
(mRNA). The mRNA then is (6)
translated in the cytoplasm,
resulting in the synthesis of new
proteins.

MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTIONS

- Target organ/cells: certain tissue or
cells affected by a given hormone.
- Receptors: proteins located at the
plasma membrane of the target
organ/cell where hormones attach.
- Types of hormone action:
1. Steroid hormone action
2. Nonsteroid hormone action

EFFECTS OF HORMONES IN THE TARGETS

CELLS/ORGANS
1. Changes in the plasma membrane
permeability or electrical state
2. Protein synthesis
3. Activation or inactivation of
enzymes
4. Stimulation of mitosis
STEROID HORMONE ACTION
- Process:

Diffusion through the plasma

membrane (lipid soluble) → enters
the nucleus → binds with specific
protein receptor within the nucleus
→ binds to specific sites of the DNA
→ activation of certain genes to
transcribe mRNA → translation of
mRNA in the cytoplasm → protein
synthesis

▶ NONSTEROID HORMONES
- Nonsteroidal hormones — protein
and peptide hormones — are
unable to enter the target cells and
instead bind to receptors situated
on the target cell's plasma NONSTEROID HORMONE ACTION
membrane. In these cases, (1) the - Unable to diffuse through the
hormone binds to the membrane plasma membrane (lipid insoluble).
receptor, (2) setting off a series of - Process:
reactions that activates an
Binds to the plasma membrane
enzyme. The enzyme, in turn, (3)
receptors of the target cell/organ →
catalyzes a reaction that produces activation of enzyme → enzyme
a second messenger molecule (in catalyzes a reaction producing
this case, cyclic AMP) that (4) second messenger molecule (cAMP
oversees additional intracellular G proteins or calcium) → promotion
changes that promote the typical of cellular response to hormones
response of the target cell to the
hormone. As you might guess, CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE
there are a variety of possible
● Now that we've discussed how
second messengers (including G
hormones work, the next question is,
proteins and calcium ions) and
"What prompts the endocrine glands to
many possible target cell
release or not release their hormones"?
responses to the same hormone,
● Negative feedback mechanisms are the
depending on the tissue type
chief means of regulating blood levels of
stimulated.
nearly all hormones. In such systems,
hormone secretion is triggered by some
internal or external stimulus; then rising
hormone levels inhibit further hormone
release (even while promoting responses
 in their target organs). As a result, blood hormone blood levels rising and
levels of many hormones vary only within falling again and again.
a very narrow range.
● The stimuli that activate the endocrine
organs fall into three major categories —
hormonal, humoral, and neural. Although
these three mechanisms typify most
systems that control hormone release,
they by no means explain all of them, and
some endocrine organs respond to many
different stimuli.

REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION

- Negative Feedback Mechanism:
chief regulator of almost all
hormones.
- Types of stimuli activating endocrine
organs:
1. Hormonal
2. Neural
3. Humoral (body fluids)

▶ HORMONAL
- The most common stimulus is a
hormonal stimulus, in which
endocrine organs are prodded into
action by other hormones. For
example, hypothalamic hormones
stimulate the anterior pituitary
gland to secrete its hormones, and
many anterior pituitary hormones
stimulate other endocrine organs
to release their hormones into the
blood. As the hormones produced
by the final target glands increase
in the blood, they "feed back" to
inhibit the release of anterior
pituitary hormones and thus their
own release. Hormone release
promoted by this mechanism
tends to be rhythmic, with
HORMONAL
- Endocrine organs are stimulated by
other hormones.
- Most common stimuli
- Example:
Hypothalamic hormones → anterior
pituitary gland → anterior pituitary
hormones → other endocrine
organs to secrete their hormones
into the blood
▶ HUMORAL
- Changing blood levels of certain
ions and nutrients may also
stimulate hormone release. Such
stimuli are referred to as humoral
stimuli to distinguish them from
hormonal stimuli, which are also
blood-borne chemicals. The term
“humoral” refers to the ancient
use of humor to indicate the
 various body fluids (blood, bile,
and others). For example, the
release of parathyroid hormone
▶ NEURAL
(PTH) by cells of the parathyroid
- In isolated cases, nerve fibers
glands is prompted by decreasing
stimulate hormone release and the
blood calcium levels. Because PTH
target cells are said to respond to
acts by several routes to reverse
neural stimuli. The classic example
that decline, blood Ca2+ levels soon
is sympathetic nervous system
rise, ending the stimulus for PTH
stimulation of the adrenal medulla
release. Other hormones released
to release norepinephrine and
in response to humoral stimuli
epinephrine during periods of
include calcitonin, released by the
stress.
thyroid gland, and insulin,
produced by the pancreas.

NEURAL
- Nerve fibers stimulate target cells
HUMORAL and hormone release.
- Changes in blood levels of certain - Example:
ions and nutrients stimulate
hormone release. Sympathetic nervous system
- Example: stimulation of the adrenal medulla
to release norepinephrine and
Decrease serum Ca → activation of epinephrine during stress
the parathyroid gland to secrete
parathyroid hormones (PTH)
 MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS ● Exocrine glands - release its products at
● The major endocrine organs of the the body surface or into the body cavities
through ducts
body include the pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, thymus
glands, pancreas, and the gonads (ovaries
and testes).
● The hypothalamus, which is part of the
nervous system, is also recognized as a
major endocrine organ because it
produces several hormones. Although the
function of some hormone-producing
glands (the anterior pituitary, thyroid,
adrenals, and parathyroids) is purely
endocrine, the function of others
(pancreas and gonads) is mixed — both
endocrine and exocrine.
● Both types of glands are formed from
epithelial tissue, but the endocrine glands
are ductless glands that produce
hormones that they release into the blood
or lymph (as you might expect, the
endocrine glands have a very rich blood PITUITARY GLAND
supply). Conversely, the exocrine glands ● The pituitary gland is approximately the
release their products at the body's size of a grape. It hangs by a stalk from the
surface or into body cavities through inferior surface of the hypothalamus of
ducts. the brain, where it is snugly surrounded
by the "turk's saddle" of the sphenoid
MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS bone. It has two functional lobes —the
- Includes: anterior pituitary (glandular tissue) and
1. Pituitary gland (hypophysis) the posterior pituitary (nervous tissue).
2. Thyroid gland
3. Parathyroid gland
4. Adrenal glands
5. Pancreas
6. Pineal gland
7. Thymus
8. Gonads (Testes & ovaries)

