Music Notation and Theory

for Intelligent Beginners

By
Yves ISHIMWE

Cover art by
YVES ISHIMWE

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be duplicated in any form without written permission of the author.
This book is from SUPER-ELITE SCHOOL OF MUSIC

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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION TO MUSIC ..................................................................................................................................8
3 types of Music .....................................................................................................................................................8
Other Types of music (Music styles) ......................................................................................................................8
Music Notation .......................................................................................................................................................8
What Are the Main Types of Musical Notation? ...................................................................................................8
Music Staff .............................................................................................................................................................9
Bar Lines and Double Bar Lines ........................................................................................................................9
Measure ................................................................................................................................................................10
Leger Lines ...........................................................................................................................................................10
Music Alphabets ...................................................................................................................................................11
Practice on the Bl an k Staff .............................................................................................................................11
Music clefs ...........................................................................................................................................................13
THE GRAND STAFF ..........................................................................................................................................17
The Main Types of Notes in Music (Duration, Values, shapes of the notes) .......................................................18
Music Note Tree (Or Pyramid) .............................................................................................................................20
Note Stems ...........................................................................................................................................................21
Dotted Notes ........................................................................................................................................................21
TYPES OF THE RESTS ......................................................................................................................................22
8 Types of Rests in Music .................................................................................................................................22
Summary of Different Rest Types and Their Relationships to Each Other..........................................................23
TIME SIGNATURE .........................................................................................................................................25
How to Read 3 Types of Time Signatures .......................................................................................................25
7 Common Time Signatures ..............................................................................................................................25
How time signatures work .............................................................................................................................26
Simple Beat and Meter Type Chart ..................................................................................................................26
Conducting .......................................................................................................................................................27
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................................27
The Movements of Conducting ........................................................................................................................27
Main Elements of the Music .............................................................................................................................29
TO FATHOM THE RHYTHM CLEF .....................................................................................................................................30
Learning Notation: Meter .....................................................................................................................................30
ALL ABOUT ACCIDENTALS IN MUSIC NOTATION ......................................................................................34
Piano accidentals and how to use them! ...................................................................................................................34
Key takeaways ......................................................................................................................................................34
What are accidentals in music? ............................................................................................................................34

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 Other types of accidentals ....................................................................................................................................38
Double sharp.....................................................................................................................................................38
Double flat ........................................................................................................................................................39
Accidentals on a piano keyboard ..........................................................................................................................40
Accidentals in music score ...................................................................................................................................41
Accidentals are always written before the note ................................................................................................41
Accidentals only affect on the current measure (bar) ...........................................................................................42
Accidentals and ties ..............................................................................................................................................42
Courtesy accidentals .............................................................................................................................................42
SIMPLE INTERVALS: half step, whole step ...................................................................................................44
ENHARMONIC EQUIVALENCE ......................................................................................................................45
DOUBLE ACCIDENTALS .................................................................................................................................46
THE MAJOR SCALE ......................................................................................................................................47
How to Read Sheet Music for Beginners .........................................................................................................48
Introduction: How to Read Sheet Music for Beginners........................................................................................48
The Grand Staff ................................................................................................................................................48
The Treble Clef and Notes in the Treble Clef ..................................................................................................48
The Bass Clef and Notes in the Bass Clef ........................................................................................................49
Ledger Lines .....................................................................................................................................................50
The First Ledger Line Note - Middle C ............................................................................................................51
SOLFEGE.........................................................................................................................................................51
Interactive Sight singing ..................................................................................................................................53
INTERVALS ............................................................................................................................................................59
NUMERIC COMPONENT ..................................................................................................................................59
QUALITY COMPONENT ..................................................................................................................................59
MAJOR/MINOR ..................................................................................................................................................60
AUGMENTED/DIMINISHED ............................................................................................................................60
SPELLING INTERVALS ....................................................................................................................................62
MAJOR SCALE CONTEXT ...............................................................................................................................62
INTERVALS IN THE SCALE ............................................................................................................................63
DETERMINING AN INTERVAL I – SCALE BASED METHOD ................................................................65
Step 1: B up to F is five notes, so the interval is some kind of 5th ...................................................................65
DETERMINING AN INTERVAL II – HALF STEP METHOD ....................................................................66
INVERSION.....................................................................................................................................................68
THE INVERSION PATTERN .........................................................................................................................69
COMPOUND INTERVALS ............................................................................................................................70

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 HEARING INTERVALS .................................................................................................................................71
IDENTIFYING INTERVALS IN A PIECE ....................................................................................................73
Characteristics ..................................................................................................................................................73
Harmonic and melodic intervals .......................................................................................................................73
Even and uneven intervals ................................................................................................................................74
Consonant and dissonant intervals ...................................................................................................................74
Intervals are classified as perfect or imperfect. ................................................................................................74
INTERVALS SUMMARY ..............................................................................................................................75
MUSICAL TERMS .....................................................................................................................................................90
Why Italian? .........................................................................................................................................................90
Temp o ....................................................................................................................................................................90
Tempo-related T er ms ........................................................................................................................................90
Dynamics ...............................................................................................................................................................91
Grow Gradually ....................................................................................................................................................91
Articulations ...........................................................................................................................................................91
Ties and Slurs ......................................................................................................................................................92
General Musical T e r m s ....................................................................................................................................93
What is Solfege? .......................................................................................................................................................99
Tonic solfa Definition.........................................................................................................................................100

....................................................................................................................................................101
What Is An Anacrusis In Music?........................................................................................................................105
DEGREES OF THE SCALES ...............................................................................................................................105
What are scale degrees?......................................................................................................................................105
How do you find the scale degree?.....................................................................................................................106
SCALE DEGREE NAMES ..........................................................................................................................................106
The technical names of a scale degrees ..............................................................................................................107
How does solfege scale fit in? ............................................................................................................................108
Why use scale degrees at all? .............................................................................................................................108
Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................................................108
COMPOUND TIME SIGNATURES ....................................................................................................................109
THE TRIPLET ......................................................................................................................................................111
Crotchet (Quarter Note) Triplets ........................................................................................................................112
Mixed Note Value Triplets .................................................................................................................................112
Adding Bar Lines with Triplets ..........................................................................................................................112
Adding Rests with Triplets .................................................................................................................................113
Summary of triplets ............................................................................................................................................114

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SYNCOPATION ..................................................................................................................................................114
The Major Scale .....................................................................................................................................................115
THE MAJOR SCALE EXPLAINED .................................................................................................................115
SEMITONES......................................................................................................................................................115
WHOLE TONES ................................................................................................................................................115
THE MAJOR SCALE EXPLAINED .................................................................................................................116
Play C major scale ..............................................................................................................................................116
PLAYING A MAJOR SCALE...........................................................................................................................116
Play A major scale ..............................................................................................................................................116
The Minor Scales ............................................................................................................................................117
THE MINOR SCALES EXPLAINED ...........................................................................................................117
THE NATURAL MINOR SCALE.................................................................................................................117
THE HARMONIC MINOR SCALE ..............................................................................................................119
THE MELODIC MINOR SCALE .................................................................................................................120
ALL THE MINOR SCALES FOR PIANO ....................................................................................................122
RELATIVE KEYS .................................................................................................................................................123
G major Relative Minor......................................................................................................................................123
HOW TO WORK OUT THE RELATIVE MINOR ..........................................................................................123
HOW TO WORK OUT THE RELATIVE MAJOR ..........................................................................................124
RELATIVE KEYS CHART...............................................................................................................................125
Music Key Signatures.............................................................................................................................................126
Sharp keys, the number and order of sharps .......................................................................................................127
Flat keys, the number and order of flats .............................................................................................................128
The following diagram shows the cycle of keys or circle of fifths (circle of fourths). You will also see the
relative minors. ...................................................................................................................................................128
Understanding music key signatures ..................................................................................................................129
TRIADS..................................................................................................................................................................130
TRIADS IN THE SCALE ..................................................................................................................................130
THE ROMAN NUMERAL SYSTEM ...............................................................................................................132
DIATONIC HARMONIZATION ......................................................................................................................132
MINOR KEY DIATONIC TRIADS ..................................................................................................................133
TRIAD TERMINOLOGY..................................................................................................................................135
TRIADS SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................135
TRIADS: CONTINUITY AND COHESION ....................................................................................................136
7TH CHORDS................................................................................................................................................136
Major, Minor, Dominant, Half Diminished and Diminished..........................................................................137
APPLICATION OF 7TH CHORDS ................................................................................................................138

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 7TH CHORDS SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................139
INVERTING CHORDS .................................................................................................................................139
FIGURED BASS NOTATION ......................................................................................................................141
CADENCES ...........................................................................................................................................................143
TYPES OF CADENCES ....................................................................................................................................143
FINISHED CADENCES ....................................................................................................................................143
UNFINISHED CADENCES ..............................................................................................................................144
SUMMARY OF CADENCES ...............................................................................................................................144
Sequences ...............................................................................................................................................................145
WHAT ARE SEQUENCES IN MUSIC? ..........................................................................................................145
TYPES OF SEQUENCES ..............................................................................................................................145
There are 2 main types of sequence you will come across in music: .................................................................145
EXAMPLES OF MELODIC SEQUENCES ......................................................................................................145
TONAL SEQUENCE .........................................................................................................................................145
REAL SEQUENCE ............................................................................................................................................146
MIXED SEQUENCE .........................................................................................................................................147
EXAMPLES OF HARMONIC SEQUENCES ..............................................................................................147
DESCENDING HARMONIC SEQUENCES ................................................................................................147
DESCENDING CIRCLE-OF-FIFTHS SEQUENCE.....................................................................................147
DESCENDING THIRDS SEQUENCE .........................................................................................................148
MODULATION .....................................................................................................................................................150
BASIC EXAMPLES OF MODULATION ........................................................................................................152
TONAL IMPLICATIONS OF MODULATION ...............................................................................................154
MELODIES AND VOICE LEADING ..............................................................................................................154
CONJUNCT AND DISJUNCT MOTION .........................................................................................................154
VOICE LEADING “RULES” ............................................................................................................................155
VOICE LEADING EXAMPLES .......................................................................................................................156
COMBINING MELODY AND HARMONY ................................................................................................158
CHORD TONES & NON-CHORD TONES .................................................................................................158
Chord Tones ..................................................................................................................................................158
Non-Chord Tones ..........................................................................................................................................158
COMBINING MELODY AND HARMONY – THE PROCESS ..................................................................159
TYPES OF NON-CHORD TONES ...............................................................................................................160
PASSING TONE ............................................................................................................................................160
The Double Passing Tone ...............................................................................................................................161
NEIGHBOR TONE ........................................................................................................................................161

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 Double Neighbor Tone ...................................................................................................................................161
THE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC ...............................................................................................................................163
WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC? ...................................................................................................163
WHY ARE THE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC IMPORTANT? .............................................................................164
40 basic music theory terms you need to know ..................................................................................................164
Musical Modes .......................................................................................................................................................166
The Major Scale: The Basis for Explaining Musical Modes ..............................................................................166
Constructing the Musical Modes ........................................................................................................................167
Interval Sequence ...............................................................................................................................................168
Interval Sequence ...............................................................................................................................................168
Musical Modes' Characteristics ......................................................................................................................169
What you didn’t know in music symbols ...............................................................................................................174
Lines ...................................................................................................................................................................174
Clefs....................................................................................................................................................................175
Rhythmic values of notes and rests ................................................................................................................176
Breaks .................................................................................................................................................................178
Accidentals and key signatures.......................................................................................................................178
Common accidentals ......................................................................................................................................178
Key signatures ................................................................................................................................................179
Microtones ......................................................................................................................................................180
Time signatures ..............................................................................................................................................181
Note relationships ...........................................................................................................................................181
Articulation marks ..............................................................................................................................................184

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 INTRODUCTION TO MUSIC

Music vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) combined in such a way as to produce beauty of form,
harmony, and expression of emotion.

Ni Umwuga woguhuza amajwi kuburyo bunogeye amatwi

3 types of Music

Vocal
Instrumental
Mixed

Other Types of music (Music styles)

Blues Music.
Jazz Music.
Rhythm and Blues Music.
Rock and Roll Music.
Rock Music.
Country Music.
Soul Music.
Dance Music.
Etc…………………………………………….

Music Notation

Music notation or musical notation is any system used to visually

represent aurally perceived music played with instruments or sung by the human voice through the use
of written, printed, or otherwise-produced symbols, including notation for durations of absence of sound
such as rests.

What Are the Main Types of Musical Notation?

Staff Notation
Solfa Notation

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 Music Staff

Music is written on a staff (plural staves) which is five horizontal parallel lines. The five
lines create four spaces between them.

Example 2.1 Blank staff.

Lines and spaces are numbered from bottom to top.

Example 2.2 Staff with lines and spaces numbered.

Bar Lines and Double Bar Lines

To make music easier to read, the staff is divided into sections by vertical lines called
bar lines. There are two types of bar lines. The single bar line is a single thin line from
the top line to the bottom line. Bar lines simply divide up the staff into small sections
which are easier to read. Think of bar lines as punctuation: you don’t hear them, they’re
there to help with the reading.
The double bar line marks the end of a section, or the end of a song. It has a regular-
sized line in addition to a thicker line close by to the right.

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Measure

The area between two bar lines is called a measure, or a bar. To avoid confusion, from
here on, I’ll call them measures. The staff below is divided into four measures.
Because some measures may have more notes in them than others, the space between
bar lines doesn’t have to be equal (notice the first measure is a bit longer).

Staff 3.1 Staff with bar lines, double bar, and measures marked.

bar line bar line bar line bar line double

bar line
measure 1 measure 2 measure 3 measure 4

Leger Lines

Meaning of Leger lines:

Learning Leger Lines

Most notes are written on the staff, but some notes are higher or lower than the staff can
show. When a note goes beyond the range of the staff (higher or lower), small
horizontal lines are used to show where the staff would be if it had more than five lines
and four spaces. These are called leger lines (sometimes spelled “ledger lines”).

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 Music Alphabets

The music alphabet uses A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. You’ll never find an “H” in music, or
a “Q”, or anything other than A through G. This is one of those few rules that has no exceptions!

Practice on the Bl ank Staff

In the back of the book are two pages of blank staff lines. Please don’t tear them out so
that others may also use them. Photocopy the blank staves and practice writing out the
techniques and symbols you’re learning. If you write them down you’ll be more likely
to remember them.

Space Notes
A space note fits within a space on the staff (or between leger lines). At first, it might
be tough to draw a note exactly in the space, but keep at it. If you go over the line,
your space note may look more like a line note.

Staff: Space notes, low to high.

Line Notes
Line notes have a line going through their middle. When you draw a line note be sure
the line goes through the middle of the note, otherwise it might look more like a space
note, and that can be confusing.

Staff : Line notes, low to high.

Ah, Togetherness
Line and space notes alternate, one after the other. After a line note comes a space note,
and after a space note comes a line note. I know that’s redundant, and I said it twice,
but it’s important. Here’s what it looks like:

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 THE KEYBOARD

In Western music, pitches and notes are specific and have specific names. We use the first
sevenletters of our alphabet: A through G.

To see these notes in connection with a music making device, let's look at a standard keyboard:

A modern keyboard has a total of 88 keys (black and

white combined) as opposed to the 60 in this

illustration

...etc etc...

lower middle higher register

register register

each white key is a different note

Register refers to high or low pitch range and is more often a relative term.

Since there are obviously more than seven pitches on the keyboard, the A to G series repeats itself
manytimes. Above we have C to C in brackets for reasons that will soon be obvious.
You will notice that the pattern made by the white and black keys also repeats with the series.
Because there are also more than seven combined lines and spaces on a staff, we can begin to
see how astaff, or two staffs, could accommodate all these notes.

N.B. in these examples we will see how music notation connects with the keyboard. It should be
understood that this notation works with all instruments
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Music clefs

A clef is a symbol used at the beginning of a musical staff to tell the

reader which letter name goes with which line or space.
4 types of music clefs
C clef
Treble or G clef
Bass clef
Rhythm clef

C Clefs

The C clef isn’t used much anymore, except by

viola players and occasionally trombone and
bassoon players.

Once you know where “G” is, use the musical alphabet
(A-G) to fill in the rest of the notes. Remember that
when naming notes in order, the notes go: line, space,
line, space, line, space, etc. Like so:

Example : The treble clef note names, alphabetically from the bottom line to the
top of the staff.

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 E F G A B C D E F G

Example : The treble clef line-names.

E G B D F

Empty Elephants Every

Garbage Go Good
Before Backwards Boy
Dad Down Deserves
Flips Freeways Fudge

Example : The treble clef spaces.

F A C E

F Farting Frequent
A Always Asking
C Causes Can
E Enemies Enlighten

Mn emonics for Bas s Cl ef Li ne s

Example: The bass clef lines.

Remember clefs used to be letters way back when? Well,
bass clef is no exception (by the way, this bass is not a
fish. This kind of bass is pronounced base).
The bass clef used to be the letter F until those nutty
artistic-type composers kept messing with it, making it
14
 fancier and fancier until we got what we have today,
something that looks nothing like an F. And even
though it looks nothing like an F, it’s called the F clef
because it shows us where the note F is on the staff.

Example: The bass clef in all its bulbousness.

The bass clef tells us that the fourth line is an F in two

ways. The first way is the head of the clef, the round part
at the top left of the clef. It’s smack-dab on the fourth
line. In case that isn’t enough, there are also two little dots
which straddle the fourth line as if they’re saying, “Hey!
Hey You! This is an F!”

Example: The bass clef as it sits on the staff. Notice the 4th line?

Example: Note names on the bass clef staff.

G A B C D E F G A

Mn emonics for Bas s Cl ef Li ne s

Example: The bass clef lines.

G B D F A

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 Good Great Goofy
Bubbles Big Babies
Do Dinosaurs Do
Fizz Fight Funny
Always Always Acts
Example : The bass clef space names.

A C E G

A All All
Cat’s Cows Cars
Eyes Eat Eat
Glow* Grass Gas

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THE GRAND STAFF Pianists read
from the Grand
Staff!

Often it is necessary to use notes that are far above the bass staff or far below the
treble staff, such aswhen we use a wide range instrument like the piano. Rather
than use many, many ledger lines on onestaff (which can be hard to count), we
can combine two staffs at once to cover this wider range.

When we combine the bass and treble staffs into one larger staff, we connect
them with a line and abrace on the left-hand side. This new concoction is
appropriately called the Grand Staff.

Here we see how the middle notes overlap so that in certain cases, there would
be two ways to writethe same exact note on a grand staff.

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The Main Types of Notes in Music (Duration, Values, shapes of the notes)

In music, a note is a symbol that signifies a musical tone. In English, the note is also the sound itself. Notes
can represent the pitch and length of a sound in musical notation.
A note may also be a pitch class. Notes are the building blocks of most written music: the discretization of
musical phenomena that promote performance, interpretation, and examination.

Various Types of Notes

One of the first ways to start learning music is to read about all the kinds of musical notes there are. Knowing
the names of all of these notes and their time values, how to draw them, and what the pieces of the notes are
called is the secret to being able to read music well.

Semibreve (Whole Note)

The semibreve, or in the US called a ‘whole note,’ has a notehead in the shape of a hollow oval—like a half
note—but without a note stem. It is the whole duration of the calculation in the time signature.

The semibreve has a value of four beats. This means that when we play the semibreve, we count to four when
holding the note.
Minim (Half Note)

In music, a half note (American) or a minim note (British) is played for half the length of a full note (or a half
note) and double a quarter note (or crotchet). It was called Latin because it was the shortest of the five-note
values used in early medieval music notation.
Crotchet (Quarter Note)

A quarter note (American) or a crotchet note (British) is a note played for a quarter of the length of the entire
note. Sometimes, musicians would say that a crotchet is a single rhythm, although this is not necessarily true,
since the time signature of the music indicates the beat; a quarter note may or may not be a beat.
Quarter notes are labeled with a filled-in oval note head and a simple, flagless stem. The stem normally points
upwards if it is below the middle line of the stave or down if it is on or over the middle line. However, the
orientation of the stem may vary in more than one portion.

Quaver (Eighth Note)

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The eighth note (American) or quaver is a musical note that has been played for one-eighth of the length of the
entire note, hence the term. This is double the value of the 16th note. It is half the length of a quarter note, one
quarter the duration of a half note, one eighth the duration of a full note, one-sixteenth the duration of a double
whole note, and one thirty-second the duration of a long note

In music, the 16th note (American) or the semiquaver (British) is a note struck for half the length of the 8th
note (quaver), hence the terms. It is the equivalent of semifusa in mensural notation, first found in the notation
of the 15th-century. The sixteenth notes are labeled with an oval note head and a straight note stem with two
flags.

Demisemiquaver (32nd Note)

In a song, a thirty-second note (American) or demisemiquaver (British) is a note that has been played for 1⁄32
of the length of the entire note (or semibreve). It lasts half as long as the sixteenth note (or semiquaver) and
twice as long as the sixty-fourth note (or hemidemisemiquaver).

For the stems extending downwards, the flags start at the stem’s bottom and curve upwards. When several
thirty-second notes or eighth notes are adjacent to each other, the flags can be attached to the beam. Similar
laws shall refer to smaller divisions, such as sixty-fourth notes.
Hemidemisemiquaver (64th note)

In music notation, a sixty-fourth note, or hemidemisemiquaver or semi-demi quaver, referred to as a half-

thirty-second note, is a note played for half the length of a thirty-second note. It first appears at the end of the
17th-century and, aside from the occasional case of a hundred and twenty-eighth notes and two hundred and
fifty-sixth notes, it is the shortest value used in musical notation.
Breve (double whole note)

19
In a song, a double whole note (American), a short note (British), or a double note is a note that lasts two times
as long as the whole note (or semibreve). It is the second-longest note value still in use in popular music
notation.

Music Note Tree (Or Pyramid)

The music note tree is a perfect visual way to explain all forms of music notes’ relationships. The note tree is
a schematic representation of how the note principles work. You may even see it as a rhythm tree or a note
pyramid, but they’re all the same thing.

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Note Stems
In musical notation, stems are “thin, vertical lines that are directly connected to the [note] head.” Stems can
point up or down. Different-pointing stems suggest the voice of polyphonic music written on the same staff.
In one voice, the stems typically point down for notes on the middle line or above, and up for notes below. If
the stem points up from the note head, the stem comes from the note’s right side, but it comes from the left
side if it points down. If several notes are beamed together, the stem’s position is determined by the mean of
the lowest and highest notes in the beam.

Dotted Notes

A dotted note is a note with a small dot written after it in western musical notation. The first argument raises
the simple note’s length by half (the initial note with an additional beam) of its original value in current usage.
This means that a dotted note is equal to writing a simple note bound to half the dotted note’s value.
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TYPES OF THE RESTS

Rests are used to indicate a stop in a piece of music. There are many types of rests. Some rests can last for
many measures. Some rests are so short that you would hardly pause in the music. There are also pause marks
in music, these are usually at the discretion of the performer or conductor.

8 Types of Rests in Music

In sheet music notation, where note values represent the length of music notes, rest values represent the
length of pauses. There are eight basic musical rests that working musicians should recognize on musical
staves:

1. Whole note rest: Also known as a whole rest or a semibreve rest, this symbol represents a musical pause
that is the length of a whole note. In a 4/4 time signature, a whole rest tells the player to pause for the whole
bar. On a five-line musical staff, a whole rest hovers just below the fourth line.

2. Half note rest: Also called a half rest or minim rest, this rest covers half of an entire bar of 4/4. It is one
half the length of a whole rest. On a five-line musical staff, a half rest hovers just above the middle line.

3. Quarter note rest: A quarter note rest, also called a crotchet rest, covers the duration of a quarter note. A
quarter rest symbol looks unlike any other rest in music notation.

4. Eighth note rest: An eighth rest corresponds to an eighth note in length. It is the first of several rests that
look quite similar to one another in their musical notation.

5. Sixteenth note rest: Also called a semiquaver rest, a sixteenth rest looks similar to an eighth rest, but with
one extra adornment. It lasts the length of a sixteenth note.

22
6. Thirty-second note rest: A thirty-second rest follows the pattern of the eighth rest and sixteenth rest. It
covers the duration of a thirty-second note. Rests can continue to get smaller from here—the next smallest
would be a sixty-fourth note rest—but rather than fill up their sheet music with increasingly brief rests, most
composers simply double their tempo, which halves the length of notes and rests.

7. Dotted rests: Any rest followed by a dot has a duration that is one and a half times the length of an un-
dotted rest. For instance, a dotted quarter rest would last as long as one and a half quarter rests. You can also
think of this length as one-quarter rest plus one additional eighth rest. You can also create a full measure
rest for a bar of 6/4 by using a dotted whole rest.

8. Rests with a fermata: If you see a rest with a fermata symbol over it, this means the exact length of the
rest is up to your discretion. You can play it exactly as notated, or you can extend the rest for effect.
Fermatas almost always come at the end of measures, right before a double barline.

Summary of Different Rest Types and Their Relationships to Each Other

Here is a summary of the different rest types and their relationship to each other:

23
The double whole rest (or breve rest),

The double whole rest (or breve rest), which usually denotes a silence for the same duration. Double whole
rests are drawn as filled-in rectangles occupying the whole vertical space between the second and third lines
from the top of the musical staff. They are often used in long silent passages which are not divided into
separate bars to indicate a rest of two bars. This and longer rests are collectively known as multiple rests.

24
 TIME SIGNATURE

The time signature (also known as meter signature, metre signature, or measure signature) is a notational
convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats (pulses) are to be contained in
each bar and which note value is to be given one beat.
How to Read 3 Types of Time Signatures

The time signature is typically represented by two stacked numbers (like a fraction). The top number is the
number of beats in a measure and the bottom number is the note value that represents one beat. For example,
a song written in 4/4 time will have four quarter-note beats per measure, whereas a song written in 9/8 time
will have nine eighth-note beats per measure. There are three basic types of time signatures: simple,
compound, and complex.

1. Simple: The most common types of simple time signatures are 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, and 2/2. Sometimes the
letter “C” (meaning common time) will be used in place of 4/4. Both C and 4/4 indicate that there are
four quarter note beats in each measure. For 2/4 and 3/4, there are two and three quarter note beats
per measure, respectively.
2. Compound: Common compound time signatures include 9/4, 6/8, and 12/8. The beat of a piece of
music with a compound time signature is broken into a three-part rhythm. In each of the cases above,
quarter or eighth notes are combined in multiples of three.
3. Complex: Complex time signatures are more common in music written after the nineteenth century.
Complex time signatures don't follow typical duple or triple meters. Examples of complex time
signatures include: 5/4, 11/4, and 7/8.

7 Common Time Signatures

Though there are many time signatures that composers can use, below are the most common ones you'll see
in Western music.

1. 2/4: Two quarter-note beats per measure.

2. 3/4: Three quarter-note beats per measure.
3. 4/4: Four quarter-note beats per measure. Also known as common time and notated with a “C.”
4. 2/2: Two half-note beats per measure. Also known as cut time is notated as a “C” with a vertical
slash through it.
5. 6/8: Six eighth-note beats per measure
6. 9/8: Nine eighth-note beats per measure
7. 12/8: Twelve eighth-note beats per measure

The first note of every bar or measure is called the downbeat. Every measure has strong and weak beats. In a
time signature like 4/4, the first beat of every measure is the strongest beat, and the third beat is also a
strong beat. Beats two and four are weak beats.

Now that you have an idea of basic rhythmic values and notation used in music, you need to learn a little about
time signatures.

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A TIME SIGNATURE tells you how the music is to be counted. The time signature is written
at the beginning of the staff after the clef and key signature.

Time signatures consist of two numbers written like a fraction.

The top number of the time signature tells you how many beats to count. This could be any number. Most
often the number of beats will fall between 2 and 12.

The bottom number tells you what kind of note to count. That is, whether to count the beats as quarter notes,
eighth notes, or sixteenth notes. So the only numbers you will see as the bottom number (the denominator)
will correspond to note values:

 1 = whole note (you’ll never see this)

 2 = half note
 4 = quarter note
 8 = eighth note
 16 = sixteenth note

You could continue on with 32, 64, but you will hopefully never encounter them! After a while it gets a bit
unwieldy. The most common bottom numbers are 4, 8 and 16.

How time signatures work

In a time signature, the top number indicates number of beats per bar. The bottom number
indicates the value of each beat.

Simple Beat and Meter Type Chart

Each column shows the type of meter:

 Duple time
 Triple time
 Quadruple time
And in each row it shows the type of beat.

For the simple time signatures (time signatures with a 2, 3 or a 4 as their top number) we use a crotchet beat,
minim beat or a quaver beat.
26
I’ve then put some examples of how we’d group a bar in that time signature.

Conducting

Introduction

Conducting is the art of directing a musical performance, such as a concert, by way of visible gestures with the
hands, arms, face and head. The primary duties of the conductor are to unify performers, set the tempo,
execute clear preparations and beats (meter), and to listen critically and shape the sound of the ensemble.
Communication is non-verbal during a performance, however in rehearsal frequent interruptions allow the
conductor to give verbal directions as to how the music should be played or sung.

Conductors act as guides to the orchestras and/or choirs they conduct. They choose the works to be performed
and study their scores to which they may make certain adjustments, work out their interpretation, and relay
their vision to the performers. They may also attend to organizational matters, such as scheduling
rehearsals. Orchestras, choirs, concert bands and other sizable musical ensembles such as big bands are
usually led by conductors.

Please watch the following short video about conducting with simple meters. Remember that, in simple
meters, each beat can be divided into two equal parts.

The Movements of Conducting

Duple Meter

Examples of duple meter are 2/4, 2/2, or fast 6/8 time. A conductor would sweep out a J-shaped arc to
conduct duple meter:

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Triple Meter

Examples of triple meter are 3/4 or 3/2. A conductor would sweep out a triangular arc to conduct triple
meters.

Quadruple Meter

Example of quadruple meter are 4/4, 4/2, or 4/8. A conductor would sweep out an upside-down T shape to
conduct quadruple meter.

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The old 'imperfect' time signature remains with us today, now shaped as a C, as the alternative symbol
for 4/4 time, also called Common Time.

The related symbol of a C with a vertical stroke through it is used as an alternative Time signature for 2/2 time,
also called Cut Time.

Main Elements of the Music

Rhythm

The organization of music in time. Also closely related to meter.

Melody
A succession of musical notes; a series of pitches often organized into phrases.
Harmony
The simultaneous, vertical combination of notes, usually forming chords.

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TO FATHOM THE RHYTHM CLEF

Unlike the other clefs, the rhythm clef doesn’t show pitch (the high and low of notes), so there is no
need for letter names. The rhythm clef showsrhythms. Go figure.

This clef didn’t start out as another letter, because no letters are used withthe rhythm clef. Doesn’t this

sound like this should be easier than treble or bass clef? Well, guess again`````

The rhythm clef in all its neutral-ness

Wh y No N o t e N a m e s ?

Remember that note names show what pitch a note is? If not, take a lookat “The High and the Lowly”

The O n e - L i n e S t a f f w i t h R h y t h m C l e f

If only one pitch, why not only one line? Great question. Some single-instrument percussion music is
written on one line. The line looks something like this:

Single staff line with rhythm clef.

rhythm clef single staff line

bar lines

Learning Notation: Meter

Meter concerns the organization of music into strong and weak beats that are separated by measures. Having
children feel the strong beats such as the downbeat, the first beat in a measure, is relatively easy. From there,
it’s a matter of counting, hearing and feeling how the strong vs. weak beats are grouped to create a meter.

Duple Meters

In duple meter, each measure contains groupings of two beats (or multiples of two). For example, in a 2/4
time signature, there are two beats in a measure with the quarter note receiving one beat or one count. In a 4/4
time signature, there are four beats in a measure, and the quarter note also receives one beat or count.

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Examples of 2/4 Rhythms

Examples of 4/4 Rhythms

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Triple Meters

In triple meter, each measure contains three beats (or a multiple of three). For example, in a 3/4 time
signature, there are three beats in a measure and the quarter note receives one beat.

Examples of 3/4 Rhythms

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33
ALL ABOUT ACCIDENTALS IN MUSIC NOTATION

An accidental in music is a symbol that indicates the modification of a pitch. A music accidental can turn a
pitch sharp, flat, or back to its natural state. The most commonly used accidentals in music are the sharp (♯),
the flat (♭), and the natural (♮). These accidentals raise or lower a pitch by a half-step, making the pitch either
higher or lower than it was before the accidental. If an accidental is used on a pitch within a measure, the note
with the accidental remains affected by the accidental throughout the measure. To cancel an accidental in the
same measure, another accidental, usually the natural sign, must occur within the measure. Black piano
keys can also be called accidentals.
Piano accidentals and how to use them!

Sheet music is a language, and sometimes learning to read a new language can be challenging. This is a very
special type of language called music notation, and we use lots of different types of images and pictures to
help musicians tell the difference between different notes. Some of these musical symbols we use are called
accidentals. When looking for what is an accidental in music definition, you will commonly see only three
signs. Music accidentals like a flat or sharp sign you will see a lot, but we’ll cover some less common ones
here too. The accidentals in music definition is: Signs that change note names. They are as important to
musicians and music theory as punctuation is to writing words.

Key takeaways
 They can be white or black keys
 Accidentals can alter a note by a half step
 They can be removed by using a natural sign
 Sometimes accidentals are written into key signatures
 When reading music, they don’t show on the same note in a single measure

What are accidentals in music?

When composers write sheet music, they need to be able to play lots of different types of notes. However,
since we know there are only 7 piano note names, A B C D E F G, that is only the white keys. How is it that
we can play the black keys on the piano? We use accidentals!

The sharp symbol

This symbol looks like a number sign, but it actually is not. It is called a Sharp accidental, or a Sharp sign. It
raises any note by a half step. It can be applied to any key on your piano keyboard. Most often it will change a

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white keys into black keys, but if the sharp symbol is applied to the note B or E it will move them up a half
step, but not to a white key.

If you were playing the note C on your keyboard, and you saw this, you would play the black key one step
higher than C. We call that note C sharp, or C#. What can be very tricky is when you have the same pitch
being written after it. Which note do we play?

This can look tricky but in fact it is not. The notes written afterward are still C#, but because composers used
to have to write all of this music out by hand, they made a rule. If the note following is still played with a
sharp, it doesn’t need to be written on that note. When a note is affected by an accidental in a measure, the
following note is affected as well, but not written. So once you are told to play a note that a sharp raises, the
following C notes are the same key.
Many beginning piano students need to look accidentals definition music theory, so let’s look at another
example:

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What about the notes written in the second bar? The previous accidental does not apply to subsequent notes in
the new bar. One of the most common places we see sharp signs is when we start to look at harmony in music.
Many chords use accidentals!

The flat symbol

The flat symbol looks like a lowercase b. It is another important part of music theory. It also changes a note by
a half step, except this time the flat symbols lowers the note by a half step. It can be placed in key signatures,
or on the same rules that apply to the sharp accidental apply to the flat accidental.

Instead of the sharp symbol that raises the note, this symbol takes our original pitch and lowers it by one
semitone. This flat symbol falls on the note B but the correct pitch to play on your piano keyboard is one half
step below. We call it B flat, or Bb.

36
When a note occurs after the flat symbol, those are still flat notes. Just like the same with our sharp symbol.
There are many piano scales that use flats instead of sharps!

Be careful of the second bar. It may look like the same note, but since that note is in a brand new bar, it does
not contain any of the accidentals that were written in the previous measure. The previous accidentals only
apply to the same measure.
The flat symbol lowers notes by a half step, and it can be applied to either white or black keys on your piano
keyboard. How do we get rid of sharps and flats piano keys?

The natural sign

The natural accidentals are like a music theory and music notation eraser. It removes any previously written
accidentals on the same line, making the note change back to its natural state. Natural signs remove any
accidental. Here is how we can remove flat and sharp signs.

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The first note of the measure is Bb. The second note is B natural. In this case the natural sign raises the note by
a half step, but you really want to understand that it is removing the previous piano notes. It could just as
easily lower a sharped note.

Here you can see that the sharps and flats are being removed just like the previous examples. All natural notes
are white keys.
Some of the most beautiful examples of melody in music include a combination of sharps, flats, and natural
signs. When you see them don’t think of them as confusing, try to see how they will make the music much
more interesting.
A popular song that uses lots of accidentals and naturals is The Entertainer by Scott Joplin. A great place to
learn how to play this song is the Skoove Piano App. As you play the song, the app waits for to hear your note
input, and then moves forward. This is a great way to practice playing accidentals, and to learn if you’re
playing them correctly.

Keeping It Natural

There is one more musical symbol we have to learn, and that is the natural symbol, which looks like this: ♮. A
natural sign means that we should play the note without any accidentals. C♮ means plain old C, without any
sharps or flats.

Now, why would we need a symbol to tell us to play a plain old note? Why not just write nothing?

A natural symbol is usually used to nullify an earlier accidental. So that means that if not for the natural
symbol, the note would have been flatted or sharped. Sometimes we may also use it in conversation for
clarity’s sake, to refer to the unaltered version of a note, as in, “No, not C sharp, C natural!”

Other types of accidentals

The term accidental refers to any time a note in the music needs to change from what is written in the clef, and
we can do this many different ways. Most common are single accidentals, but there are also double
accidentals.

Double sharp

38
The double accidental does exactly what you would think, instead of moving a note one half step, a double
sharp raises our original note up two half steps. We call this a double sharp.

Double sharps also become ignored when you move onto the second bar in this example. Double accidentals
are very rare. Not all double accidentals raise the notes.

Double flat

Unlike the Double Sharp, the double flat symbol is just two normal flat symbols right next to each other. You
will never see a double flat in a key signature. The exact opposite of a double sharp, double flats take the note
down two half steps, or put it down just a whole step. Flat notes are not treated differently than a double
sharp.

39
The note written here is a B double flat, but the note is actually two half steps below B. The notes that come
after are the same key, but they’re not a B, they’re actually playing an A Natural Note. Two half steps below
B, is A. Important to remember that the double flat is also removed by the natural symbol.

Accidentals on a piano keyboard

To visualize accidentals, here are accidentals on a piano keyboard:

Sharps on a piano keyboard:

Flats on a piano keyboard:

With this piano keyboard you can notice that:

 C♯ (C sharp) has the same key as D♭ (D flat)

 D♯ (D sharp) has the same key as E♭ (E flat)
 F♯ (F sharp) has the same key as G♭ (G flat)

40
  G♯ (G sharp) has the same key as A♭ (A flat)
 A♯ (A sharp) has the same key as B♭ (B flat)

As there is only 1 half step between E and F:

 E♯ (E sharp) has the same key as F

 F♭ (F flat) has the same key as E

As there is only 1 half step between B and C:

 B♯ (B sharp) has the same key as C

 C♭ (C flat) has the same key as B

And notice some examples with double sharps and double flats:

 C♯♯ (C double sharp) has the same key as D

 A♭♭ (A double flat) has the same key as G
 E♯♯ (E double sharp) has the same key as F♯ (F sharp)) or G♭ (G flat)

Accidentals in music score

Accidentals are always written before the note

Accidentals are always written before the note, here is an example:

41
Accidentals only affect on the current measure (bar)

After an accidental has been written, every same note is also affected for all the current measure ( bar) in
which they occur, unless explicitly changed by another accidental. The note on next measures (bars) will not
be affected by the accidental from the previous measure.

Example #1:

Example #2:

Accidentals and ties

As ties connect notes, two notes tied have the same pitch, even crossing a bar line:

Courtesy accidentals

A courtesy accidental, also called a cautionary accidental or reminder accidental, are accidentals that are not
necessary, but that are used to remind the musician of the correct pitch.

Example #1 of a courtesy accidental:

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Example #2 of a courtesy accidental:

D E G A B

43
 n
ACCIDENTALS continued
The Natural sign

To cancel an accidental with the natural

sign: D# becomes Dn

Notice that each accidental is

centered on the lines or spaces
of the staff exactly as is its
corresponding note.

To put it another way, the natural sign changes the note in the opposite direction to that of the previous
accidental. A natural raises a note that had been previously flat, or lowers a note that had been
previouslysharp.

SIMPLE INTERVALS: half step, whole

step
An interval is a way of describing the distance between two notes. On the keyboard, it is the distance
between two keys. While there are many ways to determine and label intervals, we will focus on the
mostbasic elements: the Half Step (H) and the Whole Step (W).

C # to D G to A b B to C C to D E to F # B b to C
W W W
H H H

The distance from any key to the next on The distance from any key to the
the keyboard, above or below, is a half step. secondkey above or below is a whole
Thisgoes for white to black, black to white, step.
and in two cases, white to white.

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ENHARMONIC EQUIVALENCE

Combining our knowledge of half and whole steps with our knowledge of accidentals, we encounter
a new idea: Enharmonic Notes:

These notes are C # D# F# G# A# C # D#

enharmonically b b b b b b b
equivalent D E G A B D E

F b E# C b B#

The note a half step above G is G#. But that black note is also a half step below A, so it is also A b.
Therefore, it is possible (and often) that one note can be referred to by two different names. context
will often be the determinating factor as to which is the more appropriate name. So Ab and G are
enharmonic notes. We can also say that they are enharmonically equivalent: Ab is harmonically
equivalent to G #. To put it simply: THEY SOUND THE SAME.

is enharmonically equivalent to

(they sound the same)

Ab G#
Another enharmonic possibility on the keyboard is that we can apply an accidental to any note. So,
strange as it seems, the note above E (normally called F) could also be E sharp (E#). And the note
below F (normally E) could also be called F flat (F b). Similarly, this applies to the notes B and C,
where C can be enharmonically named B sharp (B# ), and B can be enharmonically named C flat (Cb ).

sounds and sounds

the same the same
as as
B#
C Cb B

At first glance, it seems more complicated to have more than one note name for the same sounding
pitch, but there will be situations where it will seem more logical to have a B sharp rather than a C
natural.
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DOUBLE ACCIDENTALS

To make matters even more complicated, it is also possible to have double accidentals. A double
accidental raises or lowers a pitch bytwo half steps (or one step). A double flat looks like this: ∫
while a double sharp looks like this: ‹ .

D double sharp B double flat

In terms of enharmonic equivalency, D double sharp is played and sounds like E.

B double flat is played and sounds like A.