● Endocrine glands - ductless glands that

produce hormones released into the blood
or lymph
 also endocrine glands, to secrete their
hormones, which in turn exert their
effects on other body organs and tissues.
● All anterior pituitary hormones (1) are
PITUITARY GLAND proteins (or peptides), (2) act through
- Also called “hypophysis” second-messenger systems, and (3) are
- Approximately the size of a walnut regulated by hormonal stimuli and, in
attached at the inferior surface of most cases, negative feedback.
the hypothalamus via infundibulum
and surrounded by the sella turcica
or “turks saddle” of the sphenoid ANTERIOR PITUITARY
bone - Also called “adenohypophysis”
- Lobes of Pituitary glands: - Glandular tissue
1. Anterior pituitary - 75% of the total weight of the gland.
(adenohypophysis) - Derived from hypophyseal Rathke’s
2. Posterior pituitary pouch (outgrowth of ectoderm) in
(neurohypophysis) the roof of the mouth.

TYPES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND

CELLS

1. SOMATOTROPHS
- Human growth hormones (hGH) or
somatotropin
2. THYROTROPHS
- Thyroid stimulating hormones

3. GONADOTROPHS
- Follicle stimulating hormones and
luteinizing hormones

4. LACTOTROPHS
HORMONES OF THE - Prolactin
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
● There are several anterior pituitary 5. CORTICOTROPHS
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone and
hormones that affect many body organs.
melanocyte stimulating hormone
Two of the six anterior pituitary lobe
hormones — growth hormone and
prolactin — exert their major effects on ▶ GROWTH HORMONE
- Growth hormone (GH) is a general
nonendocrine targets. The remaining four
metabolic hormone. However, its
— thyrotropic hormone,
major effects are directed to the
adrenocorticotropic hormone, and the
growth of skeletal muscles and
two gonadotropic hormones — are all
long bones of the body, and thus it
“tropic hormones”. Tropic hormones
plays an important role in
stimulate their target organs, which are
 determining final body size. GH is a
protein-sparing and anabolic
hormone that causes amino acids
to be built into proteins and
stimulates most target cells to
grow in size and divide. At the
same time, it causes fats to be
broken down and used for energy,
and spares glucose, helping to
maintain blood sugar homeostasis.
GROWTH HORMONES (GH)
- Regulates growth of skeletal
muscles and long bones of the body
- Functions:
1. Transform amino acids into
proteins
2. Stimulation of target cells to
grow in size and number
- Pathology:
Pituitary dwarfism → secondary
hyposecretion of growth hormone
during childhood. It is characterized
by fairly normal body proportions
but with a miniature height)
Pituitary gigantism → secondary
hypersecretion of growth hormone
during childhood
Acromegaly → secondary
hypersecretion of growth hormone
after long bone growth
(closure of epiphyseal plates). It is
characterized by enlargement of the
bones of the face
▶ PROLACTIN
- Prolactin (PRL) is a protein
hormone structurally similar to
growth hormone. Its only known
target in humans is the breast
(“pro” — for; “lact” — milk). After
childbirth, it stimulates and
maintains milk production by the
mother's breasts. Its function in
males is not known.
PROLACTIN
- Stimulates and maintains milk
production after childbirth
▶ ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) regulates the endocrine
activity of the cortex portion of the
adrenal gland.
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
- Regulates the cortical portion of the
adrenal gland
▶ THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH), also called “thyrotropic
hormone” (TH), influences the
growth and activity of the thyroid
gland.
THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE
- Also called “thyrotropic hormone”
- Regulates growth and activity of
thyroid gland
▶ GONADOTROPIC HORMONE
- The gonadotropic hormones
regulate the hormonal activity of
the gonads (ovaries and testes). In
females, follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) stimulates follicle
development in the ovaries. As the
follicles mature, they produce
estrogen, and eggs are readied for
ovulation. In males, FSH stimulates
 sperm development by the testes.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers
ovulation of an egg from the
female ovary and causes the
ruptured follicle to become a
corpus luteum. It then stimulates
the corpus luteum to produce
progesterone and some estrogen.
In men, LH is also referred to as
“interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone” (ICSH) because it
stimulates testosterone production
by the interstitial cells of the
testes.
cells of the testes
ANTERIOR PITUITARY (SUMMARY)
TROPINS/TROPHIC HORMONES
- Hormones that influence another
endocrine gland
1. Gonadotropin - FSH & LH
2. Thyrotropin - TSH
3. Corticotropin - ACTH
4. Hypophysiotropic hormone
- hypothalamic releasing and
inhibiting hormones
TYPES OF HYPOPHYSIOTROPIC HORMONES