D double sharp B double flat

sounds and sounds

the same the same
as as

D double sharp E natural B double flat A natural

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THE MAJOR SCALE

A major scale is a selection of eight notes arranged in a particular order of half and whole steps. It is
usually heard and recognized in ascending order. The Major Scale is one of the most fundamental musical
entities and most music we know utilizes this scale (or the minor scale...stay tuned).

There is, as we should have come to expect, more than one way to understand how a major scale is put
together. Before we look at the science of the scale, let's return to the keyboard. It is no coincidence that
if we play from C up to the next C (i.e. the white keys) we will have played a C major scale. So the scale
gets its particular name from its first note (called the Tonic–which is also the last note in the scale).

This is probably not the first time

you have heard this sequence of
notes

Once you familiarize yourself with this sound (ascending and descending), notice some important facts:
•With the exception of the tonic note, each note name is used once and only once.

•There is a particular arrangement of half (H) and whole (W) steps from one to the next:
WWHWWWH

WW HWW W H
• Each note in the scale represents a different scale degree (1-8). The half steps are
between degrees 3-4 and 7-8.

Here is how the ascending C Major scale looks in notated form:

C D E F G A B C

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 How to Read Sheet Music for Beginners

Introduction: How to Read Sheet Music for Beginners

One of the first things that any beginning pianist learns to do, is to read music. Notes are the words that music
uses to communicate with us, and in order to be able to read the language of music, we need to learn what the
notes are so we can play them.

Here are some easy tips for learning your notes as a beginning pianist along with music sheets that offers some
real time practice on your note reading that will help you improve quickly!

The Grand Staff

This is what we call the Grand Staff. You can see that there are lines and spaces on the top part as well as the
bottom part. Notice the 2 different signs within the lines and spaces? These are called Clefs, and the top one is
called the Treble Clef, and the bottom one is called the Bass Clef.

There are notes in each line and space in both the Treble and Bass Clefs. Let's see what they are in the next
step.

The Treble Clef and Notes in the Treble Clef

The Treble Clef contains 5 lines and 4 spaces in it, and each of these lines and spaces has a specific note that is
located there.

The notes on the 4 spaces are F, A, C, & E.

48
The notes on the 5 lines are E, G, B, D, & F.

Say the note names on the Spaces going from the bottom to the top several times. Then do the same thing with
the notes on the Lines, again going from the bottom to the top.

Now let's look at the notes in the Bass Clef.

The Bass Clef and Notes in the Bass Clef

The Bass Clef also contains 5 lines and 4 spaces in it, and each of these lines and spaces has a specific note
that is located there.

The notes on the 4 spaces are A, C, E, & G.

The notes on the 5 lines are G, B, D, F, & A.

Say the note names on the Spaces going from the bottom to the top several times. Then do the same thing with
the notes on the Lines, again going from the bottom to the top.

Now let's see what they look like together on the Grand Staff.

49
 The Grand View of All Notes on the Lines and Spaces in Treble and Bass Clef

Here you have all of the notes on both the lines and spaces in each clef, for easy review. Take some time to
read each note in each clef, and then try to look away and name all of your Space notes in each clef or all of
your line notes in each clef.

Keep doing this each day until you can name the notes without looking at any hints.

**Remember to say in the beginning whether the note is on a line or on a space, as this will help
reinforce that information in your brain and your fingers when you play it on the piano.

** Remember also, to always learn your notes from the bottom line or space to the top line or space in
the clef that you are working in.

Ledger Lines

Ledger Lines are lines for notes that occur outside of the normal range for the Grand Staff. They are in both
the Treble and Bass Clefs, and you won't see them on your sheet music unless the piece requires you to play
notes that are above or below the Grand Staff.

One of the most common notes that we all learn in the beginning, that is actually on a ledger line, is Middle C.
Take a look at where Middle C is on the ledger lines in the next step.

50
 The First Ledger Line Note - Middle C

Middle C, is found exactly where it says it is - in the middle of the Treble and Bass Clef.

Above Middle C, heading up towards the Treble Clef, the next note above it is D, and then you land on your
first line note in Treble Clef, which is E. Remember your Treble Clef notes?

Below Middle C, heading down towards the Bass Clef, the next note is B, and then you land on your top line
note for the Bass Clef, which is A.

You will encounter a lot more notes on ledger lines as you advance in your musical studies. All you have to
remember to figure out what note you're looking at is find an "anchor" note - or the nearest note that you know
what the name of it is, and then count up or down to figure out the ledger line note.

SOLFEGE

Each member of the scale can be assigned a solfege syllable. Major scale degree 1 (the tonic) is
“Do”, degree 2 is “Re” and so on.

In the minor mode, scale degree 1 (the tonic) starts on “La” and follows the same order as
established in major. When comparing the relative minor to its parent major scale, the solfege
syllables represent the exact same notes. Here is A minor. Notice that La is still A and Do is still
C:
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When a note needs to be chromatically raised a half step, an “i” (sounde like “eee”) is added to
the end of the solfege syllable, such as in harmonic minor with its raised 7th:

This represents a Fixed-Do System: Do is always the tonic of ANY major scale and La is always
the tonic of ANY minor scale.

52
Interactive Sight singing

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58
INTERVALS

An interval is the distance between two notes: either one heard after the other (a melodic interval),
or both heard at the same time (a harmonic interval). For convenience, we usually just refer to
either kind as "interval." Intervals are so important (and always an initial part of a music theory
curriculum) because so much of how we hear music is about the relationships between notes.
These relationships are best described by the objective system of intervals. An interval has two
components: a number (the distance) and a quality (major, minor, perfect, augmented, or
diminished). Examples of intervals in context could be: major 3rd, perfect 5th, augmented 6th, etc.

NUMERIC COMPONENT

The numeric component of an interval is determined by merely counting through the number of
notes in terms of their letter names. Because a note can form an interval with itself, the smallest
interval is 1 (a “1st”, but always called a unison). Following this system, we can say, for example,
that the interval from middle C to middle C (the same C) is a unison. The interval fromC up to D
is a 2nd (just count C-D). From C up to E is a 3rd (just count C-D-E) and so on. C upto the next C
is an 8th, but we more often refer to that interval as an octave.

QUALITY COMPONENT

In addition to their enumeration, intervals have a quality, which acts as a modifier to the specific
number. There are two basic categories for the five possible qualities intervals can have: Perfect
and Imperfect. Imperfect intervals will be either major or minor. We usually do not refer to
intervals as “imperfect”, but rather by their specific “major” or “minor” quality.

The same numeric intervals are always limited to the same qualities as follows:

PERFECT MAJOR or MINOR

Unison (1st) 2nd
4th 3rd
5th 6th
8th 7th

These intervals are always restricted to these qualitie

59
MAJOR/MINOR

The difference between major and minor is that of size. A major interval is a half step larger than
a minor interval. Therefore a 3rd, for example, could be either major or minor. C up to E isa major
3rd, while C up to E flat is a minor third because it is a half step smaller than C to E. Similarly, C
sharp up to E is also a minor third because it is a half step smaller that C to E.

AUGMENTED/DIMINISHED

When the size of any interval is expanded or shrunken by a half step beyond the perfect or
imperfect (major/minor) parameters, the interval becomes augmented or diminished. A perfect 5th
made smaller by a half step becomes a diminished 5th. A major 3rd made larger by a half step
becomes an augmented 3rd, while a minor 3rd made a half step smaller becomes a diminished 3rd.

Here is how all the different qualities relate to one and other by size:

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Here is the complete list of qualities with their abbreviations:

• Major ("M", "maj.")

• Minor ("m", "min.")
• Perfect ("P")
• Augmented ("A", "Aug", "+")
• Diminished ("d", "dim", " o")

Here are some specific examples and further clarification:

 A major interval made smaller by a half step is a minor interval. C up to E is a major 3rd
while C up to E flat is a minor 3rd.
 A minor interval made larger by a half step is a major interval.
 A perfect interval made smaller by a half step is a diminished interval (and visa versa). C up
to G is a perfect 5th while C sharp up to G is a diminished 5th.
 A perfect interval made larger by a half step is an augmented interval. C up to F is a perfect
4th while C up to F sharp is an augmented 4th.

In rare cases (meaning rarely encountered in real music, but theoretically possible):

 A minor interval made smaller by a half step is a diminished interval. C up to E flat is a

minor 3rd while C up to E double flat is a diminished 3rd.
 A Major interval made larger by a half step is an augmented interval. C up to E is a major 3rd
while C up to E sharp is an augmented 3rd.

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 SPELLING INTERVALS

The numeric component of an interval has everything to do with its spelling (which notes are used)
because the number is determined by counting through the note (letter) names. While not worrying
about quality for a moment, we know enough to say that B up to E sharp is some kind of 4th (count
B-C-D-E sharp). The sharp does not actually matter as far as the number is concerned. If the E
were a flat instead of a sharp, the interval would still be a 4th (but with a different quality). But in
as much as B up to E sharp is a 4th, B up to F is some kind of 5th. Even though E sharp and F are
enharmonic (they sound the same), they spell the interval in question differently. So the sound of
the 4th of B up to E sharp is the same as the sound of B up to F – they are just spelled differently.

MAJOR SCALE CONTEXT

There is more than one way to approach the construction and application of intervals. One
elemental approach is to see and hear them in the context of the major scale.

Intervals share their numeric names with scale degrees. For example, the third note in a C scale
(E) is an intervallic 3rd above the tonic, C. To put it more simply, E is a 3rd above C (count three
notes: C-D-E). A is the sixth note in the C major scale, and therefore a 6th above C (again, count
the notes C through A – six notes). So from C through to the next C (the C major scale), we get
intervals numbered one through eight.

The notes in the C major scale form these intervals above the tonic (C)

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 INTERVALS IN THE SCALE

One way to get your head around some of the different qualities that intervals have, and to
understand why there are different qualities, is to consider the intervals that are inherent to the
basic major and minor scales as we measure those intervals above the tonic.

These numeric intervals have the following qualities in the major scale when measured above
the tonic:

Unison: P1 (or Perfect Prime: "PP")

Major Second: M2
Major Third: M3
Perfect Fourth: P4
Perfect Fifth: P5
Major Sixth: M6
Major Seventh: M7
Perfect Octave: P8

These numeric intervals have the following qualities in the minor scale when measured above
the tonic:

Unison: P1 (or Perfect Prime: "PP")

Major Second: M2
Minor Third: m3
Perfect Fourth: P4
Perfect Fifth: P5
Minor Sixth: m6
Minor Seventh: m7
Perfect Octave: P8

In addition to these major and perfect qualities, there are the augmented and diminished qualities
(found in other scales and in other relationships within the scales).

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A quick comparison between the C major and C minor scales reveals that (except for the 2nd,
which is major in both cases), the non-perfect intervals (3rd, 6th and 7th) are major in the major
scale and minor in the minor scale. There are minor seconds in the scales (from E up to F, and B
up to C in a C major scale, for example), but the tonic is never the lower note.

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 DETERMINING AN INTERVAL I – SCALE BASED METHOD

Given this interval, we can determine its size and quality by comparing it to a major scale whose
tonic is the same as the bottom note of the interval. Determining the size is easy, just count the
notes (the number of lines and spaces) without consideration of any accidentals. F up to D is six
notes, so the interval is some kind of 6th. Since only 4ths, 5ths and octaves/unisons are "perfect", this
interval’s quality should either be major or minor. Now compare the top note of the interval to the
corresponding sixth scale degree of the F major scale (since we refer to the scale that would begin
from the bottom note of the particular interval). The sixth degree of the F major scale is D
natural…and the sixth degree of any major scale is a major 6th interval from the tonic (major scale
= major sixth interval). But here we have a D flat. This is a half step smaller (D natural down to D
flat) than a major 6th. So the interval is a minor 6th. This process can be simplified by merely
comparing the interval to the major key signature of the bottom note. If thenotes match up, then
the interval is one of the normally occurring intervals in that key.

Step 1: B up to F is five notes, so the interval is some kind of 5th

Step 2: Compare to a B major scale or key signature (shown above to the right)

 The fifth scale degree of B should be F sharp. In other words, the F in the key of B major is
normally F sharp.
 Since the interval in question is an F natural, the interval is smaller by a half step. The
normal perfect 5th (B up to F sharp) is made smaller by a half step into a diminished 5th.

Answer: B up to F is a diminished 5th.

Often we will see a symbol "5o" or "4o" used to represent that something is diminished instead of
seeing "d5" or "d4".

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 DETERMINING AN INTERVAL II – HALF STEP METHOD

The other way of determining an interval is the half step method. Refer to the chart below which
aligns the number of half steps in an interval with the enharmonic (sounding the same) intervals
of that size. Above the half steps row are the major and minor scale degree points in alignment
with their appropriate number of half steps. For example, the fifth scale degrees of both major and
minor scales are seven half steps above their tonics.

Here is a simple procedure for determining an interval:

 Count the number of notes from the first to the second note of the interval (start from the top
or bottom–it doesn't matter), which will determine the numeric component of the interval
 Then count the number of half steps between the notes, or compare the notes to how they
might appear in the context of a major or minor scale
 However the half steps or the comparison lines up below will give you the interval

Maj. Scale Degree: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Min. Scale Degree: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

No. of Half Steps: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Interval Name: PP AP
d2 m2 M2 A2
d3 m3 M3 A3
d4 P4 A4
d5 P5 A5
d6 m6 M6 A6
d7 m7 M7 A7
d8 P8 A8
d9 m9 M9 A9
Key
PP = “Perfect Prime” or Unisond
= Diminished
A = Augmented
m = Minor
M = Major

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 MORE EXAMPLES

For example: this interval counts five notes from D up to A sharp (remember, when we count the
notes, we ignore any accidentals – we just count the letters). So D up to A (sharp) is five notes (D-
E-F-G-A). The interval is therefore some kind of 5th.

Then we count the half steps from D up to A sharp: there are eight. Looking at the chart, eight half
steps in the 5th column is an augmented 5th. We could also notice that the "normal" 5th in either the
major or minor scale of D is an A natural (and therefore a perfect 5th). Since this A is sharped, it is
a perfect 5th made a half step larger (eight half steps): an augmented 5th!

But if the notes were D and B flat, which are also eight half steps apart, the interval would be a
minor 6th because D up to B (flat) is six notes (D-E-F-G-A-B). D up to B flat is also the
“normal”/minor 6th in the scale of D minor (as shown by the chart). To put it another way, D up to
B is the “normal” /major 6th in the D major scale. Since D up to B flat is a half step smaller, the
major 6th is made a half step smaller into a minor 6th.

While these concepts can seem confusing, it is all terribly logical and usually just requires a little
practice to perfect.

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 INVERSION

The process of inversion and inverting intervals is among the most fundamental components of
music construction. The importance of knowing how to invert cannot be overemphasized, but it
is a simple process. To invert an interval is simply to reverse the order of the notes while not
changing the actual note names:

A up to C # inverts to C # up to A or

C # up to A in a lower octave

In either case, one of the two notes moved the distance of an octave so that it was on the other side
of its counterpart note. The C sharp went down an octave or the A went up an octave. Either
result represents an inversion of the original interval of A up to C sharp (a major 3rd). Note that
either result above produces a minor 6th interval.

The inversion process is the same for any interval: either the bottom one transposes up an octave
or the top one transposes down an octave. The transposition could also be two, three or however
many octaves—as long as the notes switch positions.

It is an important process because so often music utilizes inversions to create variety and change
(which contribute to the sense of motion and direction!). With inversion, we can take a collection
of notes (melody, harmony, or both) and perhaps rearrange them without actually changing them.
The rearrangement contributes to the need for change and motion within the music, while the
unchanged notes contribute to the continuity and cohesion of the music.

OTHER EXAMPLES OF INVERSION

This interval of a P4: becomes a P5 when inverted:

˜
This interval of a diminished 5th (5 ): becomes an augmented 4th when inverted:

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 THE INVERSION PATTERN

Every so often there is a wonderful pattern that emerges as a result of music theory "rules." The
most elegant seen so far is the circle of fifths. The inversion process also contains a set of perfectly
predictable results that are extremely useful. For starters:

An interval and its inversion always add up to nine(Interval +

Inversion = 9)

AND…

Major inverts to Minor

Minor inverts to Major
Augmented inverts to Diminished
Diminished inverts to Augmented
Perfect inverts to Perfect

100% of the time!

A major 3rd inverts to a minor 6th:

A P4th inverts to a P5th:

A diminished 5th inverts to an augmented 4th:

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 COMPOUND INTERVALS

A compound interval is any interval larger than an octave, or an interval (second through octave)
with an octave added on to it–making it an octave larger. Compound intervals are just like ordinary
intervals with respect to their qualitative and quantitative components (compounding an interval
does not change it’s quality). In fact, in most cases we consider compound intervals to be
equivalent to their non-compound counterparts, even when the numbers appear different.

For example, a 10th is like a compounded 3rd (a third with an octave added to it), or a 12th is like a
compounded 5th (a 5th with an octave added to it). To add an octave to an interval, just add 7. In
jazz, however, we do make distinctions between a 2nd and a 9th (a 9th is a 2nd with an octave added
to it), a 4th and an 11th and a 6th and a 13th. But in general, the compound interval is the same as
its smaller counterpart. A compound interval is similar to a doubled recipe: the proportions of the
ingredients stay the same (as does the food’s taste), but the overall portion has doubled.

Following through on the recipe metaphor however, we never triple the compounded interval. This
means that if we take an interval like a 10th and add another octave to it, we DO NOT NORMALLY
refer to it as a 17th. We still just call it a 10th – a practical decision for sure. Because of this, the
largest interval we will identify is the compounded octave, which we can call a 15th (the octave, 8
with 7 added to it).

Here is a chart of all the compounded intervals we might encounter (remember that the issue of
quality does not change in a compound situation: a compounded major 3rd is a major10th):

Interval Compounded
2nd 9th
3rd 10th
4th 11th
5th 12th
6th 13th
7th 14th (not used)
octave 15th

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 HEARING INTERVALS

We do not realize how much we already know about music; it's just that we often do not have the
musical name for that which we know. For example, there are so many songs, tunes and melodies
in our heads, that we implicitly have their intervals in our heads as well. If we can attach an interval
name to a portion of a melody that we can recognize and sing, we can consequently recognize and
sing that interval.

Here are some examples:

The Octave: Somewhere over the Rainbow

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 MORE EXAMPLES

The Major Third: the "Nah Nah" part of Hey Jude

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 IDENTIFYING INTERVALS IN A PIECE

Using an excerpt from a Bach minuet in G minor (on a separate page), try to identify the marked
intervals. The piece is written in two parts, meaning that there are just two lines of music (the left
hand and right hand for the keyboard – the bass and treble clefs). Since an interval measures the
distance between two notes, we can identify intervals both melodically and harmonically. The
melodic intervals are from one note to the next in the individual parts, while the harmonic intervals
are those made where the notes from both parts sound together.

Some harmonic intervals will be compounded, but for our purposes we will ignore that fact to
make things a little easier. The first harmonic interval in the piece is from a G below middle C
up to a B flat above the staff. This interval is technically a minor 17th because it is 17 notes from
that G to that B flat. But we will just abstractly consider it a G up to a B flat, and call it a minor
3rd. See the example blow for clarification of this labeling process.

Also notice that in the first measure there are three notes (B flat, A and G) in the top part and only
one note (G) in the bottom part. Since the bottom note sounds for three beats, each top noteforms
its own harmonic interval against that lower G. The B flat forms a minor 3rd, the A formsa major
2nd and the G forms an octave.

While we could identify every single interval between every single melodic and harmonic
relationship, just identify those intervals that are marked.

Characteristics

Intervals can be categorized according to different criteria:

Harmonic and melodic intervals

Intervals can be harmonic or melodic. When the notes are played simultaneously, it is a harmonic interval.
When the notes are played in sequence, it is a melodic interval. Melodic intervals can be ascending or
descending:

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 Even and uneven intervals

Intervals can be even or uneven. If one note falls on a line and the other in a space, it is an even interval. If
both notes fall on a line or in a space, it is an uneven interval:

Consonant and dissonant intervals

Intervals can be consonant or dissonant. If the notes sound pleasant and relaxed, the interval is a consonant
interval. If the notes sound unpleasant and tense, the interval is a dissonant interval:

Dissonant intervals are not necessarily undesirable. Dissonant intervals are used in many contexts to build
tension and momentum in the music.
The perception of consonance and dissonance is subjective. The Western world considers the following
intervals to be consonant: unison, minor third, major third, perfect fourth, perfect fifth, minor sixth, major
sixth, and octave. The following intervals are considered dissonant: minor second, major second, tritone,
minor seventh, and major seventh.

Intervals are classified as perfect or imperfect.

Unisons, fourths, fifths, and octaves are termed perfect intervals.

Seconds, thirds, sixths, and evenths are termed imperfect interval

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INTERVALS SUMMARY

 An interval measures the distance between two notes

 This distance is specified by a number and a quality
 The numeric portion is always determined by the note names and how many notes are in
between the two notes in question
 The five qualities are: Perfect, Major, Minor, Diminished & Augmented
 Unisons, 4ths, 5ths and Octaves (8ths) are assigned the perfect quality, with the possibility of
them being augmented or diminished
 2nds, 3rds, 6ths and 7ths (the imperfects) are assigned the major/minor qualities, with the less
frequent possibility of them being augmented or diminished
 Intervals can be determined by associating them with a scale, and the intervals in that scale
(in a major scale, all the intervals above the tonic will either be major or perfect – always!)
 Intervals can also be determined by counting the number of half steps between the notes
 Any interval can be inverted
 When inverting the numeric portion of the interval: the interval and its inversion always add
up to nine
 When inverting qualities: major inverts to minor, and minor to major; diminished inverts to
augmented, and augmented to diminished; perfect stays perfect when inverted
 A compound interval is anything larger than an octave, but usually treated the same as its
non-compounded equivalent.

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Intervals Sight singing

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 MUSICAL TERMS

Why Italian?

Way back when, beginning in the late 1500’s, there was a lot of music- making going on in Italy,
and at the time, some bright soul thought to write these detailed instructions on the music. Because
the composers were Italian, the instructions were written in, you guessed it, Italian.
You’ll occasionally see some terms in German and French and even English (especially if you
play a piece by Percy Grainger), but the vast majority of musical terms are in Italian.
Following are many Italian terms that are applied to music. They’re grouped by category: tempos
(how fast to go), dynamics (how loud or soft to play, articulations (how short or long a note is),
general terms, and terms for special types of repeats.

Temp o

Tempo is an Italian word which comes from the Latin tempus which means time.
In order to understand these tempos (some people say tempi for the plural), we’ll refer to the
metronome and how many beats per minute each tempo is. To review the metronome, see “The
Metronome (or: The Torture Device)” on page 152. Most metronomes have these markings listed
somewhere on them.

TEMPO BEATS PER

NAME MINUTE
Largo 40-60
Larghetto 60-66
Adagio 66-76
Andante 76-108
Moderato 108-120
Allegro 120-168
Presto 168-200
Prestissimo 200-208

Tempo-related Terms

There are other terms that affect the tempo of a piece. They are:

accelerando (accel.) = speed up gradually.

allargando (allarg.) = slow down and grow louder.
ritardando (rit.) = slow down gradually.
rallentando (rall.) = slow down gradually.

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Dynamic s

Dynamics is another word for how loud or soft to play. The base words to remember for dynamics are
piano (quiet) and forte (loud). All of the dynamic markings are variations of these two words.
You’ll see what I mean. Often in music, you’ll see an abbreviation of the dynamic, shown in the
following chart in parentheses.

DYNAMIC MARKING MEANING

pianissimo (pp) very quiet
piano (p) quiet

mezzo piano (mp) medium quiet

mezzo forte (mf) medium loud
forte (f) loud
fortissimo (ff) very loud

Grow Gradually

In the Romantic era—around 1800—composers began writing music which contained sections
that would grow gradually louder or softer. Up until this time, dynamic changes were usually
abrupt. This new technique needed a name. What did they do? They used Italian of course.
To grow gradually louder is to crescendo (kra-SHEN-doe), and to grow gradually softer is to
decrescendo (DEE-kra-SHEN-doe). Below are the symbols used to show this:
You may also see the abbreviations cresc. or decresc.

crescendo decrescendo

Another term for becoming gradually quieter is diminuendo (dim.).

Articulation s

Articulation is a fancy way to say note length. Depending on your instrument, there are many
ways to change the length of a note. For example, with wind instruments the breath and the
tongue are used; for bowed instruments like violin, viola, cello and double bass, the bow is used;
for piano (the instrument, not the dynamic) articulation is controlled by how long the keys are
held down.
ARTICULATIONS (SYMBOL) MEANING
accent (>,) note given more emphasis
legato (—) play the note full value
staccato (.) short

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 Ties and Slurs

Two more types of articulations seen quite frequently are ties and slurs.
Technically, ties aren’t really a form of articulation, but because they look exactly like slurs but for
one important difference, I’m introducing them together.
A tie is a curved line connecting two or more notes of the same pitch.
A slur is a curved line connecting two or more notes of different pitches.

The Tie
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Just like tying one piece of string to another gives you a longer piece of string, so tying two notes
together makes a longer note. There is no break between tied notes. Ties are often used to join notes
over the bar line.

Example 10.2 Some tied notes.

two beats seven beats total

The Slur

Notes of different pitches with the curvy line over or under them are articulated as smoothly as
possible. For wind players, this means no tonguing; for piano players it means you hold the keys
down for each note down as long as possible; for guitar players it means hammer-ons and pull-offs;
for bowed instruments, the notes happen in the same bow stroke. Whatever your instrument, the
idea is to make a slur as smooth as possible.

Example 10.3 Some slurred notes.

General Musical T e r m s

The terms you’ve been introduced to in the last few pages are often paired with other Italian words,
giving you more specific directions. Below are the most common ones.

TERM MEANING

al to the
con with
fine (pronounced FEE-nay) the end

molto very, much

poco little
sempre always

For example, molto ritardando means slow down a lot; sempre staccatto means notes are always
short.
If you find a term you don’t know, you can look it up in the glossary of terms at the back of this
book. It’s a good idea to have a pocket dictionary of terms in your instrument case. Hal Leonard
Publishing makes a good small one.

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 What is Solfege?

Solfege is a series of short syllables used by music educators to help developing muscians understand how
notes relate to one another and to the key that you are singing in.
Solfege, also called “solfeggio” or “solfa,” is a system where every note of a scale is given its own unique
syllable, which is used to sing that note every time it appears. A major or a minor scale (the most common
scales in Western classical music) has seven notes, and so the solfege system has seven basic syllables: do,
re, mi, fa, sol, la, and ti.

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Tonic solfa Definition

Is a system of notation that is based on relationships between tones in a key and that replaces the usual Staff
notation with solmization syllables, such as do, re, and mi, or their abbreviations.

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 What Is An Anacrusis In Music?

Very often, a melodic line will start with what is referred to as an anacrusis. An anacrusis is an unstressed
pickup or lead-in note or group of notes that precedes the first accented note of a phrase (a short unit of
musical line). The accented note of the phrase is found in the first complete measure of music.

DEGREES OF THE SCALES

Table of Contents
 What are scale degrees?
 How do you find the scale degree?
 The technical names of a scale degrees
 How does solfege scale fit in?
 Why use scale degrees at all?
A scale in music theory is a sequence of notes played in ascending or descending order with a specific interval
structure. There are many scales in music. Some are extremely common and fundamental, like the major scale
or minor scale. Others are more obscure and only called upon in certain settings, like the whole tone scale or
harmonic major scale.

What are scale degrees?

Every scale can be understood in terms of its scale degree names. Scale degrees are a numerical method of
describing scales. The concept may sound complicated, but it is actually quite simple once you get the hang of
it. Let’s dive in.

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 How do you find the scale degree?

The most basic way to understand scale degree names is to begin with one of the most fundamental scales in
piano: the C major scale. The C major scale is often considered a blank slate to work with in piano music
theory. It is neutral and easy to work with.
The C major scale is spelled: C – D – E – F – G – A – B – C. Check it out this basic piano scale notated here
in treble clef:

In the C major scale, the major scale degrees are as follows:

 C is the first degree of the scale. The first degree is the tonic.
 D is the second degree of the scale. The second degree is the supertonic.
 E is the third degree of the scale. The third degree is the mediant.
 F is the fourth degree of the scale. The fourth degree is the subdominant.
 G is the fifth degree of the scale. The fifth degree is the dominant.
 A is the sixth degree of the scale. The sixth degree is the submediant.
 B is the seventh degree of the scale. The seventh degree is the leading tone.
When the major scale degrees are added to the notation in treble clef, it looks like this:

Now let’s dive a little deeper into each scale degree name.

SCALE DEGREE NAMES

Each note in a scale has a name that matches its function. We'll learn more about what those functions are in
more advanced tutorials. For now, it is good to know the names. These names apply to all major and minor
scales.
o 1st - Tonic
o 2nd - Supertonic
o 3rd - Mediant
o 4th - Subdominant
o 5th - Dominant
o 6th - Submediant
o 7th - Leading Tone

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 The technical names of a scale degrees

The tonic
The tonic is the first degree of the scale. Every scale has a tonic, whether it is the natural minor scale, the A
major scale degrees, or the minor pentatonic scale degrees. The tonic note defines the name of the scale and
also serves as the tonal center of gravity for the scale. In other words, it is the note that serves as the natural
resolution point for all other notes in the scale, whether we are thinking in major scale degrees or minor scale
degrees.

The supertonic
The supertonic is the second degree of the scale. Not every scale has a supertonic. For example, a scale like
the minor pentatonic scale does not have a second degree. Therefore, there is no supertonic in the minor
pentatonic scale. However, many scales included the supertonic, or second degree, so it is useful to
understand.

The mediant
The mediant is the third degree of the scale. Mediant derives from the Latin word for middle. Obviously, the
third scale degree is not the middle of the scale. But, it is the middle of the triad built on the first degree. All
major and minor chords have a mediant, or middle note.

The subdominant
The subdominant is the fourth degree of the scale. An easy way to remember this scale degree name is that it
is one note below the dominant. Hence the name subdominant. However, the real meaning of subdominant lies
a little deeper. As you discovered earlier, the fifth scale degree is called the dominant. The fourth scale degree
is actually a perfect fifth below the tonic. Hence, the name subdominant.

The dominant
The fifth scale degree is known as the dominant. The fifth scale degree is generally considered the second
most important scale degree. Most classical music is based on the resolution of the dominant to the tonic. The
resolution is also extremely common in pop and contemporary music genres.

The submediant
The sixth scale degree is called the subdominant. The term submediant shares the same source as the
subdominant. The sixth scale degree is a third (mediant) below the tonic, hence the name submediant, or lower
mediant.

The leading tone

In the major scale, or any scale with a natural seventh scale degree like the melodic minor scale or harmonic
minor scale, the seventh scale degree is known as the leading tone. The leading tone is a half-step lower than
the tonic and has a natural gravity to resolve to the tonic.
In scales with a lowered seventh degree, like the natural minor or the blues scale, the seventh scale degree is
called the subtonic. This is true for these minor scale degrees. The subtonic is a second below the tonic, like
the supertonic is a second above the tonic.
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 How does solfege scale fit in?

The solfege scale is a syllabic system for note recognition. The solfege scale is a useful way to remember the
scale degrees and because they are directly tied to the voice, they help to root the sound of each scale degree
physically in your throat and ears.

The first scale degree is called do. Do is the tonic. The second scale degree is called re. Re is the supertonic.
The third scale degree is called mi. Mi is the mediant. The fourth scale degree is called fa. Fa is the
subdominant. The fifth scale degree is called sol. Sol is the dominant. The sixth scale degree is called la. La is
the submediant. The seventh scale degree is called ti. Ti is the leading tone.
There are variations on the solfege scale to account for the flat and sharp notes of a scale, but we won’t cover
them here as there are a few different approaches. They are useful when dealing with the minor scale degrees.
Here is the C major scale notated with solfege syllables instead of note names:

Why use scale degrees at all?

After all this music theory, you may be wondering why musicians use scale degrees at all. Good question!
The names of scale degrees allow musicians to break scales and arpeggios down into constituent parts and
analyze how the different elements work together. By understanding the names of scale degrees, we can
identify patterns and resolutions and then transfer them to other scales. The scale degrees of the C major scale
are the same as the A major scale degrees. This consistency allows us to make conclusions about scales as a
whole.
For example, you can describe a melody in the key of C major as 3 – 5 – 6 – 4 – 2 – 1 and then use those scale
degree names to transfer the melody to another key. For example, using the A major scale degrees, the melody
would now be C♯ – E – F♯ – D – B – A. This transferability expands our musicianship, allows us to
understand the threads that unite melodies and chords on a deeper level, and allows us to communicate more
precisely with other musicians.

Conclusion

Scale degrees may seem like complex and confusing nonsense. But, the concept is relatively simple once you
understand how it works. Each tone of a scale has a number associated with it. This number is the scale degree
name.
Learning how the names of scale degrees function allows us to understand the relationships between the
different tones in a scale. The natural sequence of a scale becomes clear and we can use the information to
transfer melodies and harmonies to different keys. If you are interested in learning more about major scale
degrees and other music theory topics, Skoove offers many lessons on piano theory and technique, as well as a
wide variety of songs both modern and classic to help build your knowledge and skills. Try it out today and
see how quickly you progress!

Each note of a major scale is also named with scale-degree names. The first note of a major scale is called the
tonic; the second note, the supertonic, followed by the mediant, subdominant, dominant, submediant, leading
tone, and tonic:

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 COMPOUND TIME
SIGNATURES

Compound time signatures (meters) use a dotted note as the basic beat which can be subdivided into three. The
most common compound time signatures are 6/8 (two beats per bar), 9/8 (three beats per bar) and 12/8 (four
beats in a bar). A song in 12/8 time signature sounds the same as a song in 4/4 if the rhythm is written as
triplets.

109
In this time signature, we can see beats 1 and 4 emphasized. Notice that the eighth notes are beamed
to showthe simultaneous macro beats.

Another compound time signature would be 98 .

Here, three beats and nine beats are compounded into a

measure. This could also be a compound time signature.

And since the micro beats are sixteenth notes, we would expect the speed of the beats to be on the faster
side.

Generally speaking, compound times use eighth or sixteenth notes for the micro beats. The number of
beats will be divisible by three: 3, 6 ,9, 12, etc.
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 THE TRIPLET

The Triplet figure is a way of indicating that three notes should be played in the amount of
time that two notes of the same note value would usually cover. Like a compound time, the
triplet is a momentary way of compounding three notes into the space of two (making those
notes faster).

These all take up

the same amount of time

In context:

We beam the notes together that are to be part of the triplet. And we always put a "3" by the
beam!
A "triplet" is a group of three notes played in the time of two.
To look at how triplets work, we'll first look at a short rhythm in 3/4 time.
Remember that in 3/4 time, one crotchet (quarter note) beat can be divided into two quavers (8th
notes):

It can also be divided into four semiquavers (16th notes):

But, if we want to split the crotchet (quarter note) into three equal parts, we need to use a triplet.
To show a triplet, we write the notes as three quavers (8ths) beamed (joined) together, and we
also write "3" on the beamed side of the notes.
Look and listen to this rhythm using triplets:
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Crotchet (Quarter Note) Triplets

Triplets don't always have to be quavers (8th notes) - we can make triplets out of notes
of any length. We can split a minim (half note) up into three equal notes by writing triplet
crotchets (quarter notes) , for example:

Crotchets (quarter notes) don't have beams, of course, so we write crotchet triplets with a square
bracket, with the number 3 in the middle of the longest line.

Mixed Note Value Triplets

Triplets don't always have to have three notes in them: the notes of the triplet just need to add
up to three of whatever value there would normally be two of.
In 4/4 time, for example, a crotchet (quarter note) is worth two quavers (8ths), or three triplet
quavers. This means you can make a triplet out of other note values, as long as they also add up
to three quavers overall. Here are some different ways one crotchet beat can be split into triplets
with different rhythms.

Adding Bar Lines with Triplets

Adding bar lines to music with triplets can look difficult at first glance, but don't panic! Remember
that you are looking at three notes in the space of two, and that they are grouped together in
whole beats. Here's an example:
Add the missing bar lines to this tune.

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The time signature is 3/4, so each bar needs to have an equivalent of three crotchet (quarter
note) beats.
Each "3" symbol shows a triplet group. One triplet group is worth one crotchet. The quavers (8th
notes) beamed in twos are also worth one crotchet each.
Write a "1" under each group of notes which adds up to one crotchet. (You can write "2" under
the minim, and any other values which are necessary, of course!)

Then after each count of three (because this is 3/4 time), draw a bar line.

Adding Rests with Triplets

Here's a melody which you need to add rests to, and the melody contains a triplet:

What do we need to do? We can see that there is a triplet marked with a "3" above the beamed
quavers (8th notes), but there are only two notes written instead of three. The star (*) shows us
where the missing rest is supposed to go - in this case it's in the middle of the triplet.
The other notes in the triplet group are quavers (8ths); we've got two quavers but we need three,
so the rest must have the value of a quaver. Draw the quaver rest carefully, in the place shown
by the star. If you have to write a crotchet triplet rest, make sure it's inside the square "triplet"
brackets.
Here's the finished answer, with the quaver rest in place:

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Summary of triplets

Below are the most common triplets and their equivalent:

SYNCOPATION

When an attack falls on an up beat (the "&"), rather than on a down beat ("1", "2", etc.), we call it
Syncopation.

Syncopation can
be within a
measure or
across the bar
line

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The Major Scale

THE MAJOR SCALE EXPLAINED

The major scale is the scale which sounds positive – it is used when a composer wants to depict
happiness, hope, joy or even a party atmosphere. In order to be able to recognise and play a
major scale you need to understand semitones (half tones) and tones.

SEMITONES

Look at the notes on a keyboard/piano like the one shown below. Start on C and go up pressing
down every single black note and white note. This is called the chromatic scale. Each step you
go up is called a semitone or a half tone.

WHOLE TONES

This time start on C and go up the keyboard, but instead of pressing down every note on your
way up play every other note. Each step you go up this time is a tone. You have just played what
is called a whole tone scale.

It is important to understand semitones (half tones) and tones because they are the basis
for major and minor scales.

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THE MAJOR SCALE EXPLAINED

Let’s have a look at the the easiest major scale – a C major scale:

Play C major scale

C major is the easiest major scale to play because all you have to do is start on a C and play all
the white notes up the keyboard until you reach the next C up. Can you see how the notes go up
using a variety of semitone and tone steps? The good news is that this combination of semitone
and tone steps is actually a set pattern that every major scale follows:

Tone – Tone – Semitone – Tone – Tone – Tone – Semitone

All you have to do is learn the pattern and you will be able to apply it to any note on the
keyboard.

PLAYING A MAJOR SCALE

As I said, you can start playing on any note on a keyboard and, as long as you follow the set
pattern above, you will be able to play a major scale. For example, here is an A major scale:

Play A major scale

Can you see how the same pattern of steps (Tone – Tone – Semitone – Tone – Tone – Tone –
Semitone) is used

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Have a go at playing as many major scales as you can using the set pattern.

The Minor Scales

THE MINOR SCALES EXPLAINED

The minor scale is the scale which sounds negative – it is used by composers to depict sad,
melancholic or even angry/dramatic moods.
However, there are in fact 3 minor scales which you will come across and can use:
1. Natural Minor Scale
2. Harmonic Minor Scale
3. Melodic Minor Scale
Each scale sounds similarly “minor-like”, but they each also have their own unique flavour.
Let’s have a look at each minor scale in turn.

THE NATURAL MINOR SCALE

The natural minor scale is the most basic form of the minor scale.
It follows a set pattern of note intervals.
The set pattern of intervals for the notes of the natural minor scale is:
Tone – Semitone – Tone – Tone – Semitone – Tone – Tone
It is the same pattern of notes when going up the scale as when going down the scale.
The natural minor scale follows the notes set out in the key signature for the scale without any
changes.

Let’s have a look at two examples of natural minor scales:

A NATURAL MINOR SCALE

The key signature of A minor tells us that there are no sharps or flats (in other words, you play
all the white notes on a keyboard and none of the black notes).

Look at a keyboard and play a scale (of all the white notes) starting on A and going up until you
reach the A above it (I have highlighted these notes in red on the keyboard above).

117
 You have just played an ascending A Natural Minor Scale.
Come back down again and you have just played the descending A Natural Minor Scale.

Have a look/listen to the A Natural Minor being played on the piano:

Play A natural minor

scale
You will also notice that the pattern of steps follows the set pattern of Natural minor scale
intervals given above (Tone – Semitone – Tone – Tone – Semitone – Tone – Tone).

Let’s try a different example of a natural minor scale starting on a different note:

D NATURAL MINOR SCALE

By following our set pattern of note intervals for a natural minor scale (Tone – Semitone – Tone
– Tone – Semitone – Tone – Tone) we can easily work out the natural D minor scale.
This set pattern of note intervals beginning on D leads us to a scale with all white notes except
for a B Flat instead of a B natural:

So, in order to play a D Natural Minor Scale we play all the white notes starting on D except for
B (which we replace with a B Flat):

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 Have a look/listen to the D Natural Minor Scale:

Play D natural minor

scale

Notice how we have added a B Flat to the key signature at the start of the
scale.This tells the performer to play a B flat instead of a B natural each
time.

This is because the key signature of D minor has one flat, B Flat.

THE HARMONIC MINOR SCALE

The harmonic minor scale has a slightly more intense feel to it than the natural minor scale. This
is caused by the raised seventh note of the scale.
It’s easy to work out any harmonic minor scale.
Simply work out the natural minor using the set minor scale intervals outlined above (Tone –
Semitone – Tone – Tone – Semitone – Tone – Tone).
Now raise the 7th note by another semitone so the pattern becomes:
Tone – Semitone – Tone – Tone – Semitone – Tone and a half – Semitone
Let’s have a look at some examples:

A HARMONIC MINOR SCALE

In order to build an A Harmonic Minor Scale we simply play the natural minor scale, but raise
the 7th note.
You can see from the sheet music below how the 7th note of the scale (G) has been raised a
semitone (half tone) to become G sharp:

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 Have a listen to the scale played below – can you hear the intensity of the raised 7th note?