1. HYPOTHALAMIC RELEASING HORMONES

GONADOTROPIC HORMONE
a) Growth hormone releasing
- Regulates hormonal activity of
hormone (GHRH) - human growth
the gonads (ovaries and testes)
hormone
- Sterility: secondary
b) Thyrotropin releasing hormone
hyposecretion of FSH and LH in
(TRH) - thyrotropin and hGH
both males and females
c) Gonadotropin releasing hormone
- Types:
(GnRH) - LH and FSH
d) Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) -
1. FEMALE
prolactin
- FSH: stimulates follicle
e) Corticotropin releasing hormone
development in the ovaries
(CRH) - corticotropin and MSH
maturation of ovaries
production of estrogen
2. HYPOTHALAMIC INHIBITING
preparation of ovaries for
HORMONES
ovulation
a) Growth hormone inhibiting
- LH: triggers ovulation of an egg
hormone (GHIH) or “somatostatin”
from the ovary
- hGH and TSH
Develops ruptured follicle to
b) prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) -
become corpus luteum →
prolactin
stimulation of corpus luteum to
progesterone and estrogen
HORMONES OF THE
2. MALE
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
- FSH: stimulates sperm
development by the testes ● The posterior pituitary is not an
- LH: interstitial cell-stimulating endocrine gland in the strict sense
hormone because it does not make the peptide
Stimulates testosterone hormones it releases. Instead, as
production by the interstitial
mentioned above, it simply acts as a
 storage area for hormones made by
hypothalamic neurons.
● Hormones secreted by posterior
pituitary are:
1. Oxytocin
2. Antidiuretic hormone
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
- Nervous tissue
- Derived ectodermal outgrowth
called “neurohypophyseal bud”
- Contains axons and axon terminals
of neurons from the supraoptic and
paraventricular nuclei of the
hypothalamus
- Pituicytes: associating neuroglia in
the axon terminals of the
hypothalamic neurons
- Not an endocrine gland because it
does not make the hormones it
secretes. Rather, it simply act as
storage area for hormones made by
the hypothalamic neurons
▶ OXYTOCIN
- Oxytocin is released in significant
amounts only during childbirth and
in nursing women. It stimulates
powerful contractions of the
uterine muscle during labor, sexual
relations, and when a woman
breast feeds her baby. It also
causes milk ejection (the letdown
reflex) in a nursing woman. Both
natural and synthetic oxytocic
drugs (Pitocin and others) are used
to induce labor or to hasten labor
that is progressing normally but at
a slow pace. Less frequently,
oxytocics are used to stop
postpartum bleeding by causing
constriction of the ruptured blood
vessels at the placental site and to
stimulate the milk ejection reflex.
OXYTOCIN
- Secreted in significant amounts only
during childbirth and in nursing
women
- Functions:
➢ Stimulation of powerful
uterine contraction during
labor and sexual intercourse
➢ Milk ejection during
breastfeeding (letdown
reflex)
▶ ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
- The second hormone released by
the posterior pituitary is
antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
“Diuresis” is urine production.
Thus, an “antidiuretic” is a
chemical that inhibits or prevents
urine production. ADH causes the
kidneys to reabsorb more water
from the forming urine; as a result,
urine volume decreases and blood
volume increases. In large
amounts, ADH also increases blood
pressure by causing constriction of
the arterioles (small arteries). For
this reason, it is sometimes
referred to as vasopressin.
- Drinking alcoholic beverages
inhibits ADH secretion and results
in output of large amounts of
urine. The dry mouth and intense
thirst experienced "the morning
after" reflect this dehydrating
effect of alcohol. Certain drugs,
classed together as diuretics,
antagonize the effects of ADH,
causing water to be flushed from
 the body. These drugs are used to
manage the edema (water
retention in tissues) typical of
congestive heart failure.
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
- Liquors and ADH:
➢ Intake of alcoholic beverages
inhibits ADH secretion
resulting to large urine
output
➢ Responsible for dry mouth
and intense thirst
experienced “the morning
after”
- Functions:
➢ Inhibition or prevention of
urine production (diuresis)
Greater ADH → increase
water reabsorption from the
forming urine in the kidneys
→ decrease urine volume →
increase blood volume
➢ Constriction of the arterioles
leading to increase blood
pressure (this explains its
other name vasopressin)
Hyposecretion of ADH leads
to a condition of excessive
urine output called diabetes
insipidus. People with this
problem are continually
thirsty and drink huge
amounts of water.
DIABETES INSIPIDUS
- Less oxytocin
- Secondary hyposecretion of ADH
leading to polyuria and polydipsia
- Most common abnormality
associated with the dysfunction of
posterior pituitary gland
characterized by hyposecretion of
ADH
- Symptoms:
a) Polyuria - excretion of large
urine volume
b) Polydipsia - frequent thirst
2ndary polyuria
c) Bed wetting - common in
children
d) Dehydration - common
cause of death; secondary
polyuria (loss of water);
death may occur from
deprivation of water for only
a day or so
PITUITARY-HYPOTHALAMUS
RELATIONSHIP
● Despite its insignificant size, the
anterior pituitary gland controls the
activity of so many other endocrine glands
that it has often been called the "master
endocrine gland." Its removal or
destruction has a dramatic effect on the
body. The adrenal and thyroid glands and
gonads atrophy, and results of
hyposecretion by those glands quickly
become obvious. However, the anterior
pituitary is not as all-powerful in its
control as it might appear because the
release of each of its hormones is
controlled by releasing & inhibiting
hormones produced by the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus
liberates these regulatory hormones into
the blood of the portal circulation, which
connects the blood supply of the
hypothalamus with that of the anterior
pituitary.
● The hypothalamus also makes two
additional hormones, oxytocin and
 antidiuretic hormone, which are
transported along the axons of the
hypothalamic neurosecretory cells to the
posterior pituitary for storage. They are
later released into the blood in response
to nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.
PITUITARY-HYPOTHALAMUS
RELATIONSHIP
- Pituitary gland is regulated by the
hypothalamus via hypophysiotropic
hormones (releasing and inhibiting
hormones) released into the blood
of portal circulation
- Portal circulation: network of blood
vessels connecting the blood supply
of the hypothalamus and the blood
supply of anterior pituitary gland
- Circulation:
Hypothalamus → superior
hypophyseal arteries → primary
plexus → hypophyseal portal veins
→ secondary plexus → pituitary
gland
Superior hypophyseal arteries →
branches of internal carotid and
posterior communicating arteries
- Primary plexus: capillary network at
the base of the hypothalamus
formed by the superior hypophyseal
arteries
- Neurosecretory cells: specialized
neurons of the hypothalamus that
secrete releasing and inhibiting
hormones in the primary plexus
- Secondary plexus: capillary network
formed by the hypophyseal portal
veins; serve as direct route that
permit hypothalamic hormones to
act quickly on pituitary gland before
the hormones are diluted or
destroyed in the systemic circulation
THYROID GLAND
● The thyroid gland is a
hormone-producing gland that is familiar
to most people primarily because many
obese individuals blame their overweight
condition on their "glands" (meaning the
thyroid). Actually, the effect of thyroid
hormones on body weight is not as great
as many believe it to be.
● The thyroid gland is located at the base
of the throat, just inferior to the Adam's
apple, where it is easily palpated during a
physical examination. It is a fairly large
gland consisting of two lobes joined by a
central mass, or isthmus. The thyroid
gland makes two hormones, one called
thyroid hormone, the other called
calcitonin. Internally, the thyroid gland is
composed of hollow structures called
follicles, which store a sticky colloidal
material. “Thyroid hormone” is derived
from this colloid.
● Thyroid hormone, often referred to as
the body's “major metabolic hormone”, is
actually two active iodine-containing
hormones, thyroxine (T4), and
triiodothyronine (T4).
1. Thyroxine - is the major hormone
secreted by the thyroid follicles.
2. Triiodothyronine - is formed at the
target tissues by conversion of T4
to T3.
● These two hormones are very much
alike. Each is constructed from two
tyrosine amino acids linked together, but
thyroxine has four bound iodine atoms,
 whereas triiodothyronine has three (thus, and development
T4 and T3). (reproductive and nervous
● Thyroid hormone controls the rate at systems)
which glucose is "burned," or oxidized, 3. Iodine synthesis
and converted to body heat and chemical
energy. Since all body cells depend on a
continuous supply of chemical energy to
power their activities, every cell in the
body is a target. Thyroid hormone is also
important for normal tissue growth and
development, especially in the
reproductive and nervous systems.

THYROID GLAND
- Two lobed gland
- Hormones:
1. Thyroid hormone
2. Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin)
➢ Functions to reduce PATHOLOGY OF THYROID HORMONE
serum Ca by ● Can be divided into
depositing calcium 1. Hypothyroidism
into the bones
2. Hyperthyroidism
➢ Acts as antagonist to
parathyroid
hormones
HYPOTHYROIDISM
THYROID HORMONES ● Hypothyroidism happens when the
- Body’s major metabolic hormone thyroid gland doesn't make enough
- Types: thyroid hormone. This condition also is
1. Triiodothyronine (T3) - called underactive thyroid.
majority of T3 is formed at
Hypothyroidism may not cause noticeable
the target tissues by
conversion of T3 to T4 symptoms in its early stages. Over time,
hypothyroidism that isn't treated can lead
2. Thyroxine (T4) - major to other health problems, such as high
hormone secreted by the cholesterol and heart problems.
thyroid follicles
- Functions: 1. GOITER - enlargement of the thyroid
1. Regulation of the rate of
gland cause by iodine deficiency
glucose breakdown and
conversion of glucose to - PROCESS:
chemical energy and body
heat Low iodine → activation of
2. Aid in normal tissue growth anterior pituitary gland to secrete
TSH → stimulation of the thyroid
 gland to secrete thyroxine →
synthesis of peptide part of
thyroxine (non-functional part of
the molecule secondary lack of
iodine) → absence of negative
feedback mechanism → failure to
inhibit anterior pituitary gland →
hyperactivity of the thyroid gland
→ thyroid gland hypertrophy
2. CRETINISM - secondary lack of TH
stimulation (leading to hyposecretion of
thyroxine during childhood)
- SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
1. Dwarfism - adult body
proportions remain
childlike head and trunk are
1 ½ times the length of the
legs rather the
approximately the same
length, as in normal adults
2. Scanty hair
3. Dry skin
4. Mental retardation
3. MYXEDEMA - hypothyroidism in adult
(female > male)
- SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
1. Edema (hallmark)
2. Fatigue
3. Poor muscle tone
4. Physical and mental
sluggishness
5. Hypothermia
6. Dry skin
7. Obesity
HYPERTHYROIDISM
● Hyperthyroidism generally results from
a tumor of the thyroid gland. Extreme
overproduction of thyroxine results in a
high basal metabolic rate, intolerance of
heat, rapid heart beat, weight loss,
nervous and agitated behavior, and a
general inability to relax.
1. GRAVES DISEASE - autoimmune
disorder, which is the most common form
of hyperthyroidism.
- MECHANISM:
Production of antibodies (thyroid
stimulating immunoglobulins or
TSIs) → TSIs mimic the action of
TSH but are not regulated by the
normal negative feedback controls
→ continuous stimulation of the
thyroid gland to secrete thyroid
hormones → thyroid gland
hypertrophy
- SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
1. Exophthalmos
2. Goiter
3. Heat intolerance
4. Diaphoresis
5. Weight loss despite good
appetite
6. Insomnia
7. Tremor of extended finger
8. Nervousness
PARATHYROID GLAND
● The parathyroid glands are tiny masses
of glandular tissue found on the posterior
surface of the thyroid gland. Typically,
there are two glands on each thyroid lobe;
 that is, a total of four, but as many as eight - Also stimulates kidneys and
have been reported, and some may be in intestines to absorb more calcium
other regions of the neck. (from forming urine and foodstuffs)
- Hypercalcemic hormone acts to
increase serum Ca

▶ PARATHYROID HORMONE
- The parathyroids secrete - MECHANISM:
parathyroid hormone (PTH), or
“parathormone”, which is the most Low serum Ca → parathyroid gland
secretes PTH → activation of osteoclast
important regulator of calcium
→ breakdown of bone matrix →
ions (Ca2+) homeostasis of the release of Ca into the blood → increase
blood. When blood calcium levels serum Ca BTN
drop below a certain level, the
parathyroids release PTH, which PATHOLOGY OF PARATHYROID HORMONE
stimulates bone destruction cells
1. TETANY
(osteoclasts) to break down bone
- Fatal condition of secondary
matrix and release calcium into the
hypocalcemia
blood. Thus, PTH is a - PROCESS:
hypercalcemic hormone (that is, it
acts to increase blood levels of Hypocalcemia → extreme irritability
calcium), whereas calcitonin is a and overactivity of neurons → increase
hypocalcemic hormone. The muscular stimulation → muscle spasm
negative feedback interaction
2. HYPERPARATHYROIDISM
happens between these two - Causes massive bone destruction
hormones as they control blood
calcium level. Although the
HORMONAL CONTROLS OF IONIC
skeleton is the major PTH target,
CALCIUM LEVELS IN THE BLOOD
PTH also stimulates the kidneys
and intestine to absorb more
calcium (from forming urine and
foodstuffs, respectively).