Play A harmonic minor

scale

Note: the key signature does not change between the natural and harmonic minors.
The raised 7th is an added note and so you will see a sharp sign added as an accidental each
time.

D HARMONIC MINOR SCALE

If we start on a D and play a harmonic minor scale then we raise the C natural (7th note of the
scale) to become a C sharp:

Play D harmonic minor

scale

Once again, it is important to note that the key signature remains the same – the C sharp is an
added note.

THE MELODIC MINOR SCALE

This is the trickiest of the minor scales as the pattern for going up the scale is different from
that coming down the scale!

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 However, it’s still pretty easy to work out if you can remember which notes to raise.
The crucial thing to remember is you only need to change the natural minor scale on the way
up.

The melodic minor descending scale is the same as the natural minor scale.
On the way up you need to raise each of the 6th and the 7th notes by a semitone (half tone).
So, your melodic minor pattern will be:

Tone – Semitone – Tone – Tone – Tone – Tone – Semitone

Let’s have a look at a couple of examples:

A MELODIC MINOR SCALE

Have a look at the sheet music for the A Melodic Minor Scale:

Can you see how the scale is different going up and down the notes?
Let’s have a listen to how it sounds:

Play A melodic minor scale

I think the melodic minor scale is a really interesting sound due to the difference between the
rising anddescending scales.

D MELODIC MINOR SCALE

Here is the sheet music for the D Melodic Minor Scale:

Once again, you can see how the ascending and descending scales are different.

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 Let’s have a listen to how it sounds:

Play D melodic minor scale

Remember, the melodic minor is only used on the ascending scale.When
coming down the scale you use the natural minor.

ALL THE MINOR SCALES FOR PIANO

Hopefully this lesson has helped you understand the 3 different minor scales.
Ideally, you should try playing the minor scales on a piano or keyboard to get used to thesound
and feel of them.
Here are all the minor scales (natural, harmonic and melodic) for you to have a go at. I have
added piano fingering marks for the right hand to the sheet music to help you.
The audio examples play all 3 minor scales in turn – the natural is 1st, then the harmonic andfinally
the melodic.
This will mean that you can easily check whether you are playing the scales correctly. I hope
you enjoy playing them!
A Minor Scales

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RELATIVE KEYS
Relative keys have the same key signature (number of sharps or flats). For every note in the chromatic scale
there is a relative major key and a relative minor key.

Let’s have a look at an example.

Have a look/listen to this performance of a G major scale and its relative minor – E minor:

G major Relative Minor

The two keys are clearly different because they start on a different tonic note and one scale is
major (sounds “happy”) whilst the other is minor (sounds “sad”).
However, they sound related because they share the same number of sharps and flats and so you can easily
play one after the other without it sounding horribly discordant!
Understanding this relationship between the relative majors and minors is really useful when you are
composing as it makes it very easy to modulate (change key) from the relative major to the relative
minor or vice versa. This will make your compositions instantly more interesting.

HOW TO WORK OUT THE RELATIVE MINOR

The good news is that it’s really easy to work out the relative minor of a major key!
If you want to get from the relative major to the relative minor you simply need to count down 3
semitones from the relative major. Have a look at this example on a keyboard:

123
You can see that if I want to get from C major to its relative minor I start on C and count down 3 semitones
and reach A.
Therefore, the relative minor of C major is A minor.
Here’s another example of the relative minor of E major:

If I want to get from E major to its relative minor, again I count down 3 semitones and reach C sharp.
So, the relative minor of E major is C sharp minor.

HOW TO WORK OUT THE RELATIVE MAJOR

Again, it’s very easy!

All you need to do is to count up 3 semitones from the relative minor and you will reach the relative major.
Have a look at this example:

If I want to get from F sharp minor to its relative major.

Count up 3 semitones and I get to A major.
So, the relative major of F sharp minor is A major.
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RELATIVE KEYS CHART

You can see that it is easy to work out what the relative major/minor of a key is.
However, you do need to know how many sharps/flats are in the related keys in order to be able to use
them in your composition.
I have put together a chart showing all the relative major and minor keys together with their respective key
signatures.
This should help you as you get started:

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 Music Key Signatures
Music key signatures are sharps and flats immediately following the clef sign. These sharps and flats
(accidentals) affect every note on the line or space they represent throughout the entire composition. The only
times they don’t affect a note are when there’s a natural sign on that note or when there’s a key change.
For instance, let’s take a look at the signature for the key of G or E minor. Notice that the sharp sign is over

the F line in the treble clef as well as the bass clef.

This means that every time the note F appears, it will be raised by a semitone to F sharp.
Another example is the key of F Major or D minor. Notice the flat sign over the B line in both the treble and

bass clef?
It flattens the note B by a semitone. So every time the note B appears, the note B flat is played instead.
Key signatures help to reduce on the number of accidentals that would be in a piece of music if they were not
present. They make it so much easier to read music.
Major keys all have a relative minor key. For instance, the relative minor key for C major is A minor. The
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relative minor for F major is D minor. A major key and its relative minor key make use of the same scale.
They have the same signatures. Music written in minor keys often sound sad while those in major keys sound
happier.
Here’s a diagram showing the different key signatures, major and minor on the bass and treble clef.

Each music key signature comes with a particular number of sharps and flats. These sharps and flats have a
particular order as you will notice below.

Sharp keys, the number and order of sharps

Let’s take a look at sharp keys and the number of sharps they come with, as well as the order of sharps.
C major has no sharps or flats.
G major has one sharp, F#
D major has two sharps, F# C#
A major has three sharps, F# C# G#
E major has four sharps, F# C# G# D#
B major has five sharps, F# C# G# D# A#
F# major has six sharps, F# C# G# D# A# E#
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C# major has seven sharps, F# C# G# D# A# E# B#

Flat keys, the number and order of flats

Let’s take a look at flat keys and the number of flats they have.
F major has one flat, Bb
Bb major has two flats, Bb Eb
Eb major has three flats, Bb Eb Ab
Ab major has four flats, Bb Eb Ab Db
Db major has five flats, Bb Eb Ab Db Gb
Gb major has six flats, Bb Eb Ab Db Gb Cb
Cb major has seven flats, Bb Eb Ab Db Gb Cb Fb
As seen above the order of sharps are F# C# G# D# A# E# B#.
The order of flats are Bb Eb Ab Db Gb Cb Fb.
The order of flats are opposite to the order of sharps. You will notice that the first four letters in the order of
flats spell the word BEAD. Here’s a trick to remember the order of sharps. Learn this
line: Fat Cats Go Down Alleys Eating Birds. Memorize this pattern of letters forwards and backwards to
remember the order of sharps and flats.

The following diagram shows the cycle of keys or circle of fifths (circle of fourths). You will also see the

relative minors.

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Here’s another chart showing major keys and their relative minors.

Understanding music key signatures

Here’s one way you can look at major music key signatures and know what keys they represent. If the
signature has sharps, identify the last sharp and raise it by a semitone (half step). For instance if the last sharp
is F#, raise that note by half a step. This takes us to G. The key is G. If the last note in the signature is C sharp,
raise it by a half step to D. In this case, the key is D.
How about flat keys? If the signature has flats, simply look at the note before the last. That note tells you the
key. For instance, E flat major has three flats. The note before the last is E flat. The key is E flat.
The only exceptions to this rule are C since it has no sharps and flats, and F, since it has one flat.
How do you find the relative minor key? Simply find the name of the major key and lower it by three half
step. For instance if the key is C major, lower C by three half steps. This takes us to A minor. If the key is D
major, three half steps lower takes us to the relative minor key, B minor.

Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle.

For sharp keys (clockwise on the circle of fifths), read the mnemonic device forward. For example, the circle

of fifths tells us that there are 3 sharps in the key of A major. Which three notes are sharp? The first three

notes in the mnemonic device: F(ather), C(harles), and G(oes).

For flat keys (counter-clockwise on the circle of fifths), read the mnemonic device backwards. For example,

the circle of fifths tells us that the key of A-flat major has four flats. Which flats? Reading backwards: B(attle),

E(nds), A(nd), D(own).

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 TRIADS
Now that we know how to create and recognize intervals, we have the basis for understanding
harmony–notes sounding (or at least being heard) at the same time. While the most basic harmonic
element is the interval (two notes), we can go one step further and add a third, simultaneously-
sounding note: now we have a chord. A chord with three notes (for our purposes) is called a triad
("tri" as in three notes). But these three notes are arranged in a particular way: in vertical 3rds (also
called “stacked” 3rds).

The four basic triads derive their different qualities from the four possible ways to arrange major
and minor thirds. A triad could be Major, Minor, Diminished or Augmented (just like the
interval qualities). PLEASE NOTE: A triad will always be named in terms of its root (the lowest
note in the vertical arrangement of 3rds). The examples below are all different kinds of “C” triads.

TRIADS IN THE SCALE

Like intervals, triads might be better-understood and/or appreciated when put into a context. We
can see triads, like intervals, as something emerging from and belonging to a scale.

If we take a C major scale and play only the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes, which is every other note
starting from the tonic, we get a C major triad (the intervallic sequence of a major 3rd plus a minor

130
3rd).

Playing these notes

(every other note in the scale,
or notes in thrids in the scale) gives us

We can apply this procedure to any note in the scale: pick a note and then pick the notes that are
a 3rd and a 5th above it (scalar notes), and we get a triad built from every note in the scale with
these results:

 The triads built from the 1st, 4th and 5th degrees of any major scale are major
 The triads built from the 2nd, 3rd and 6th degrees of any major scale are minor
 The triad built from the 7th degree of the major scale is diminished

Scale Degree of Triad’s Root Quality

1, 4, 5 Major
2, 3, 6 Minor
7 Diminished

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THE ROMAN NUMERAL SYSTEM

As a means of relating these different qualities to the different chords based on the seven scale
degrees, a Roman numeral system is used. Upper case numbers represent major triads (I, IV, V),
lower case numbers represent minor triads (ii, iii, vi), and a lower case number with the diminished
symbol ( o ) represents a diminished triad (viio). To represent an augmented triad, the upper case
Roman numeral is followed by a “+” sign.

DIATONIC HARMONIZATION

The triads that come from a scale (in this case, the major scale) are called diatonic triads, meaning
that they are made up of notes only from that particular scale. Another way to describe these triads
is that they harmonize the scale (they turn a melodic scale into something with harmonic
capabilities).

The particular order of major scale diatonic triads (from scale degrees 1 – 7)…

…is always the same, regardless of which major scale we use. This stands to reason; since the
pattern of each major scale is identical, any resulting procedures (such as building triads) should
also form identical patterns from one scale to the next.

So the order of triads in any major scale is:

I ii iii IV V vi viio (I)

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MINOR KEY DIATONIC TRIADS

When we extract triads from the minor scale, the procedure is similar, but not exactly identical.
On the most basic level, we can predict that the diatonic minor triads will be the same chords in
the same order as the major diatonic triads, but shifted to a different starting point. This is so
because the relative minor scale is just the result of starting and ending on the 6th scale degree of
the major scale. So the diatonic triads of an A minor scale would be:

Notice that these are the same diatonic chords of C major. Only the roman numerals and their
qualities have shifted over by three notes (or six, depending on which way you go) to accommodate
the relative minor key of A.

There is, however, a special consideration for the minor key diatonic triads:

Recall that there are three types of minor scales: natural, harmonic and melodic. Because the
harmonic and melodic minor scales use slightly different notes than the natural minor, the resulting
triads will be slightly different. Here are the diatonic triads of a harmonic minor scale (with a raised
7th degree – a G sharp in the case of A minor)

Compared with the natural minor triads, we see that the three chords that use the G natural/G
sharp are different. Here is a side by side comparison:
˜
Natural: i ii III iv v VI VII i
˜ ˜
Harmonic: i ii III+ iv V VI vii

133
We tend not to use the diatonic triads resulting from melodic minor (which would give us a few more
triad options) because that scale is reserved for melodic, not harmonic purposes.

So the result of combining the natural and harmonic minor diatonic chords is:

Of these possibilities, the III+ (augmented) chord is less-used, and the v (minor) chord is used in
a very limited context (we mostly use the V major chord). The viio and VII chords are equally used
subject to context. The final list of the most used diatonic minor key triads is:

Notice that the V and viio chords that came specifically from the harmonic minor scale now have,
in terms of their scale degree numbers, the same qualities as their corresponding chords in a major
key. This connection will become more relevant when we study chord progressions and cadences.

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 TRIAD TERMINOLOGY

The notes of a triad are called chord tones. Each chord tone is named in terms of its distance
from the bottom note of the triad, which is called the root.

Regardless of what quality it is, or which scale degree it is built from, or which key it is in, we
refer to the notes as the root, 3rd and 5th.

TRIADS SUMMARY

 Triads are three note chords whose notes are arranged in 3rds
 They are named after the bottom note, known as the root
 They come in four qualities: Major, Minor, Diminished and Augmented
 The particular arrangement of major and/or minor 3rds will determine the quality of the triad
 Triads can also be derived from a scale (like intervals) by selecting every other note in the
scale, and any note in the scale can serve as the root
 Triads that we associate with a scale are called diatonic triads and they are enumerated with
roman numerals I – VII (uppercase for major, lowercase for minor)
 The most often used minor key diatonic triads are a combination of the natural and harmonic
minor scales with the most important use of the harmonic minor’s V major chord

135
TRIADS: CONTINUITY AND COHESION

The triad is a basic element in harmony, which is the experience of hearing multiple notes sounding
together. Most western classical, pop, jazz and folk music is based off of this kind of harmony.

In recalling the issues of continuity and cohesion, it is worth noting that a big point has been made
to understand triads as chords in a diatonic system, meaning that a particular group of triads can
all be related to a single scale. Since a scale can be heard to represent a type of melodic continuity,
a group of diatonic triads can be heard to represent a type of harmonic continuity. In context, then,
a seemingly random collection of chords might be cohesively tied together by their relationship to
a single scale. The chords CM, Am, Dm, GM are all diatonic to (a part of) the C major scale or the
A minor scale.

Again, we can start to see and hear how at a level of harmony (multiple notes at once), music
theory strives to explain how separate elements (the different chords) are potentially unified
through a fundamental scale. Here, we can liken the notes of a scale as being specific ingredients
for the more complicated chords that emerge from them. Understanding triads (and therefore,
harmony) in this way serves well the basic ideas of continuity and cohesion previouslymentioned.
The other basic idea of motion will be taken up in the section on harmonic progressions later on

7TH CHORDS

The same process that brought about the three-note triad chord can be extended to make a four-
note chord. The triad is formed by selecting every other note (three notes total) in a scale. If we
add one more note through the same process (a third higher), we get a 7th chord. The top note (the
last note added) is an intervallic 7th from the root (bottom note) of the chord.

Similar to the four qualities of the triads, there are five types of 7th chords:

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Major, Minor, Dominant, Half Diminished and Diminished

Abstractly, the different qualities of the 7th chords can be determined by their interval contents:

It is possible to have an augmented 7th chord (an augmented triad with a minor third on top), but
it is most-often used in music after the Classical era.

The superscript symbols for diminished and half diminished are:

Diminished: o

Half Diminished:
In a diatonic context, the 7th chords are as follows:

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 The I7 and IV 7 are major 7ths.
 The V7 chord is a dominant 7th (built off of the 5th/dominant scale degree).
 The vii is a half diminished chord.
 The viio is not a literal diatonic chord because it has a non-scale tone (A flat in the case of C
major), but we allow it the same way we allow similar variations in the minor key triads. In
addition, you will notice that the diminished viio7 sounds very similar to the half diminished
vii .

APPLICATION OF 7TH CHORDS

In more modern music, especially jazz, all the possible diatonic 7th chords are used quite often. In
earlier music (such as from the classical period), the more often used 7th chords were limited to
the V7 (the dominant 7th) and the diminished viio7 and half diminished vii 7ths (i.e. major and
minor 7th chords were seldom used). This was the case for both the major and minor keys. In
minor keys, like with their triads, the harmonic minor mode was often used when harmonizing
certain chords that used the leading tone (limited to chords built off of the 5th and 7th scale
degrees).

The three more-often used 7th chords as they appear in A minor. Like with the
diatonic minor triads, these chords use the raised 7th scale degree (leading
tone) that comes from the harmonic minor mode (the G sharp).

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 7TH CHORDS SUMMARY

 7th chords are four-note chords

 They are essentially triads with another note added on top; this note is a 7th above the root
note
 Like triads, the top note is either a major or minor 3rd above the note directly beneath it
 There are five 7th chord qualities: Major 7th, Minor 7th, Dominant 7th, Half diminished 7th
and Diminished 7th (although there are other ways to arrange the major and minor 3rds)
 Also like triads, 7th chords can harmonize the major and minor scales
 When we notate 7th chords, we always include a superscript "7" to the right of the chord
symbol (either a letter name, or a roman numeral)
 And also like triads, the seventh chords built off the 5th and 7th scale degrees of a minor key
more often use the harmonic minor mode, which has the raised 7th in the scale
 Additionally, the chord built off the raised 7th scale degree in minor could be either a half
diminished 7th chord or a diminished 7th chord
 The dominant, half diminished and diminished 7th chords are the ones most frequently used
in classical style music, while jazz will regularly use the major and minor 7th chords as well

INVERTING CHORDS

The triads and 7th chords we have examined so far are called root position chords because the root
of the chord is the lowest note. We call the bottom note the bass note. But the bass note ofa chord
and the root note of a chord are not always the same thing.

When we invert a chord (just like when we inverted intervals), we re-arrange the order of the notes
while not actually changing the notes themselves. A step-by-step approach to this process looks
like this:

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 Term Triad 7th Chord
Root The
Position root is in
the bass

First
Inversion The root
moves to the
top (inverts),
Second leaving the 3rd of
Inversion the chord in the
bass

Third The process

Inversion repeats: the bass
note (the 3rd)
(only for moves to the top,
7th chords) leaving the 5th as the
new bass note

The process repeats:

now the 7th of the
chord is in the bass

Note: all these inversions are in closed position, meaning that there is never more than an
octave between the lowest and highest note.

In listening to these different inversions, notice that while there is something different-sounding
about each chord, they moreover sound the same. It is as if each inversion is merely a different hue
of the same color. In music theory terms, the same notes in any order or arrangement will always
make the same harmony (since harmony is not defined by the vertical order of the notes), although
each unique arrangement of the notes will have its own, unique harmonic "hue".

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FIGURED BASS NOTATION

Figured bass notation uses numbers to describe the inversion of a triad or 7th chord. While we
have already acquired a logical set of names for describing all the possible inversions of chords
(root position, 1st inversion, 2nd inversion, and 3rd inversion in 7th chord cases), the numeric
system of figured bass is much more concise and scientific. The numbers in figured bass notation
refer to harmonic intervals above the bass note of any chord in any closed inversion.
The three notes of a triad form two different intervals above the bass note. These intervals
change as the inversion of the triad changes. (We will forgo the major or minor qualities of the
intervals since those are inherently defined by the governing scale).

Root 1st 2nd

pos. inv. inv.
triad triad triad

The same idea holds true for 7th chords, except there is one additional interval since there is one
additional note.
Root

pos.7th 1st inv. 2nd inv. 3rd inv.

chord 7th 7th 7th
chord chord chord

By vertically listing the intervals above the bass note of a chord from bottom to top, we thereby
know the chord’s inversion, if any. This chart lists all the inversions and intervals as we would see
them in figured bass notation:

Triad 7th
Inversio Fig. Chord Bass Note
n
Bass Fig.
Bass
Root 5 7
3 5 Root in
3 bass
6 6
1st 3rd in
3 5
3 bass
6 6
2nd 5th in
4 4
bass
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 3

6
3rd N/A 7th in
4
2 bass

142
 CADENCES
A cadence is a chord progression of at least 2 chords that ends a phrase or section of a piece of music. The
easiest way to understand cadences in music is to think of the punctuation you find at pauses and breaks in
spoken speech. Take the following spoken rhyme:

Notice how there are different pauses at the end of each line. The 2nd and 4th line have a period (full stop)
at the end – this is because the rhyme could end there and still make sense – it is a definite pausing point.
The 3rd line has a comma at the end of it because this shows that the rhyme is going to continue. The rhyme
pauses, but is clearly going to continue because it wouldn’t make sense if it stopped at the end of the 3rd line.

These pauses are weak/strong depending on how much of a sense of completion is created. In a similar
way, music is divided up into phrases/sections. When you listen to the end of a phrase in music it either
sounds like it is finished or unfinished. Whether it sounds finished or unfinished depends on which cadence
is used.

TYPES OF CADENCES

There are 4 main types of cadence you will come across – 2 of them sound finished, whilst the other 2 sound
unfinished:

FINISHED CADENCES

Both of the finished cadences sound finished because they end on chord I. For example, in C major a finished
cadence would end on the chord C. In G major, it would finish on a G chord, etc…
Authentic Cadence/Perfect Cadence
This goes from chord V to chord I (this is written V-I). It is the cadence that sounds the “most finished”.
Here is an example of a finished cadence in C major. Notice how the chords at the end of the phrase go from
V (G) – I (C) and it sounds finished.