PARATHYROID GLAND
- Tiny masses located at the posterior
surface of the thyroid gland
- Two glands on each thyroid gland
- Hormone:

1. PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)

- Most important calcium regulator in
the blood
 ● The adrenal cortex produces three
major groups of steroid hormones
collectively called “corticosteroids” —
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and
sex hormones.

ADRENAL GLANDS
▶ MINERALOCORTICOIDS
● The two bean-shaped adrenal glands
curve over the top of the kidneys.
Although the adrenal gland looks like a
single organ, it is structurally and
functionally two endocrine organs in one.
Much like the pituitary gland, it has
glandular tissue (cortex) and neural tissue
(medulla) parts. The central medulla
region is enclosed by the adrenal cortex,
which contains three separate layers of
cells.
ADRENAL GLANDS
- Two bean shaped glands over the
top of the kidneys
- Parts:
1. Adrenal cortex - outer gland
part
2. Adrenal medulla - inner
neural part containing three
separate layers of cells
HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL CORTEX
- The mineralocorticoids, mainly
aldosterone, are produced by the
outermost adrenal cortex cell layer.
As their name suggests, the
mineralocorticoids are important
in regulating the mineral (or salt)
content of the blood, particularly
the concentrations of sodium and
potassium ions. Their target is the
kidney tubules that selectively
reabsorb the minerals or allow
them to be flushed out of the body
in urine.
- When blood levels of aldosterone
rise, the kidney tubule cells reclaim
increasing amounts of sodium ions
and allow potassium ions to go out
in urine.
- When sodium is reabsorbed, water
follows. Thus, the
mineralocorticoids help regulate
both water and electrolyte balance
in body fluids. The release of
aldosterone is stimulated by
humoral factors such as (1) fewer
sodium ions or (2) more potassium
ions in the blood (and by ACTH to a
lesser degree).
- Renin, an enzyme produced by the
kidneys when blood pressure
drops, also causes the release of
aldosterone by triggering a series
of reactions that result in
 formation of angiotensin II, a
potent stimulator of aldosterone
release. A hormone released by
the heart, atrial natriuretic
peptide, prevents aldosterone
release, its goal being to reduce
blood volume and blood pressure.
MINERALOCORTICOIDS
- Functions:
1. Regulation of the mineral
content of the blood (sodium
and potassium) by absorbing
sodium into the blood excreting
potassium in the urine
2. Regulation of water balances in
the body (water follows when
sodium is reabsorbed)
ENZYMES REGULATING ALDOSTERONE
SECRETION
1. RENIN (RAAS system)
- Enzyme secreted by the kidneys
activating secretion of aldosterone
during hypotension
Low BP → secretion of renin into the
bloodstream → circulation of renin
throughout the entire bloodstream →
reaction of renin with angiotensinogen
in the blood → angiotensin 1 formation
→ reaction of angiotensin 1 with
converting enzyme in the endothelium
of the lung blood
Vessels → angiotensin 2 formation →
stimulates adrenal
glands to secrete aldosterone → Na
reabsorption in the
kidney tubules → water reabsorption in
the kidney
tubules → increase Na and H2O in the
ECF → increase ECF volume → blood
volume → increase BP BTN
2. ATRIAL NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE
- Inhibits aldosterone secretion to reduce
blood volume and blood pressure
▶ GLUCOCORTICOIDS
- The middle cortical layer produces
glucocorticoids, which include
cortisone and cortisol.
Glucocorticoids promote normal
cell metabolism and help the body
to resist long-term stressors,
primarily by increasing blood
glucose levels. When blood levels
of glucocorticoids are high, fats
and even proteins are broken
down by body cells and converted
to glucose, which is released to the
blood. For this reason,
glucocorticoids are said to be
hyperglycemic hormones.
Glucocorticoids also seem to
control the more unpleasant
effects of inflammation by
decreasing edema, and they
reduce pain by inhibiting some
pain-causing molecules called
prostaglandins. Because of their
anti-inflammatory properties,
glucocorticoids are often
prescribed as drugs for patients
with rheumatoid arthritis, to
suppress inflammation.
- Glucocorticoids are released from
the adrenal cortex in response to
rising blood levels of ACTH.
GLUCOCORTICOIDS
- Includes cortisone and cortisol
- Functions:
1. Promotion of normal cell
metabolism
2. Resist long term stressors (by
 increasing serum glucose - SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
levels)
1. Bronze tone of the skin
High glucocorticoids →
breakdown of fats and proteins Low aldosterone → excretion of Na
by body cells into the blood and water from the
(hyperglycemic hormones) body → electrolyte and water
imbalance → skin changes
3. Reduction of inflammation
by reducing edema and

inhibition of prostaglandins
2. Muscle weakness -
(pain-causing molecules).
secondary water and
Prescription of
electrolyte imbalance
glucocorticoids as drugs for
3. Shock - secondary water and
inflammatory cases
electrolyte imbalance
(arthritis)
4. Hypoglycemia - secondary
glucocorticoid deficiency
▶ SEX HORMONES 5. Burnout - decreased ability
- Regardless of one's gender, both to cope with stress
male and female sex hormones 6. Suppression of the immune
system lead to susceptibility
are produced by the adrenal cortex
to infection
throughout life in relatively small
amounts. Although the bulk of the 2. HYPERALDOSTERONISM
sex hormones produced by the - Hyperactivity of the outermost
innermost cortex layer are cortical layer leading to water and
androgens (male sex hormones), sodium retention
some estrogens (female sex - SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
hormones) are also formed.
1. HPN
2. Edema
SEX HORMONES
- Androgen and Estrogen 3. CUSHING’S SYNDROME
- Secreted by the innermost cortical - Hyperactivity of the middle cortical
layer produced throughout life in layer leading
small amounts - to excessive glucocorticoid
- Pathology: production
1. Addison’s disease - SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
2. Hyperaldosteronism
3. Cushing’s syndrome 1. Moon face
4. Masculinization 2. Buffalo hump (lump of fat
on the upper back)
1. ADDISON’S DISEASE 3. HPN
- Generalized hyposecretion of all 4. Hyperglycemia
adrenal cortex hormones 5. Diabetes
 6. Bone weakness (secondary
conversion of bone proteins
into glucose)
7. Severe depression of the
immune system
4. MASCULINIZATION
- Hyperactivity of sex hormones
(regardless of sex)
- More apparent in females
- SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
1. Hirsutism
2. Masculine pattern of the
body hair distribution
3. Low voice production
4. Testicular atrophy
HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL
MEDULLA
● The adrenal medulla, like the posterior
pituitary, develops from a knot of nervous
tissue. When the medulla is stimulated by
sympathetic nervous system neurons, its
cells release two similar hormones,
epinephrine, also called “adrenaline”, and
norepinephrine, into the bloodstream.
Collectively, these hormones are referred
to as “catecholamines”. Since some
sympathetic neurons also release
norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter, the
adrenal medulla is often thought of as a
"misplaced sympathetic nervous system
ganglion."
● When you are (or feel) threatened
physically or emotionally, your
sympathetic nervous system brings about
the "fight-or-flight" response to help you
cope with the stressful situation. One of
the organs it stimulates is the adrenal
medulla, which literally pumps its
hormones into the bloodstream to
enhance and prolong the effects of the
neurotransmitters of the sympathetic
nervous system. Basically, the
catecholamines increase heart rate, blood
pressure, and blood glucose levels and
dilate the small passageways of the lungs.
These events result in more oxygen and
glucose in the blood and a faster
circulation of blood to the body organs
(most importantly, to the brain, muscles,
and heart). Thus, the body is better able
to deal with a short-term stressor,
whether the job at hand is to fight, begin
the inflammatory process, or make you
more alert so you think more clearly.
● The catecholamines of the adrenal
medulla prepare the body to cope with a
brief or short-term stressful situation and
cause the so-called “alarm stage” of the
stress response. Glucocorticoids, by
contrast, are produced by the adrenal
cortex and are more important in helping
the body to cope with prolonged or
continuing stressors, such as dealing with
the death of a family member or having a
major operation. Glucocorticoids operate
primarily during the resistance stage of
the stress response. If they are successful
in protecting the body, the problem will
eventually be resolved without lasting
damage to the body. When the stress
continues on and on, the adrenal cortex
may simply "burn out," which is usually
fatal.
ADRENAL MEDULLA
- Stimulated by the sympathetic
nervous system to secrete
catecholamines into the
 bloodstream
- Hormones: catecholamines
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine
(noradrenaline) - misplaced
sympathetic nervous system
ganglion (because it secretes
NE since some sympathetic
neurons also release NE as a
neurotransmitter)
- Fight or Flight reaction
- Enhance and prolong the effects of
the neurotransmitters of the
sympathetic nervous system
- Effects:
1. Increase HR
2. Increase BP
3. Increase serum glucose level
4. Bronchodilation
The effects cause more oxygen and
glucose in the blood and faster
blood circulation to the body
especially the brain, muscles and
heart.
PANCREATIC ISLETS
● The pancreas, located close to the
stomach in the abdominal cavity, is a
mixed gland. Probably the best-hidden
endocrine glands in the body are the
pancreatic islets, formerly called the
“islets of Langerhans”. These little masses
of hormone-producing tissue are
scattered among the enzyme-producing
tissue of the pancreas. The exocrine
(enzyme-producing) part of the pancreas,
which acts as part of the digestive system.
● Although there are more than a million
islets, separated by exocrine cells, each of
these tiny clumps of cells goes busily
about its business manufacturing its
hormones and working like an organ
within an organ. Two important hormones
produced by the islet cells are insulin and
glucagon. Both help regulate the amount
of sugar (glucose) in the blood, but in
opposite ways (see Figure 9.13). The islets
also produce small amounts of other
hormones.
● High blood glucose levels stimulate the
release of insulin from the beta cells of
the islets. Insulin acts on just about all
body cells and increases their ability to
transport glucose across their plasma
membranes. Once inside the cells, glucose
is oxidized for energy or converted to
glycogen or fat for storage. These
activities are also speeded up by insulin.
Since insulin sweeps the glucose out of
the blood, its effect is said to be
hypoglycemic. As blood glucose levels fall,
the stimulus for insulin release ends —
another classic case of negative feedback
control. Many hormones have
hyperglycemic effects (glucagon,
glucocorticoids, and epinephrine, to name
a few), but insulin is the only hormone
that decreases blood glucose levels.
Insulin is absolutely necessary for the use
of glucose by the body cells. Without it,
essentially no glucose can get into the
cells to be used.
 within the cells
3. Reduces serum glucose
➢ Transportation of
glucose out of the
blood into the cells
(hypoglycemic)
➢ Only hormone that
reduces serum
glucose