Play Perfect Cadence Example

Plagal Cadence
A Plagal Cadence goes from chord IV to chord I (IV-I). It is sometimes called the “Amen Cadence” because
the word “Amen” is set to it at the end of many traditional hymns.
Have a look at and listen to this example in C major:

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 Play Plagal Cadence Example
Both of these cadences sound finished because they end on chord I, but they each have their own characteristic
sound. Now let’s have a look at the unfinished cadences:

UNFINISHED CADENCES

Unfinished cadences sound unfinished because they don’t end on chord I. When you hear an unfinished
cadence at the end of a phrase it sounds like the music should not stop there – it sounds like it should continue
onto the next section.

Half Cadence/Imperfect Cadence

A half cadence/imperfect cadence ends on chord V. It can start on chord I, II or IV.
Have a listen to this example in G major. Notice how the last 2 chords are I (G) followed by V (D).

Play Imperfect Cadence Example

The music clearly sounds like it should continue.

Interrupted Cadence (Deceptive Cadence)

An interrupted cadence ends on an unexpected chord – the music literally does sound like it has been
“interrupted”. The most common chord progression you will come across is from chord V to chord VI (V-VI).
So, in this example in A major below, the last 2 chords are V (E) and VI (F sharp minor). Listen to how
frustrating it sounds that the music doesn’t continue:

Play Interrupted Cadence Example

Again, the music sounds like it is unfinished – it sounds like it has just paused and should now continue onto a
new section.

SUMMARY OF CADENCES
Here is a summary of the 4 cadences – Perfect, Imperfect, Plagal, Interrupted – hope it helps!!

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 Sequences

WHAT ARE SEQUENCES IN MUSIC?

A sequence is the “more or less exact repetition of a passage at a higher or lower level of pitch”. (The Oxford
Dictionary of Music, Kennedy, M.).
I am going to explain sequences in music by showing/playing you various examples.
Have a look/listen to the following example of a sequence:

Play Sequence Example

This is a clear example of a sequence.

You can see how the short melodic phrase is played and then repeated at a higher level of pitch.
The same pattern is then repeated again at a higher pitch, etc..
TYPES OF SEQUENCES

There are 2 main types of sequence you will come across in music:

1. Melodic Sequence – This is the repetition of a melody (like in the above example)
2. Harmonic Sequence – This is a repetition of a series of chords (I will explain this later)
When the word “sequence” is used it generally implies that both melodic and harmonic material is being
used.

EXAMPLES OF MELODIC SEQUENCES

TONAL SEQUENCE

In a tonal sequence the intervals between the notes are altered to some extent.
The interval size usually stays the same (i.e. 4th, 5th, etc..).
However, the interval quality changes (e.g. a minor interval may become a major interval) This change in
quality is inevitable if the composer wants the key to remain unchanged.

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In our example of a sequence you can see that the interval sizes remain the same across the 2 melodies (3rd,
3rd, 2nd, 2nd in the 1st melody stay as 3rd, 3rd, 2nd, 2nd in the repeated melody):

However, the interval qualities change (major 3rd, minor 3rd, major 2nd, minor 2nd in the first melody
become minor 3rd, major 3rd, major 2nd, major 2nd in the repeated melody):

These changes in quality continue through all 4 bars of the sequence and so our sequence example is a Tonal
Sequence.

REAL SEQUENCE

In a real sequence there is no change in either the size or quality of the intervals (this will usually mean
that the composer has to change the key as the sequence progresses).
If we convert our example of a sequence into a real sequence it would look as follows:

You can see how we have converted the 2 “F” notes to “F sharp” notes so that the interval qualities remain the
same.

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The full sequence would look and sound like this:

Play Real Sequence Example

Can you hear how the music sounds like it is changing key (modulating) as the sequence progresses?

MIXED SEQUENCE

A sequence that has several repetitions, some of which are tonal and some of which are real is called
a Mixed Sequence.

Mixed Sequence Example

In the example above you can see that the sequence between the 1st two bars is a real sequence, whilst
the remaining bars are tonal sequences.

EXAMPLES OF HARMONIC SEQUENCES

DESCENDING HARMONIC SEQUENCES

DESCENDING CIRCLE-OF-FIFTHS SEQUENCE

This sequence gets its name from the fact that each successive chord has a root note that is a fifth lower than
the previous chord.

Descending circle of 5ths Harmonic Sequence

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DESCENDING THIRDS SEQUENCE

In a descending thirds sequence the chords move down a third for each repetition, hence the name.

Descending Thirds Harmonic Sequence

ASCENDING HARMONIC SEQUENCES

ASCENDING CIRCLE-OF-FIFTHS SEQUENCE

In an ascending circle-of-fifths sequence each chord’s root is a 5th higher than the previous chord in the
sequence.

Ascending Circle of Fifths Harmonic Sequence

COMPOSING USING SEQUENCES

Sequences are an excellent tool for composing music – I use them in a lot of the pieces I write.

Have a look/listen to this piano piece I wrote called “A Time To Mourn”.

The piece shows clear examples of melodic and harmonic sequences (I have annotated the sheet music to

148
show the sequences).

A Time To Mourn by Ben Dunnett

149
You will find lots of examples of sequences in the music you listen to.
A famous example of a descending melodic sequence can be found in the well known Christmas carol “Ding
Dong Merrily on High”.
Have a look/listen to this example below:

Ding Dong Merrily on High

I hope you have found this lesson on sequences helpful.
My advice would be to try composing/improvising some short melodies and then experiment with repeating
them at different transpositions.
I am sure that you will be pleasantly surprised by what you discover!

MODULATION

Modulation is when the music changes from one key to another key. So far, all the examples we have
studied are in a single key. There are many ways that keys might change, and any key can change to any
other key. In classical music, modulation was a given. In fact, a piece might modulate many times to
many different keys in any combination of major and/or minor, althoughit would inevitably return to its
original key. That is why when we say a symphony or a sonata isin A major, we know for sure that first
and last parts (sections, movements) will be in A major, and that the inner sections or movements will
likely be in another key or keys.

In the classical idiom, initial modulations tended to be to close keys. A close key referred to a key that
was close in terms of the circle of fifths, and/or in terms of a relative major/minor relationship. For
example, a piece in A minor might modulate to C major (its relative major) or to E minor (one clockwise
key away in the circle of fifths). A piece in C major would probably modulate to G major (one key
clockwise), F major (one key counter-clockwise), or A minor (the relative minor).

Modulations to close keys allowed for both contrast and continuity. The mere change of key provides a
strong contrast since the whole center of gravity in a piece changes when the key changes (the degree
to which we feel the change depends on the distance of the new key). Contrast was important in as much
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as it is important to have a verse section and a chorus section in a pop, or even punk song; it serves the
larger purpose of change and motion (direction, inevitability, goal, etc.) – it mixes things up a bit.

But the fact that the modulated-to key was close allowed for a new key that had a lot of notes in common
with the initial key: continuity. If we compare even the keys of A minor and C major, they sound very
different from one and other (contrast), even though they have the exact same notes (except for the G
sharp in the A harmonic minor mode). Therefore, while these keys clearly differ, the transformation
from one to the next is also smooth because they have so many notes in common. The relationship
between the two keys can make sense in terms of continuity because of how much they have in common.

Consider this food analogy. When we have egg roles as an appetizer, followed by hot and sour soup,
then chow mien, and a fortune cookie for dessert, we can be fairly sure that we are eating a Chinese-
restaurant-style meal. If we had garlic bread, pasta, marinara sauce and Chianti wine, chances are we
would be eating off on an Italian menu. In each case, each course of the meal is representative of the
larger style if food. Compared to music, the meal as a whole is like a large piece of music. Each course
of the meal represents a different modulation, or different section in a different key. We feel some level
of cohesion from course to course within each style of cooking because the ingredients (and the way
they are prepared) are closely related within each style (like closely related keys). But we also enjoy
the contrast of the different courses that makes up the whole meal because we place a high value on
variety and change. The multi- course meal is a series of events that share a larger thematic connection,
like chapters in a bookor scenes in a play…or keys, themes and movements in a piece of music.

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BASIC EXAMPLES OF MODULATION

There are many ways that a piece might change keys. One of the more basic types of modulationis called
common chord modulation. Keys that are closely related also have chords that overlap.

Here are the diatonic triads of CM and GM:

C: CM (I) Dm (ii) Em (iii) FM (IV) GM (V) Am (vi) B dim. (viio)

G: GM (I) Am (ii) Bm (iii) CM (IV) DM (V) Em (vi) F dim. (viio)

Between these two keys, four chords overlap: CM, Em, GM and Am.

C: CM (I) Dm (ii) Em (iii) FM (IV) GM (V) Am (vi) B dim. (viio)

G: GM (I) Am (ii) Bm (iii) CM (IV) DM (V) Em (vi) F dim. (viio)

Although these chords function differently in each key, the absolute chords are identical. The implication
of this phenomenon is that these chords can act as pivot chords in going from one key to the next (C to
G or G to C). As pivot chords, they ease the sense of transition from key to key.

C: I IV V I vi
G: ii V I

In the above example, the pivot chord (Am) from C to G is the vi chord in C, which is also the iichord
in G.

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Here is a possible modulation from A minor to C major where both the i and iv (am and Dm)chords are
pivot chords:

a: i iio V i iv
C: vi ii V I

When a chord progression is moving forward, we are not necessarily aware that it has modulated via
pivot chords. We are only sure that the modulation has taken place after the pivot chords have definitely
led to the tonic chord in the new key.

In the above two previous examples (shown again, below), it is only at the sound of the I chords in the
new keys, that we know for sure a modulation has occurred. This key change is then confirmed as the
new keys settle around the new notes and new tonics.

By this point (the cadence to G) we are

sure that a modulation has taken place

C: I IV V I vi
G: ii V I

By this point (the cadence to C) we are

sure that a modulation has taken place

a: i iio V i iv
C: vi ii V I

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TONAL IMPLICATIONS OF MODULATION

Another important feature of modulation is that the act of changing keys actually serves the larger goal
of reinforcing the initial key. As was mentioned earlier, most “classical” style pieces are wont to
modulate. This act of changing keys represents a departure or contrast, and helps with the music’s sense
of motion and adventure. But music that modulates away from a key will eventually modulate back to
that original key by the conclusion of the section or piece, which provides cohesion (this should remind
you of how a scale starts and ends on its tonic!!). The contrast provided by the modulations sheds a
stronger light on the original, cohesive key. This isnot necessarily the case in more recent music that
has grown out of the classical tradition, but itis still the case for most pop and jazz songs.

With the original key acting like a bookend to the music as a result of the in-between modulations, a
hierarchy (or a center of gravity) is established. Looking back at our initial discussion about the scale,
we can draw some meaningful connections to modulation. Recall thatthe scale can be heard to represent
a home-away-home feeling as it goes from the tonic, to the other notes, and eventually back to the tonic.
Likewise, the home key of a larger piece is like the tonic of a scale. In the larger piece, the sense of
motion, drama, tension and adventure is provided by the key changes, but the beginning and end are the
anchors; they are home.

This way of structuring music deepens the feeling of what it means to be in a key. When we use the term
“tonal” music, we are (generally speaking) referring to music that is based on major or minor scales.
When a larger piece modulates through different keys to establish a hierarchy of keys, the idea of tonality
takes on another dimension. The different keys relate to one another the way notes in a scale, chords
in a progression, or phrases and cadences in a period relate. Theplace you first leave, and the final goal,
is always home.

MELODIES AND VOICE LEADING

On a basic level, we often separate music into two components as far as pitches are concerned. Harmony,
as we have learned, deals with multiple pitches heard at the same time. Melody, the other component,
consists of single pitches heard one at a time (one after the other). In addition, these single pitches will
incorporate a rhythmic component, meaning that the length of the note values might vary. In its
traditional manifestation, however, a melody will be primarily concerned with voice leading.

Voice leading is the way in which a melody is guided so that from one note to the next, the lineis very
singable and user-friendly for the voice. The term voice leading originated from the practice of writing
vocal music, especially in the context of it being choral music in the church. In this sense, the melody
(the voice) was led from note to note in a manner that was “natural” for the voice. An extreme example
of a “natural” melody line would be something along the line ofa children’s song: Mary Had a Little
Lamb, or Three Blind Mice, where the lines do not cover a very wide range, skip registers very much,
or make large leaps.

CONJUNCT AND DISJUNCT MOTION

This type of approach to voice leading did not just mean that a melody would move in simple, small
steps (the easiest thing for the voice to do). Good traditional voice leading was careful to combine certain
kinds of leaps with smaller stepwise/scale-like melodic motion. The terms for these two basic types of
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melodic motion are conjunt (small, stepwise) and disjunct (leaping, non-scalar). Good voice leading,
then, carefully combines conjunct and disjunct melodic motion. This makes the line smooth and un-
jagged, but with enough variety in its overall contour to keep it interesting and engaging. Mary Had a
Little Lamb, for example, is not that interesting becauseit has no leaps in it (no disjunct motion). Three
Blind Mice is a little more elaborate because the second part of the tune has a nice, conspicuous leap in
it (of a perfect 4th).

VOICE LEADING “RULES”

The aesthetic ideal of typical (read “good”) voice leading was to create a line that was singable, forward-
moving, directed, and with variety incorporated into it. Simple melody/voice lines, like the kind we
would find in a portion of a renaissance choral piece, or a Bach adhered to a number of rules or
tendencies that served this model. These rules and tendencies helped ensure that these ideals were
fulfilled.

Here is a list of very basic rules for diatonic voice leading. Remember that the “rules” of traditional
voice leading were just an elaborate scheme of tendencies that were used over and over again, which
established a long-standing “classical” stylistic consistency. These tendencies ensured that the melody
lines were easy to sing and that they had a sense of continuity (not choppy or leap-heavy), direction
(logical motion), variety and contour.

Beginning: Begin on the tonic or dominant (5th) and usually on a strong beat
Ending: End on the tonic (on a strong beat), which should be immediately preceded by the leading
tone (even in minor) or the supertonic (the 2nd scale degree); this allows for a
smooth, gentle finish
Key: Limited to the diatonic notes of a particular key (for now…)
Shape: Usually arch shaped with a single, high climax note on a strong beat
Range: Maximum of a 10th, minimum of a 5th per phrase
Leaps: Large leaps should be preceded and followed by motion in the opposite direction
of the leap, except at the very beginning, where the leap need not be preceded by
stepwise motion–basically, the leap makes a gap in the texture, then the gap gets
filled in
Note Values: Mostly quarter notes with longer values reserved for the beginning or end areas (long
note values in the middle will impede the needed sense of motion)
Variety: The line should mostly consist of conjunct motion (steps) with some disjunct motion
(leaps) to add variety
Repetition: Avoid repeating tones or groups of tones which could hinder the sense of forward-
motion
Length: For the time being (and for the sake of convenience), melodies (i.e. a melodic
phrase) should average three or four measures in length

155
VOICE LEADING EXAMPLES

156
 MORE EXAMPLES

Below is a longer, perfectly fine example of good voice leading:

 The line has a nice arch shape, but with some variety-providing changes of direction
 There is a balance of conjunct and disjunct motion
 There is a single climax note
 All the large leaps are properly prepared and resolved
 While there is a longer note value in the middle, there is only one and it serves to divide the
larger phrase into two “sub-phrases”

Below is a melody full of errors:

1. There are two leaps in a row without any preparation or resolution: this disrupts the sense of
flow and continuity
2. A group of tones (D, C) is immediately repeated, which impedes the sense of forward motion
3. The climax note is the leading tone, which makes the line feel like it should continue upward
to the tonic
4. The leap from the B down to the F is an augmented 4th (a forbidden leap – just listen to it!)
5. There is a large leap to the last note, which makes for a somewhat harsh, bumpy landing

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COMBINING MELODY AND HARMONY

While anything is possible in music, there are certain basic rules and practices that help the
combination of chords and melodies sound cohesive. Generally speaking, the melody is in the
highest register and the harmony is in the lower register.

CHORD TONES & NON-CHORD TONES

When combining melody and harmony, the melody notes fall into two categories: chord tones and
non-chord tones. A chord tone is a melody note that is in the chord above which it is sounding (but
in a higher register). A non-chord tone is a melody note that is not a part of the chord above which
it is sounding.

These melody notes are chord tones because they are notes that are also a part of the harmony that
supports them below. The result is a very cohesive blend between the melody and harmony.

Chord Tones

These melody notes (below) are non-chord tones because they are not a part of their corresponding
harmonies. The result is a bit of a clash between the melody and harmony (a dissonance). While
this dissonance may or may not sound “ugly”, the overall blend of the non- chord tone and the
harmony creates a potentially less stylistically-typical sound. While non- chord tones are a normal
and effective part of traditional melody/harmony combining, their placement is limited and control

Non-Chord Tones

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COMBINING MELODY AND HARMONY – THE PROCESS

Our first attempt at combining melody with harmony will limit itself to only chord tones in the
melody. Given a harmonic progression, a basic chord tone melody might fit like so (remember that
in addition to being limited to the few momentary notes of the harmony, the melody should as best
as possible follow all of the voice leading rules discussed earlier):

Never mind for now that each chord is in root

position

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TYPES OF NON-CHORD TONES

As defined earlier, a non-chord tone (N.C.T.) is a note that is not a part of the momentary harmony
supporting it. There are many kinds of N.C.T.s and we will explore just a few.

The most important thing to appreciate about N.C.T.s is that in conjunction with the chords with
which they sound, they create to a greater or lesser degree, a dissonance (or something less
cohesive). In traditional music, dissonance usually needs to be followed by resolution (recall the
leading tone of a scale resolving up to the tonic; to have not resolved the leading tone creates a
strong feeling of discomfort). When we describe the different N.C.T.s, we define some by the way
in which they resolve. Other N.C.T.s we define by how they are approached. But most importantly,
a N.C.T. is a dissonance that resolves by moving to a chord tone:

Here is a summary and brief description of the N.C.T.s that we will explore:

Name Approached by Left by (in order to resolve)

Passing Tone (P.T.) Step Step in the same direction

Neighbor Tone (N.T.) Step Step in the opposite direction (back
to the previous chord tone)
Suspension (Susp.) Same tone (tied over) Step down

PASSING TONE

The passing tone is one of the most basic and common type of non-chord tone. It more often falls
on a weaker beat (not the first beat of a measure) and is always approached and left by step in the
same direction. This means that notes before and after the passing tone are usually chord tones. It
also means that all the notes are moving in the same direction (either up or down).

This is a N.C.T. passing tone (the B on the second beat) because it does not belong in the C chord
below it. Notice that the notes before and after it are chord tones in their respective chords. Also
notice that the notes are connected by step (no leaps) and that all three are moving in the same
direction.

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 The Double Passing Tone

Depending on the rhythm, the particular chords, and the melody notes, there could be two non-
chord tone passing tones in a row. They still follow the rules of being approached and left by step
in the same direction.

NEIGHBOR TONE

Very much like the passing tone (and as equally popular), the neighbor tone is approached and left
by step, but this time in the opposite direction. The neighbor returns to the same note that preceded
it.

In each case, the neighbor tone is a step above or below the tone that precedes and follows it. In
this sense the neighbor tone acts as an ornament to the tone before and after it.

Double Neighbor Tone

Also like the double passing tone, we have a double neighbor (two notes). This event puts tones
both above and below the (or below and above) the tone that is being ornamented.

In each of these examples, the tone being ornamented

is the C
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SUSPENSION

The suspension is a more complex non-chord tone, but very beautiful. A suspended note is a chord
tone within an initial harmony that lingers while the underlying harmony changes. This held-over
note then resolves into a chord tone of the new chord by moving down by step. This can happen
in many combinations.

In less-frequent cases, the suspended note re-articulates:

COMBINING MELODY AND HARMONY – SUMMARY

 Basic melodies consist of chord tones (C.T.)

 The note values of the melody can be faster or slower than the note values of the changing
harmonies
 Most melodies incorporate non-chord tones (N.C.T.)
 A non-chord tone creates some sense of dissonance against the harmony with which it is
sounding; in order to alleviate this dissonance, the N.C.T. resolves into a subsequent C.T.
 While there are many N.C.T.s, the three we explored are:
 Passing Tone/Double Passing Tone: approached by step, left by step in the same direction
 Neighbor Tone/Double Neighbor Tone: approached by step, left by step in the opposite
direction
 Suspension: approached by the same tone, resolved by stepping down

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 Here is an example of a melody that incorporates all the chord tone and non-chord tone practices
we have so far covered. Each note is analyzed in terms of one of these tones:

Notice that the more dissonant non-chord tones fall on either weak beats, or at least after the
articulation (initial sounding) of a chord. To put it another way, the chord tone always articulates
with a chord articulation (beats 1 or 3), if not more often. The single exception to this tendency
is the suspension in the last measure; a suspension is always held over while a new chord
articulates.

THE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC

The elements of music can be seen as being the building blocks of music. Without them, music (of any
style/age) would not exist because sound itself would not exist!
Think of the elements of music like the crucial elements of a car. A car needs wheels, an engine, brakes, doors,
a chassis, a steering wheel, etc. Without these key elements it will no longer be a car. Without the key musical
elements, a piece of music will no longer be music.

WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC?

Here is a quick run through of the main musical elements (you will come across variations of this, but these
are the crucial ones):

Pitch – how high or low a note sounds

Rhythm – the pattern of regular or irregular pulses caused in music by the occurrence of strong and weak
beats. (In everyday language this is the “groove”).
Duration – the length of a musical note
Structure – the way in which an overall piece of music is arranged into similar and contrasting sections.
Dynamics – how loud/quiet the music is (either the overall sound or of individual notes/instruments within it)
Pulse – the beat of the music
Texture – the way in which melody, rhythm and harmony are combined in a piece of music. What each
part/instrument is doing at any given point.
Tempo – the speed of the pulse
Timbre – the tone of a musical note

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Tonality – the key in which a piece is written (can change as piece progresses)
Harmony – the relationship between 2 or more simultaneously sounding notes

WHY ARE THE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC IMPORTANT?

They are important for 2 reasons:

1. Performing/analyzing Music – An understanding of the musical elements will enable you to understand
any piece of music, whether you are trying to perform the piece or analyse it. If we know the key elements that
make up a car, then we can use them to compare any car around the world from a Ferrari to a pickup truck by
asking some simple questions – “What size engine does it have? What colour is it? How many wheels does it
have? etc..” In the same way, we can understand any piece of music by asking questions – “What is the
tempo? How loud is it? What key is it in? What instruments are playing? Etc…”

2. Composing Music – The musical elements are your “composer’s toolbox” – without a clear understanding
of the elements of a car you will never be able to build a car. Without a clear grasp of the elements of music
your ability to write music will be seriously compromised and you will not be able to reach your potential as a
composer (whatever style you are wanting to write in).

40 basic music theory terms you need to know

Best of 2020: Music theory's tricky enough without the lexicon - get your head around the lingo with our
quick dictionary

Learning music theory but finding yourself befuddled by all the technical terms involved? Our glossary
has you covered, busting every bit of chord- and scale-related jargon from 'ascending' to 'unison'.
Ascending
Rising in pitch, or going up the piano keyboard from left to right.
Cadence
A short sequence of notes or chords at the end of a musical phrase.
Chord
More than two notes played at the same time.

Circle of fifths
A diagram charting the relationship between the 12 notes/keys in the chromatic scale.
Descending
Falling in pitch, or going down the piano keyboard from right to left.
Diminished fifth
An interval of a perfect fifth flattened by one semitone - eg, C-Gb or A-Eb.
Dominant
The fifth note of a scale, an interval of a perfect fifth above the tonic. Also, a chord built on this fifth note.
Extended
Extended chords contain extra notes added from further up the keyboard. A major ninth chord, for instance,
contains root, third, fifth, seventh and ninth.
Flat
Determines that a note should be one semitone lower in pitch.
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Harmonic interval
Notes of different pitches played together at the same time, as opposed to one after the other.

Harmony
A tune that complements a melody when played at the same time. Also refers to the relationship between a
series of chords.
Interval
The difference between two note pitches. Intervals are named according to the number of letter names they
span, e.g. from C to D is a second, C to F is a fourth, etc.
Inversion
The order of notes in a chord is changed. A first inversion would see the root shifted up an octave to the top of
a chord.
Key
The scale on which a piece of music is based. The key takes its name from the tonic, or first note of this scale.
Major scale
The most common scale in Western music. A series of eight notes with a set pattern of intervals: 2-2-1-2-2-2-
1.
Major second
An interval of two semitones between two different notes. For example, C to D is a major second interval.

Major seventh
The interval between the root note and the seventh note (or 'degree') of a major scale. Equivalent to 11
semitones.
Major sixth
An interval of nine semitones between two different notes. C to A, for example.
Major third
An interval of four semitones between two different notes. Examples include C to E, G to B, D to F#.

Melodic interval
When two notes of different pitches are played one after the other - in other words, atwo-note melody.
Melody
A sequence of notes played one after the other to produce a tune.
Minor scale
The sad-sounding sequence of notes you get when you play a major scale from the sixth note upwards.
Minor second
An interval of one semitone between two notes. For example, C to Db is a minor second interval.
Minor third
An interval of three semitones between two different notes. For example, C to Eb is a minor third interval, as
is G to Bb.
Minor seventh
The interval between the root note and the flattened seventh note (or 'degree') of a major scale. Equivalent to
ten semitones.
Minor sixth
An interval of eight semitones between two different notes. For example, C to Ab is a minor sixth interval.
Mode
A type of scale built by starting another scale from a note other than its root.
Octave
An interval of 12 semitones, at which the two notes have the same 'quality', just one higher and one lower.
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Root
The lowest note of a chord or scale. C is the root note of a C major chord and of the C major scale.
Rootless voicing
When an extended chord is played with the root note missing. Used a lot in jazz and gospel music.
Scale
A sequence of notes going up or down the keyboard with a particular pattern of intervals between them.

Secondary dominant
The name given to a chord based on the fifth, or dominant, note of any key or scale other than the tonic key.
Semitone
The smallest interval in a chromatic scale, or the distance between any two notes on the piano keyboard.
Seventh
A four-note chord formed by adding the seventh note of the scale to a triad that already contains a root, third
and fifth.
Sharp
Raised in pitch by one semitone.
Tone
Short for 'whole tone', an interval of two semitones.
Tonic
The first note, or 'root' note, of a scale.
Transpose
To shift a piece of music, note or chord up or down in pitch by a certain number of semitones.

Triad
A chord made up of three notes. A major triad contains a root, a major third and a perfect fifth.
Unison
An interval that's not an interval - in other words, the interval of zero semitones, the same note played twice.

Musical Modes

The Major Scale: The Basis for Explaining Musical Modes

Let me preface by saying that, yes, minor scales also have modes but they behave the same as the ones based
on the major scale, which is vastly easier to understand especially when C-Major is used as the example
(which we will be doing).

Every scale is made up of seven notes that start from the tonic and climb upward. When you hit the eighth
scale degree you're back to the tonic and have climbed on octave. All Western scales and modes are all built
from the white-key only diatonic scale of six perfect fifths (also known as C-Major).

The type of scale or mode is determined by the sequence of intervals between the notes in the scale.

In the case of a major scale, you begin at the tonic and proceed as follows:

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W-W-H-W-W-W-H

The letters refer to either whole steps (or tones) and half-steps (or semitones). So with C-Major, which
includes no flats or sharps, it looks like this:

As you can see, things are very simple in C-Major with a tonic of C and no accents. Let's build the modes off
of C-Major first to wrap our heads around the process.

Constructing the Musical Modes

Now remember, we are working in the major scale with C-Major.

There are seven modes available to you in modern Western music. Why seven? Because each mode is based
on each note of a scale as the new tonic! That will make sense in just one second. Here are your seven basic
modes:

1. Ionian - C
2. Dorian - D
3. Phrygian - E
4. Lydian - F
5. Mixolydian - G
6. Aeolian - A
7. Locrian - B
They are numbered 1 through 7, and their number is the scale degree which acts as their new tonic.

So for instance, the Dorian mode of C-Major begins on the 2nd scale degree, D, and then climbs through to C
at the 7th scale degree, using the exact same pitches with no sharps or flats.

The Lydian mode of C-Major begins on the 4th scale degree, F, and climbs on to E at the 7th degree. You
simply shift yourself forward a number of scale degrees and use that note as your new tonic.

That is how it's done, but the problem is that you won't be communicating about it in this way. The reason is
that musicians talk to each other about scales based on the tonic, or root note.

So you wouldn't say "We're going to play this one in the Dorian mode based on C-Major." You'll actually say
"We'll be playing this tune in D-Dorian," because the tonic is the D note.

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What's happening is that after you shift forward on the scale degrees to find your new tonic, you're also
shifting the sequence of intervals away from the major scale sequence of W - W - H - W - W - W - H.

While modes are easily constructed from C-Major, what truly defines them is their sequence of intervals,
which makes them very different from your typical scales and key signatures.

All major scales follow the above sequence which leads the various accents used in different major key
signatures. But modes wrap through that sequence instead.

Let's look at our list again in light of this new information in table format:

Mode Interval Sequence

Ionian W W H W W W H

Dorian W H W W W H W

Phrygian H W W W H W W

Lydian W W W H W W H

Mixolydian W W H W W H W

Aeolian W H W W H W W

Locrian H W W H W W W
Visually you can see the pattern rolling out with the diagonals full of H's. This is how you'll remember which
mode features which sequence of intervals until you begin to have it memorized.

Ultimately you'll want to think about it in terms of scale degrees and accents, because you can apply these
modes to any major or minor scale.

Because a mode is a type of variation on a scale, there are no key signatures to memorize. What you need to
remember is how you will alter the existing key signature.

This final table represents how you should think about these modes once you're able to work out the details in
your head. Understanding is the most important, and then you won't have to bother with committing it to
memory. It will happen naturally.

Mode Interval Sequence

Ionian 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Mode Interval Sequence

Dorian 1 2 b3 4 5 6 b7

Phrygian 1 b2 b3 4 5 b6 b7

Lydian 1 2 3 #4 5 6 7

Mixolydian 1 2 3 4 5 6 b7

Aeolian 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 b7

Locrian 1 b2 b3 4 b5 b6 b7
If you're the type with a strong imagery-based memory then you'll have an easy time with this, because there's
even a visual pattern in this layout.

The real absurdity comes when you realize that some of these are the exact same scales by different names.
For instance, all of these are the same:

 C Lydian
 D Mixolydian
 E Aeolian
 F# Locrian
 G Ionian
 A Dorian
 B Phrygian
It can get a little silly like that, but fortunately you'll be working off of chord charts or at least working on a
staff. Only the super modal jazz guys improvise while jumping around modes and keys.

Now, we'll talk about each mode itself and the peculiarities of each. Each has a specific note that gives it it's
characteristic. Each is also major or minor in it's own right beyond the scale you start with, which will help
you choose which to use to match the emotional impact of your song.

Musical Modes' Characteristics

Each of the main seven modes of Western music has certain characteristics that can help you achieve your
songwriting goals. Let's look at each individually.

IONIAN MODE

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  Characteristic Degree: N/A
 Interval Sequence: W-W-H-W-W-W-H
 Example: Let It Be by The Beatles
 Example: Goodbye to Romance by Ozzy Osbourne
An astute observer will have noticed that the Ionian mode is none other than the Major Scale by another name.
It is the exact same. This is the mode we all know and love, used in pop music non-stop (most of the time with
the same chord progression too).

The attractive aspect of this mode, other than it being the easiest to work with as it demands no variations on
the chosen scale, is the tension and release that comes out of the half step between the 6th and 7th scale
degrees.

The tension is released as the 7th resolves back to the root, creating very clearly delineated melody loops
and song segments.

The Ionian mode produces an uplifting, innocent, happy, and upbeat style of song. You hear it in pop music,
children's music, and gospel.

DORIAN MODE

 Characteristic Degree: 6
 Interval Sequence: W-H-W-W-W-H-W
 Example: Scarborough Fair by Simon & Garfunkel
 Example: A Horse With No Name by America
The Dorian mode feels like a Minor Scale due to the minor triad up front, but here the 6th scale degree is
natural instead of flat while the 7th is flat.

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This gives this mode two curious characteristics. It sounds melancholic but brighter and more positive than the
typical minor scale. The 7th doesn't quite resolve which creates a sense of restlessness.

You hear this mode used in lots of Celtic and Irish music and those genres heavily influenced by them like
Folk, Country, Blues, and Bluegrass. More examples are Chris Isaak's Wicked Game, Daft Punk's Get Lucky,
and Tears for Fears' Mad World.

PHRYGIAN MODE

 Characteristic Degree: b2
 Interval Sequence: H-W-W-W-H-W-W
 Example: Knight Rider Theme by Stu Phillips
 Example: White Rabbit by Jefferson Airplane
The Phrygian mode creates an ambiguous sound that leaves the listener uncertain of what they are hearing.
Because the 2nd note is flat, it sounds strange to most people who are used to a whole step to the 2nd degree
as in typical major and minor scales in the Ionian mode.

Because of this, it's not used in music so much as in film scores. This strangeness can create a sense of
mystery, dread, tension, and an impending negative event while still having a sense of warmth. You'll catch
some classical artists using it as well as metal bands. It's also known as the Spanish Gypsy Scale.

LYDIAN MODE

 Characteristic Degree: #4
 Interval Sequence: W-W-W-H-W-W-H
 Example: The Simpson's Theme by Danny Elfman
 Example: The Jetson's Theme by Hoyt Curtin
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The Lydian mode is similar to Ionian in the sense that it first chord is still a major triad but the intervals are
unexpected and surprising. They vary by one note, the sharp fourth. It largely shares the same sounds and uses
as Ionian for happy, pop, and children's music.

The sharp fourth strongly wants to resolve to the 5th and it's important that you use this to your advantage or
you might as well just be writing in a major scale. The Jazz genre and many show-tunes have exploited this
very well to keep you engaged in the performances.

MIXOLYDIAN MODE

 Characteristic Degree: b7
 Interval Sequence: W-W-H-W-W-H-W
 Example: Norwegian Wood by The Beatles
 Example: Sweet Home Alabama by Lynyrd Skynyrd
The Mixolydian mode also varies from Ionian on one single note, the flattened 7th. It's a popular choice for
solo improvisations when in a major key because it provides a slightly unfamiliar counterpoint to help keep
things fresh.

You hear this a lot in rock and country songs in major scales, especially in solos and bridges. It can provide a
smoother, less innocent sound to otherwise happy songs. It provides the same sense of not resolving like
Dorian does if exploited.

AEOLIAN MODE

 Characteristic Degree: b6
 Interval Sequence: W-H-W-W-H-W-W
 Example: Losing My Religion by REM
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  Example: I Kissed a Girl by Katy Perry
The Aeolian mode is the Natural Minor Scale. It provides the modern blues sound of sadness, regret,
resentment, and despair. Lots of Rock music has drawn upon this sound as well due to its relation to the minor
pentatonic scale.

It gives a slight sense of the Renaissance era at times due to the 6th and 7th scale degrees being flattened
instead of natural. There are no lack of examples for the Aeolian mode as it appears in hundreds of thousands
of minor key songs.

LOCRIAN MODE

 Characteristic Degree: b5
 Interval Sequence: H-W-W-H-W-W-W
 Example: Ride the Lightning by Metallica
 Example: Army of Me by Björk
The Locrian mode stands out due to its flat fifth pitch, giving it its characteristic darkness. Because so much
Western music depends on the major I and major V chords, you don't hear Locrian that much due to the
diminished V chord.

Many Western composers have gone as far as to categorize this mode as theoretical with no practical
application.

This is a very dark sound with a sense of brooding anger and sadness together. Heavy metal artists will use it
occasionally along with classical composers looking for something much darker and dissident than other
modes provide.

That's Music Modes Explained!

The bottom line is that millions of musicians do just fine never touching the seven modes.

You can get away with it too, but if you want to open up an entire extra avenue to help propel your music into
uniqueness then you should take the time to learn how the modes are built and how to construct them on
whatever scale you're using.

It's easy enough now that you've had the Ledger Note treatment of the Musical Modes Explained!

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 What you didn’t know in music symbols
Musical symbols are marks and symbols in musical notation that indicate various aspects of how a piece of
music is to be performed. There are symbols to communicate information about many musical elements,
including pitch, duration, dynamics, or articulation of musical notes; tempo, metre, form (e.g., whether
sections are repeated), and details about specific playing techniques (e.g., which fingers, keys, or pedals are to
be used, whether a string instrument notes are bowed or plucked, or whether the bow of a string instrument
should move up or down).

Lines
Staff/Stave
The five-line staff (often "stave" in British usage) is used to indicate pitch. Each line or
space indicates the pitch belonging to a note with a letter name: A, B, C, D, E, F, G.
Moving vertically upwards, the letter names proceed alphabetically with the alternating
lines and spaces, and represent ascending pitches. The A-G pattern repeats—the note
above "G" is another "A". A clef determines which specific pitches are assigned to the
lines and spaces.

Ledger or leger lines

These additional lines (and the spaces they form) indicate pitches above or below the staff.
The diagram shows a single ledger line above and below the staff but multiple ledger lines
can be used.

Bar line (or Barline)

Bar lines separate measures ("bars") of music according to the indicated time signature.
They sometimes extend through multiple staves to group them together when a grand
staff is used or when indicating groups of similar instruments in a conductor's score.

Double bar line

These indicate some change in the music, such as a new musical section, a new key
signature, or a new time signature.

Bold double bar line

These indicate the conclusion of a movement or of a composition.

Dotted bar line

These can be used to subdivide measures of complex meter into shorter segments for ease
of reading.

Bracket
A bracket is used to connect two or more lines of music that sound simultaneously. In
contemporary usage it usually connects staves of individual instruments (e.g., flute and
clarinet; two trumpets; etc.) or multiple vocal parts, whereas the brace connects multiple
parts for a single instrument (e.g., the right-hand and left-hand staves of a piano or harp

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 part).

Brace
A brace is used to connect two or more lines of music that are played simultaneously,
generally when using a grand staff. The grand staff is used for piano, harp, and
some pitched percussion instruments.[1] The brace is occasionally called an accolade in
some old texts and can vary in design and style.

Clefs

Main article: Clef

A clef defines the pitch range, or tessitura, of the staff on which it is placed. A clef is usually the leftmost
symbol on a staff although a different clef may appear elsewhere to indicate a change in register. Historically,
clefs could be placed on any line on a staff (or even on a space), but modern notation almost exclusively uses
treble, bass, alto, and tenor clef.

G clef (Treble clef)

The spiral of a G clef shows where the G above middle C is located on the staff. A G
clef with the spiral on the second line of the staff is called treble clef.[2] The treble clef
is the most commonly encountered clef in modern notation.

C clef (Alto, and Tenor clefs)

The center of a C clef points to the line representing middle C. The first illustration
Alto clef here is centered on the third line on the staff, making that line middle C. When placed
there, the clef is called alto clef, which is mainly used for the viola but is sometimes
used for other instruments. The second illustration shows the clef centered on the
fourth line—this clef is called tenor clef. Tenor clef is used
for bassoon, cello, trombone, and double bass when the notes get very high, avoiding
the use of excessive ledger lines.
Tenor Until the classical era, C clefs were frequently seen pointing to other lines (it is
sometimes called a "movable clef"), mostly in vocal music, but this has been
supplanted by the universal use of the treble and bass clefs. Modern editions of music
from such periods generally rewrite the original C-clef parts to either treble (female
clef voices), octave treble (tenors), or bass clef (tenors and basses). The C clef was
sometimes placed on the third space of the staff (equivalent to an octave treble clef)
but this usage is unusual since all other modern clefs are placed on lines.
F clef (Bass clef)
An F clef places the F below middle C on the line between the dots.[2] When placing
the F below middle C on the fourth line, as shown here, it is called bass clef, which is
by far its most common usage. Bass clef appears nearly as often as treble clef in
modern music notation. In older notation, particularly for vocal music, F clefs were
sometimes centered on the third line (baritone clef) but this usage has essentially
become obsolete.
Neutral clef
On a 5-line staff
Used for pitchless instruments, such as percussion instruments. When used with a

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 five-line staff, the lines and spaces do not represent pitches, but instead indicate
specific instruments, such as the different individual instruments in a drum set. It may
also be drawn with a single-line staff for single percussion instruments. Like the
tablature designation below, this is not a true clef.
On a single-line staff

Octave clef
Treble and bass clefs can be modified by octave numbers. An "8" below the clef (as
in the diagram) indicates that pitches will sound an octave lower than they would with
the unmodified clef. A "15" below indicates a two-octave shift. These numbers may
also be used above the clef to indicate pitches one or two octaves higher. A treble clef
with an eight below is the most common version, typically used in music for guitar or
tenor voice.
Tablature
Tablature notation is used in place of ordinary staff notation for some string
instruments, such as the guitar. The lines do not represent the notes of a music staff
but rather the strings of the instrument (for standard 6-stringed guitars, six lines
would be used). Numbers on the lines show which fret to use. The TAB sign, like the
percussion clef, is not a clef in the true sense, but rather a symbol employed instead of
a clef. Because the lines represent strings rather than pitches, the spaces between the
lines are never used.

Rhythmic values of notes and rests

Main article: Note value

Musical note and rest values are determined in reference to the length of a whole note. The other notes are
named (in American usage) in comparison—a half note is half the length of a whole note, a quarter note is one
quarter the length, etc.
Note British name / American name Rest

Large (Latin: Maxima) / Octuple whole note[3]

Long / Quadruple whole note[3]

Breve / Double whole note

Semibreve / Whole note

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 Minim / Half note

Crotchet / Quarter note[4][5]

Quaver / Eighth note

For notes of this length and shorter, the note
has the same number of flags (or hooks) as the rest has branches.