2. GLUCAGON
- Hyperglycemic
- Antagonist of insulin secreted by
alpha cells of pancreatic islets
PANCREAS - Function:
- Mixed gland (both endocrine and 1. Promote serum glucose by
exocrine) located close to the stimulating the liver to break
stomach in the abdominal cavity down stored glycogen into
- Pancreatic islets (islets of glucose and to release it into
langerhans) the blood
- Hormones:
1. G – glucagon PATHOLOGY OF INSULIN HORMONE
2. A – alpha
3. B – beta 1. DIABETES MELLITUS
- Common pancreatic abnormality
4. I – Insulin
5. D – delta
- characterized by excessive serum
6. S – somatostatin
glucose 2ndary to decrease insulin
- Cardinal signs:
1. INSULIN
1. Polyuria - excessive urination
- Secreted by beta cells of islets
to flush out glucose and
- Functions:
ketone
1. Increases cellular
2. Polydipsia - excessive thirst
permeability to glucose
resulting from water loss
3. Polyphagia - hunger
insulin → increase
secondary failure of glucose
permeability of cells to
consumption and the loss of
glucose → entrance of
fat and proteins from the
glucose into the cells →
body
oxidation of glucose for
- Failure of glucose consumption of
energy or conversion of
energy – fats and protein
glucose to glycogen or fat for
breakdown for energy production
storage
(to meet the energy requirements of
the body)
2. Facilitation of glucose
- SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
oxidation and conversion
1. Glucosuria - presence of
 glucose in the urine
secondary to inability of the
kidney tubule cells to
reabsorb excessive amounts
of glucose
2. Dehydration - secondary
water excretion
(waterfollows as glucose
flushes from the body)
3. Low resistance to infection -
2ndary loss of proteins
(explains why diabetics must
be careful with hygiene and
management of even small
cuts and bruises)
4. Weight loss - secondary
consumption of fats and
proteins for energy
5. Acidosis
Low insulin → low glucose
breakdown of energy → low
fat breakdown (instead of
sugars/glucose) for energy
→ increase ketones in the
blood (ketones are
intermediate products of fat
breakdown) → high acidity
of blood → death (untreated
cases)
REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS
INVOLVING PANCREATIC HORMONES
PINEAL GLAND
● The pineal gland, also called the “pineal
body”, is a small, cone-shaped gland found
in the roof of the third ventricle of the
brain. The endocrine function of this tiny
gland is still somewhat of a mystery.
Although many chemical substances have
been identified in the pineal gland, only
the hormone melatonin appears to be
secreted in substantial amounts. The
levels of melatonin rise and fall during the
course of the day and night. Peak levels
occur at night and make us drowsy; the
lowest levels occur during daylight around
noon. Melatonin appears to play an
important role in establishing the body's
“day-night cycle”. In some animals,
melatonin also helps regulate mating
behavior and rhythms. In humans, it is
believed to coordinate the hormones of
fertility and to inhibit the reproductive
system (especially the ovaries of females)
so that sexual maturation is prevented
from occurring during childhood, before
adult body size has been reached.
 THYMUS
- Located at the upper thorax,
posterior to the sternum
- Large during infancy and childhood,
but decreases in size throughout
adulthood
- Hormone:

1. THYMOSIN
- Functions in immune system
PINEAL GLAND - Serve as incubator for maturation of
- Small cone shaped gland located at immature WBC (T-lymphocytes)
the roof of the 3rd ventricle of the
brain
- Hormone: GONADS
● The female and male gonads produce
1. MELATONIN sex hormones that are identical to those
- Functions: produced by adrenal cortex cells. The
1. Regulation of sleep-awake
major differences are the source and
cycle — peak levels occurs at
night, which causes relative amounts produced.
drowsiness and lowest level
occurs during daylight
2. Inhibition of reproductive
system — especially ovaries,
which explains prevention of
asexual maturation from
occuring during childhood