Semiquaver / Sixteenth note

Demisemiquaver / Thirty-second note

Hemidemisemiquaver / Sixty-fourth note

Semihemidemisemiquaver / Quasihemidemisemiquaver / Hundred

twenty-eighth note[6][7]

Demisemihemidemisemiquaver / Two hundred fifty-sixth note[3]

Beamed notes
Eighth notes (quavers) and shorter notes have flags to indicate their duration, but beams
can be used instead of flags to connect groups of these notes. This is usually done to
indicate a rhythmic grouping but can also be used to connect notes in ametrical passages.
The number of beams is equivalent to the number of flags on the note value—eighth notes
are beamed together with a single beam, sixteenth notes with two, and so on. In older
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 printings of vocal music, the use of beams is sometimes reserved for notes that are sung on
one syllable of text (melisma). Modern notation of vocal music encourages the use of
beaming in a consistent manner with instrumental engraving, however. In non-traditional
meters beaming is at the discretion of composers and arrangers and can be used to
emphasize a rhythmic pattern.
Dotted note
Placing a dot to the right of a notehead lengthens the note's duration by one-half.
Additional dots lengthen the previous dot instead of the original note, thus a note with one
dot is one and one half its original value, a note with two dots is one and three quarters—
use of more than two dots is rare. Rests can be dotted in the same manner as notes.
Ghost note
A note with a rhythmic value, but no discernible pitch when played. It is represented by a
(saltire) cross (similar to the letter x) for a notehead instead of an oval. Composers will
primarily use this notation to represent percussive pitches. This notation is also used in
parts where spoken words are used.

Multi-measure rest
A compact way to indicate multiple measures of rest. Also called gathered rest or multi-
bar rest.

Breaks
Breath mark
This symbol tells the performer to take a breath (for aerophones) or leave a slight space
(for other instruments). This space does not affect the tempo. For instruments that employ
a bow, it indicates to lift the bow and start the next note with a new bowing.

Caesura
A pause during which time is not counted.

Accidentals and key signatures

Main articles: Accidental (music), Key signature, and Circle of fifths

Common accidentals

Accidentals modify the pitch of the notes that follow them on the same staff position within a measure, unless
cancelled by an additional accidental.

Flat
Lowers the pitch of a note by one semitone.

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 Sharp
Raises the pitch of a note by one semitone.

Natural
Renders null a sharp or flat. The sharp or flat may have been indicated as an accidental or
defined by the key signature.

Double flat
Lowers the pitch of a note by two semitones. Usually used when the note is already flat in
the key signature.[8]

Double sharp
Raises the pitch of a note by two semitones. Usually used when the note is already sharp
in the key signature.

Key signatures

Key signatures indicate which notes are to be played as sharps or flats in the music that follows, showing up to
seven sharps or flats. Notes that are shown as sharp or flat in a key signature will be played that way in every
octave—e.g., a key signature with a B♭ indicates that every B is played as a B♭. A key signature indicates the
prevailing key of the music and eliminates the need to use accidentals for the notes that are always flat or
sharp in that key. A key signature with no flats or sharps generally indicates the key of C major or A minor,
but can also indicate that pitches will be notated with accidentals as required. The key signature examples
shown here are as they would appear in treble clef.
Flat key
signatures

Sharp key
signatures

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Microtones

There is no universally accepted notation for microtonal music, with varying systems being used depending on
the situation. A common notation for quarter tones involves writing the fraction 1⁄4 next to an arrow pointing
up or down. Below are other forms of notation:

Demiflat
Lowers the pitch of a note by one quarter tone. (Another notation for the
demiflat is a flat with a diagonal slash through its stem. In systems where
pitches are divided into intervals smaller than a quarter tone, the slashed flat
represents a lower note than the reversed flat.)

Flat-and-a-half (sesquiflat)
Lowers the pitch of a note by three quarter tones. As with a demiflat, a
slashed double-flat symbol is also used.

Demisharp
Raises the pitch of a note by one quarter tone.

Sharp-and-a-half (sesquisharp)
Raises the pitch of a note by three quarter tones. Occasionally represented
with two vertical and three diagonal bars instead.

Harmonic flat
Lowers the pitch of a note to a pitch matching the indicated number in
the harmonic series of the root (bottom) of the chord. Illustrated is a specific
example, the septimal flat, in the context of a septimal minor third, in which
the E♭ is tuned exactly to a 7:6 frequency ratio with the root (C).
A symbol with one vertical and three diagonal bars indicates a sharp with some form of alternate tuning.

Notation for the prime numbers in the harmonic series, labeled with their number (top line), frequency ratios
(second line) and interval size in cents (bottom). The 11th harmonic is notated with the arrow notation for a
demisharp (F↑ as opposed to F ) while the 7th, 13th, 17th and 19th are labeled with harmonic flats and
harmonic sharps relative to C (note that because the 17th and 19th harmonics are closer to equal temperament
than the (unlabeled) 5th, labeling of those is seldom necessary).
In 19 equal temperament, where a whole tone is divided into three steps instead of two, music is typically
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notated in a way that flats and sharps are not usually enharmonic (thus a C♯ represents a third of a step lower
than D♭); this has the advantage of not requiring any nonstandard notation.

Time signatures

Main article: Time signature

Most music has a rhythmic pulse with a uniform number of beats—each segment of this pulse is shown as a
measure. Time signatures indicate the number of beats in each measure (the top number) and also show what
type of note represents a single beat (the bottom number). There may be any number of beats in a measure but
the most common by far are multiples of 2 and/or 3 (i.e., 2, 3, 4, and 6). Likewise, any note length can be used
to represent a beat, but a quarter note (indicated by a bottom number of "4") or eighth note (bottom number of
"8") are by far the most common.

Simple time signatures

This example shows that each measure is the length of three quarter notes
(crotchets). 3
4 is pronounced as "three-four" or "three-quarter time".

Compound time signatures

In a compound meter, there is an additional rhythmic grouping within each
measure. This example shows 6
8 time, indicating 6 beats per measure, with an eighth note representing one
beat. The rhythm within each measure is divided into two groups of three
eighth notes each (notated by beaming in groups of three). This indicates a
pulse that follows the eighth notes (as expected) along with a pulse that
follows a dotted quarter note (equivalent to three eighth notes).
Common time
This symbol represents 4
4 time—four beats per measure with a quarter note representing one beat. It
derives from the broken circle that represented "imperfect" duple meter in
fourteenth-century mensural time signatures.

Alla breve or Cut time

This symbol represents 2
2 time—two beats per measure with a half-note representing one beat.

Metronome mark
This notation is used to precisely define the tempo of the music by assigning
an absolute duration to each beat. This example indicates a tempo of 120
quarter notes (crotchets) per minute. Many publishers precede the marking
with letters "M.M.", referring to Maelzel's Metronome. This is a tempo
marking, not a time signature—it is independent of how the beats are grouped
(the top number in a time signature), although it defines the tempo in terms of
the counting note (the bottom number).

Note relationships
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 Tie
When tied together, two notes with the same pitch are played as a single note. The length
of this single note is the sum of the time values of the two tied notes. The symbol for the
tie and the symbol for the slur appear the same, but a tie can only join two notes of the
same pitch.
Slur
While the first note of a slurred group is articulated, the others are not. For bowed
instruments this entails playing the notes in a single bow movement, for wind instruments
(aerophones) the notes under the slur are not tongued and are played in one continuous
breath. On other instruments, like pitched percussion instruments, the notes are connected
in a phrase, as if a singer were to sing them in a single breath. In certain contexts a slur
may instead indicate that the notes are to be played legato, in which case rearticulation is
permitted.
While the slur symbol and the tie symbol appear the same, a tie can only connect notes of
the same pitch. In vocal music a slur normally indicates that notes under the slur should be
sung to a single syllable.
A phrase mark (or less commonly, ligature) is visually identical to a slur but connects a
passage of music over several measures. A phrase mark indicates a musical phrase and
may not necessarily require that the music be slurred.
Glissando or Portamento
A continuous, uninterrupted glide from one note to the next that includes the pitches
between. Some instruments, such as the trombone, timpani, non-fretted string instruments
like the cello, electronic instruments, and the human voice can make this glide
continuously (portamento), while other instruments such as the piano or mallet
instruments blur the discrete pitches between the start and end notes to mimic a continuous
slide (glissando).
Tuplet
A tuplet is a group of notes that would not normally fit into the rhythmic space they
occupy. The example shown is a quarter-note triplet—three quarter notes are to be played
in the space that would normally contain two. While triplets are the most common version,
many other tuplets are possible: five notes in the space of four, seven notes in the space of
eight, etc. Specific tuplets are named according to the number of grouped notes; e.g.,
duplets, triplets, quadruplets, etc.

Chord
A chord is several notes sounded simultaneously. Two-note chords are called dyads,
three-note chords built by using the interval of a third are called triads.

Arpeggiated chord
A chord with notes played in rapid succession, usually ascending, each note being
sustained as the others are played. It is also called a "broken chord" or "rolled chord".

Dynamics

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Main article: Dynamics (music)
Dynamics are indicators of the relative intensity or volume of a musical line.
Pianississimo[D 1]
Extremely soft. Softer dynamics occur very infrequently and would be specified with
additional ps.
Pianissimo
Very soft. Usually the softest indication in a piece of music, though softer dynamics are
often specified with additional ps.
Piano
Soft; louder than pianissimo.
Mezzo piano
Moderately soft; louder than piano.
Mezzo forte
Moderately loud; softer than forte. If no dynamic appears, mezzo-forte is assumed to be
the prevailing dynamic level.
Forte
Loud.
Fortissimo
Very loud. Usually the loudest indication in a piece, though louder dynamics are often
specified with additional fs (such as fortississimo – seen below).
Fortississimo[D 1]
Extremely loud. Louder dynamics occur very infrequently and would be specified with
additional fs.
Sforzando
Literally "forced", denotes an abrupt, fierce accent on a single sound or chord. When
written out in full, it applies to the sequence of sounds or chords under or over which it is
placed.
Crescendo
A gradual increase in volume.
Can be extended under many notes to indicate that the volume steadily increases during
the passage.
Diminuendo
Also decrescendo
A gradual decrease in volume. Can be extended in the same manner as crescendo.

1. ^ Jump up to:a b Dynamics with 3 letters (i.e., ppp and fff) are often referred to by adding an extra "iss"
(pianissimo to pianississimo). This is improper Italian and would translate literally to "softestest" in
English, but acceptable as a musical term; such a dynamic can also be described as molto
pianissimo, piano pianissimo or molto fortissimo and forte fortissimo in somewhat more proper
Italian.[citation needed]
Other commonly used dynamics build upon these values. For example, "pianississimo" (represented as ppp)
means "so softly as to be almost inaudible", and "fortississimo" (fff) correspondingly refers to "extremely
loud". Dynamics are relative, and the meaning of each level is at the discretion of the performer or the
conductor. Laws to curb high noise levels in the workplace have posed a challenge to the interpretation of very

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loud dynamics in some large orchestral works, as noise levels within the orchestra itself can easily exceed safe
levels.[9]
A small s in front of the dynamic notations means subito (meaning "suddenly" in Italian), and means that the
dynamic is to change to the new notation rapidly. Subito is commonly used with sforzandos, but can appear
with all other dynamic notations, most commonly as sff (subitofortissimo) or spp (subitopianissimo).
Forte-piano
A section of music in which the music should initially be played loudly (forte), then
immediately softly (piano).
Another value that rarely appears is niente or n or ø, which means "nothing". This may be used at the end of a
diminuendo to indicate "fade out to nothing".

Articulation marks
Articulations specify the length, volume, and style of attack of individual notes. This category
includes accents. Articulations can be combined with one another and may appear in conjunction with
phrasing marks (above). Any of these markings may be placed either above or below a note.

Staccato
This indicates that the note should be played shorter than notated, usually half the value,
leaving the rest of the metric value silent. Staccato marks may appear on notes of any
value, shortening their performed duration without speeding the music itself.

Staccatissimo or Spiccato
This indicates that the note should be played even shorter than staccato. It is usually
applied to quarter notes or shorter notes. In the past this marking's meaning was more
ambiguous—it was sometimes used interchangeably with staccato and sometimes
indicated an accent and not a shortened note. These usages are now almost defunct but still
appear in some scores. For string instruments this indicates a bowing technique in which
the bow bounces lightly upon the string.
Tenuto
This symbol indicates that the note should be played at its full value, or slightly longer. It
can also indicate a degree of emphasis, especially when combined with dynamic markings
to indicate a change in loudness, or combined with a staccato dot to indicate a slight
detachment (portato or mezzo staccato).

Fermata or Pause
A fermata indicates that a note, chord, or rest is sustained longer than its written value. It
will usually appear on all parts in an ensemble. The fermata is held for as long as the
performer or conductor desires.

Accent
An accent indicates that a note should be played louder, or with a harder attack than
surrounding unaccented notes. It may appear on notes of any duration.

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 Marcato
A marcato marking indicates that the note should be played louder or more forcefully than
a note with a regular accent mark. In organ notation, this indicates that a pedal note should
be played with the toe. This mark above the note indicates the right foot, and below the
note indicates the left foot.

Ornaments

Ornaments modify the pitch pattern of individual notes.

Trill
A rapid alternation between the specified note and the next higher note
(determined by key signature) within its duration, also called a "shake". When
followed by a wavy horizontal line, this symbol indicates an extended, or
running, trill. In music up to the time of Haydn or Mozart the trill begins on the
upper auxiliary note.[10] In percussion notation, a trill is sometimes used to
indicate a tremolo. In French baroque notation, the trill, or tremblement, was
notated as a small cross above or beside the note.

Upper mordent
Rapidly play the principal note, the next higher note (according to key signature)
then return to the principal note for the remaining duration. In some music, the
mordent begins on the auxiliary note, and the alternation between the two notes
may be extended. In handbells, this symbol is a "shake" and indicates the rapid
shaking of the bells for the duration of the note.

Lower mordent (inverted)

Rapidly play the principal note, the note below it, then return to the principal
note for the remaining duration. In much music, the mordent begins on the
auxiliary note, and the alternation between the two notes may be extended.

Gruppetto or Turn
When placed directly above the note, the turn (also known as a gruppetto)
indicates a sequence of upper auxiliary note, principal note, lower auxiliary note,
and a return to the principal note. When placed to the right of the note, the
principal note is played first, followed by the above pattern. Placing a vertical
line through the turn symbol or inverting it, it indicates an inverted turn, in
which the order of the auxiliary notes is reversed.

Appoggiatura
The first half of the principal note's duration has the pitch of the grace note (the
first two-thirds if the principal note is a dotted note).

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 Acciaccatura
The acciaccatura is of very brief duration, as though brushed on the way to the
principal note, which receives virtually all of its notated duration. In percussion
notation, the acciaccatura symbol denotes the flam rudiment, the miniature note
still positioned behind the main note but on the same line or space of the staff.
The flam note is usually played just before the natural durational subdivision the
main note is played on, with the timing and duration of the main note remaining
unchanged. Also known by the English translation of the Italian term, crushed
note, and in German as Zusammenschlag (simultaneous stroke).

Octave signs

Ottava
8va (pronounced ottava alta) is placed above the staff (as shown) to tell the musician to
play the passage one octave higher.
When this sign (or in recent notation practice, an 8vb – both signs reading ottava bassa) is
placed below the staff, it indicates to play the passage one octave lower.[11][12]

Quindicesima
The 15ma sign is placed above the staff (as shown) to mean "play the passage two octaves
higher". A 15ma sign below the staff indicates "play the passage two octaves lower".

8va and 15ma are sometimes abbreviated further to 8 and 15. When they appear below the staff, the
word bassa is sometimes added.

Repetition and codas

Tremolo
A rapidly repeated note. If the tremolo is between two notes, then they are played in rapid
alternation. The number of slashes through the stem (or number of diagonal bars between
two notes) indicates the frequency to repeat (or alternate) the note. As shown here, the
note is to be repeated at a demisemiquaver (thirty-second note) rate, but it is a common
convention for three slashes to be interpreted as "as fast as possible", or at any rate at a
speed to be left to the player's judgment.
In percussion notation, tremolos indicate rolls, diddles, and drags. Typically, a single
tremolo line on a sufficiently short note (such as a sixteenth) is played as a drag, and a
combination of three stem and tremolo lines indicates a double-stroke roll (or a single-
stroke roll, in the case of timpani, mallet percussion and some untuned percussion
instruments such as triangle and bass drum) for a period equivalent to the duration of the
note. In other cases, the interpretation of tremolos is highly variable, and should be
examined by the director and performers.
The tremolo symbol also represents flutter-tonguing.
Repeat signs
Enclose a passage that is to be played more than once. If there is no left repeat sign, the
right repeat sign sends the performer back to the start of the piece or the nearest double
bar.
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 Simile marks
Denote that preceding groups of beats or measures are to be repeated. In the examples
here, the first usually means to repeat the previous measure, and the second usually means
to repeat the previous two measures.

Volta brackets (1st and 2nd endings, or 1st- and 2nd-time bars)
A repeated passage is to be played with different endings on different playings. Although
two endings are most common, it is possible to have multiple endings (1st, 2nd, 3rd ...).

Da capo
(lit. "From top") Tells the performer to repeat playing of the music from its beginning.
This is usually followed by al fine (lit. "to the end"), which means to repeat to the
word fine and stop, or al coda (lit. "to the coda (sign)"), which means repeat to the coda
sign and then jump forward.
Dal segno
(lit. "From the sign") Tells the performer to repeat playing of the music starting at the
nearest segno. This is followed by al fine or al coda just as with da capo.

Segno
Mark used with dal segno.

Coda
Indicates a forward jump in the music to its ending passage, marked with the same sign.
Only used after playing through a D.S. al coda (Dal segno al coda) or D.C. al coda (Da
capo al coda).

Instrument-specific notation

Bowed string instruments[edit]

Left-hand pizzicato or Stopped note
A note on a stringed instrument where the string is plucked with the left hand (the hand
that usually stops the strings) rather than bowed. On the horn, this accent indicates a
"stopped note" (a note played with the stopping hand shoved further into the bell of the
horn). In percussion this notation denotes, among many other specific uses, to close the hi-
hat by pressing the pedal, or that an instrument is to be "choked" (muted with the hand).

Snap pizzicato
On a stringed instrument, a note played by stretching a string away from the frame of the
instrument and letting it go, making it "snap" against the frame. Also known as
a Bartók pizzicato.

Natural harmonic or Open note

On a stringed instrument, this means to play a natural harmonic (also called flageolet).
Sometimes, it also denotes that the note to be played is an open string. On a valved brass
instrument, it means to play the note "open" (without lowering any valve, or without
mute). In organ notation, this means to play a pedal note with the heel (above the note, use
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 the right foot; below the note, use the left foot). In percussion notation this denotes, among
many other specific uses, to open the hi-hat by releasing the pedal, or allow an instrument
to ring.

Up bow or Sull'arco
On a bowed string instrument, the note is played while drawing the bow upward. On a
plucked string instrument played with a plectrum or pick (such as
a guitar played pickstyle or a mandolin), the note is played with an upstroke.

Down bow or Giù arco

In contrast to the up bow, here the bow is drawn downward to create sound. On a plucked
string instrument played with a plectrum or pick (such as a guitar played pickstyle or
a mandolin), the note is played with a downstroke.

Guitar

The guitar has a fingerpicking notation system derived from the names of the fingers in Spanish or Latin. They
are written above, below, or beside the note to which they are attached. They read as follows:

Symbol Spanish Italian Latin English French

P pulgar pollice pollex thumb pouce

I índice indice index index index

m medio medio media middle majeur ou médius

A anular anulare anularis ring annulaire

c, x, e, q meñique mignolo minimus little auriculaire

Piano

Pedal marks
Pedal marks appear in music for instruments with sustain pedals, such as the piano, vibraphone and chimes.
Engage pedal
Tells the player to put the sustain pedal down.
Release pedal
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 Tells the player to let the sustain pedal up.
Variable pedal mark
More accurately indicates the precise use of the sustain pedal. The extended lower line
tells the player to keep the sustain pedal depressed for all notes below which it appears.
The ∧ shape indicates the pedal is to be momentarily released, then depressed again.
Con sordino (or con sordini), una corda
Tells the player to put the soft pedal down or, for other instruments, apply the mute.
Senza sordino (or senza sordini), tre corde or tutte le corde
Tells the player to let the soft pedal up or, for other instruments, remove the mute.

Other piano notation

left hand right hand

l.h. r.h.
English
left hand right hand

l.H. r.H.
German
linke Hand rechte Hand

m.g. m.d.
French
main gauche main droite

m.s. m.d.
Italian
mano sinistra mano destra

m.i. m.d.
Spanish
mano izquierda mano derecha

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 Finger identifications:
1 = thumb
2 = index
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
3 = middle
4 = ring
5 = little
Old (pre-1940) tutors published in the UK may use "English fingering". + for thumb,
then 1 (index), 2 (middle), 3 (ring) and 4 (little).[13]

Other stringed instruments

(With the exception of harp)

Finger identifications:
0 = open string (no finger used)
1 = index
2 = middle
0, 1, 2, 3, 4 3 = ring
4 = little
The thumb is also used by the cello and bass, usually denoted by ϙ (a circle with a line coming
out the bottom), or, more rarely, a T.

See also Fingerstyle guitar#Notation.

Four-mallet percussion

Mallet identifications:
1 = Far left mallet
1, 2, 3, 4 2 = Inner-left mallet
3 = Inner-right mallet
4 = Far right mallet
Some systems reverse the numbers (e.g., 4 = Far-left mallet, 3 = Inner-left mallet, etc.)

Six-mallet percussion

Mallet identifications:
1 = Far-left mallet
2 = Middle-left mallet
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 3 = Inner-left mallet
4 = Inner-right mallet
5 = Middle-right mallet
6 = Far-right mallet
Numbers for six-mallet percussion may be reversed as well.

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