THYMUS
HORMONES OF THE OVARIES
● The thymus is located in the upper
● The female gonads, or ovaries, are
thorax, posterior to the sternum. Large in
paired, almond-sized organs located in the
infants and children, it decreases in size
pelvic cavity. Besides producing female sex
throughout adulthood. By old age, it is
cells (ova, or eggs), ovaries produce two
composed mostly of fibrous connective
groups of steroid hormones, estrogens
tissue and fat. The thymus produces a
and progesterone. The ovaries do not
hormone called thymosin, and during
really begin to function until puberty,
childhood the thymus acts as an
when the anterior pituitary gonadotropic
"incubator" for the maturation of a special
hormones stimulate them into activity.
group of white blood cells (T lymphocytes)
This results in the rhythmic ovarian cycles
that are important in the immune
in which ova develop and blood levels of
response.
ovarian hormones rise and fall.
● Ovaries are stimulated to release their
estrogens and progesterone in a cyclic way
by the anterior pituitary gonadotropic
hormones. Hyposecretion of the ovarian
hormones severely hampers the ability of
a woman to conceive and bear children.
OVARIES
- Ovaries: paired almond sized organs
located in the pelvic cavity,
producing ova or eggs
- Non-functional until puberty,
activated by gonadotropic
hormones from the anterior
pituitary gland
- Hormones:
1. Estrogen
2. Progesterone
▶ ESTROGEN
- Estrogens, primarily estrone and
estradiol, produced by the
Graafian follicles of the ovaries,
stimulate the development of the
secondary sex characteristics in
females (primarily growth and
maturation of the reproductive
organs and the appearance of hair
in the pubic and axillary regions).
In addition, the estrogens work
with progesterone to prepare the
uterus to receive a fertilized egg.
This results in cyclic changes in the
uterine lining, which is called the
menstrual cycle.
- Estrogens also help maintain
pregnancy and prepare the breasts
to produce milk (lactation).
However, the placenta and not the
ovaries is the source of the
estrogens at this time.
ESTROGEN
- Estrone and estradiol
- Secreted by Graafian follicles
- Functions:
➢ Stimulation of secondary sex
characteristics in females
(growth & maturation of the
reproductive organs & hair
growth in the pubic and
axillary regions)
➢ Preparation of the uterus in
receiving a fertilized egg
(menstrual cycle)
➢ Maintenance of pregnancy
➢ Prepares breast for lactation
CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH
ESTROGEN DEFICIENCY
1. Osteoporosis
2. Arteriosclerosis
3. Decrease skin elasticity
4. “Hot flushes“ - secondary functional
changes in the sympathetic nervous
system
▶ PROGESTERONE
- Progesterone, as already noted,
acts with estrogen to bring about
the menstrual cycle. During
pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of
the uterus so that an implanted
embryo will not be aborted and
helps prepare breast tissue for
lactation.
- Progesterone is produced by
another glandular structure of the
ovaries, the corpus luteum. The
corpus luteum produces both
estrogen and progesterone, but
progesterone is secreted in larger
amounts.
PROGESTERONE ● In adulthood, testosterone is necessary
- Secreted by corpus luteum for continuous production of sperm. In
- Functions: cases of hyposecretion, the man becomes
➢ Activation and regulation of sterile; such cases are usually treated by
menstrual cycles (acts with testosterone injections. Both the
estrogen) endocrine and exocrine functions of the
➢ Relaxation of muscles of the
testes begin at puberty under the
uterus during pregnancy to
prevent abortion of the influence of the anterior pituitary
implanted embryo gonadotropic hormones. Testosterone
production is specifically stimulated by LH.
MENOPAUSE
- “Change of life“
- Decline of ovarian function TESTES
occurring in the late middle age - Suspended by the scrotum outside
- Manifestations: the pelvic cavity, producing sperm
1. Atrophy of female cells
reproductive organs - Both endocrine and exocrine organ,
2. Cessation of fertility which begins to function at puberty
3. Estrogen deficiency under the influence of the anterior
4. Fatigue pituitary GH
5. Nervousness - Hormones:
6. Mood changes (depression)
1. TESTOSTERONE
- Androgen
HORMONES OF THE TESTES - Secreted by interstitial cells
- Testosterone production is
● The paired oval testes of the male are stimulated by LH
suspended in a sac, the scrotum, outside - Functions:
the pelvic cavity. In addition to male sex ➢ Development of the adult
cells, or sperm, the testes also produce male sex characteristics
male sex hormones, or androgens, of (growth of beard,
development of heavy
which testosterone is the most important.
bones, muscles and lowering
Testosterone, made by the interstitial cells of the voice
of the testes, causes the development of ➢ Promotion of growth and
the adult male sex characteristics. It
promotes the growth and maturation of
maturation of the
the reproductive system organs to prepare reproductive organs
the young man for reproduction. It also ➢ Stimulation of sex drive
causes development of the male's ➢ Continuous sperm
secondary sex characteristics (growth of reproduction (in
the beard, development of heavy bones adulthood)
and muscles, and lowering of the voice) as
well as stimulating the male sex drive.
OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING
 TISSUES AND ORGANS
● Besides the major endocrine organs,
pockets of hormone-producing cells are
found in the walls of the small intestine,
stomach, kidneys, and heart— organs
whose chief functions have little to do
with hormone production. The placenta, a
temporary organ formed during
pregnancy, produces hormones generally
thought of as ovarian hormones (estrogen
and progesterone). Additionally, certain
tumor cells, such as those of some lung
and pancreatic cancers, make hormones
identical to those made in normal
endocrine glands, but in an excessive and
uncontrolled fashion.
PLACENTA
● The placenta is a remarkable organ
formed temporarily in the uterus of
pregnant women. In addition to its roles
as the respiratory, excretory, and
nutrition-delivery systems for the fetus, it
also produces hormones that help to
maintain the pregnancy and pave the way
for delivery of the baby.
● During very early pregnancy, a hormone
called human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG) is produced by the conceptus and
then by the fetal part of the placenta.
Similar to LH (luteinizing hormone), hCG
stimulates the corpus luteum of the ovary
to continue producing estrogen and
progesterone so that the lining of the
uterus is not sloughed off in menses. In
the third month, the placenta assumes the
job of producing estrogen and
progesterone, and the ovaries become
inactive for the rest of the pregnancy. The
high estrogen and progesterone blood
levels maintain the lining of the uterus
(thus, the pregnancy) and prepare the
breasts for producing milk. Human
placental lactogen (hPL) works
cooperatively with estrogen and
progesterone in preparing the breasts for
lactation, and relaxin, another placental
hormone, causes the mother's pelvic
ligaments and the pubic symphysis to
relax and become more flexible, which
eases birth passage.
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT OF
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● The embryonic development of the
endocrine glands varies. The pituitary
gland is derived from epithelium of the
oral cavity and a neural tissue projection
of the hypothalamus. The pineal gland is
entirely composed of neural tissue. Most
of the strictly epithelial glands appear to
develop as little saclike outpocketings of
the epithelial lining of the digestive tract.
These would include the thyroid, thymus,
and pancreas. The formation of the
gonads, adrenal and parathyroid glands is
much more complex.
● Barring outright malfunctions of the
endocrine glands (hypoactivity and
hyperactivity), most endocrine organs
seem to operate smoothly until old age. In
late middle age, the efficiency of the
ovaries begins to decline. This causes the
onset of menopause (commonly called
"change of life"). During this period, a
woman's reproductive organs begin to
atrophy, and the ability to bear children
ends. Problems associated with estrogen
deficiency begin to occur, such as
arteriosclerosis, osteoporosis, decreased
skin elasticity, and changes in the
operation of the sympathetic nervous
system that result in "hot flashes." In
addition, fatigue, nervousness, and mood
changes such as depression are common.
No such dramatic changes seem to
happen in men. In fact, many men remain
fertile throughout their lifespan, indicating
that testosterone is still being produced in
adequate amounts.
● While striking changes occur in aging
women, due to decreasing levels of
female hormones, many other much less
noticeable hormone-related changes
occur in both sexes. The efficiency of the
endocrine system as a whole gradually
declines in old age. There is no question
that growth hormone output by the
anterior pituitary declines, which partially
explains muscle atrophy in old age. Since
the anterior pituitary affects so many
other endocrine glands through its tropic
hormones, it is assumed that its target
organs also become less productive.