Joan Liversidge
lZ Woodworl<
262 A wall piinling sho$ing
Daed:lus 2t work cuiting nor
tices rvith a hanne. ,nd .hisel;
a bow dill lies .n thc floor.
Froo the Eousc ol the Vettii,
carpentry was invented by Dacdalus, says Pliny, and with it the salt, th€ axe,
plumb-lin€, gimlet and gluc. The square, the plummet and the lathe, however, he
aftributes to Theodorus of samos. In this quotatnln we havc literary evidence
for some of the tools required for one of the skills cssenlial to anv civilization,
that of tbe wood workcr. The evidence tbr woodworking in the Roman EmPire
includes many tools, illustrations ofmen at work from wall-paintings and rcliefs,
inscriptions, and a fcw additional literary allusions, backed up by work surviving
from earlier times which suggests considerabl€ inherited knowledge from
Egypt and thc Hellenistic world.
Pliny gives some inlbrmation about suitable trees fbr the carpenter, and to his
list can be added items from thc lourrh century Bc author Thcophrastus. We
learn most about rhe preferences ofthe furniture maker- Bcech is easjly workable
although brittte and soft. Ir was used fbr chairs, lables, and chests, and lor
'clastic bed steads'. Bccch could also be cut into thin layers for veneers Thco
phrastus adds carts and ships ro the list of its uses and recommends trees grown
in mountainous country as the best. several varieties of oak, holly, lime and fir
werc also used and cypress, parricularly for chests- MaPle was Prized for beds
and tables, willow for couch frames, juniper for tables, and yew for the decora
tion oI chests and footstools. Ebony was used lbr vcneers.
In the f]Ist ccntury Bc there arose in Rome what Pliny (XIIL96)ca]ls thc tablc
mania for lables inade of attnctively veined dark honey coloured citron wood
found in Mauretania and north west Africa. The samc author saw one which
Cicero had bought lbr half a million sestsr..s and Priccs continued to rjse to
well over a million- Tables over three feet wide are recorded. By rhe end of the
lllst ccnturv AD supplies ofcitror wood were exhausted.
The eln is particularly conncnded by Theophrastus for expensivc doors
with elm wood hingcs becaus€ it did not warp. The wood was easy to cul when
green but difficult when dry. Thereforc the doors were put together lrom ne!\
wood and then lclt for a year or two to season tborouShly. othcr sPecialized uses
include oak fbr roolshingles and whecl axles, mapl€ lbryokes, and lir for writing
tablets. Buildcrs used sweet chestnut for roof tinbers. whcn about to split,
Th€ophrastus tclls us, it made such a loud cracl< people could rush out of the
balbs in time. Pine, palm, cedar and cypress were also recommended for building.
t5;
 Shjp\.rights used elm for strengrh, and oak, bee.h aDd c€dar, with fir for light
ness. Pine was also prizcd lbr masts, yard arms aDd oars; and praised for its
capacity to absorb gtue. Somc woods, such as oak and cypress, are commcnded
for resistance to dccay, others such as limc were easicst to work, or resistant to
wood-rlorn or other pests. for thc handles oI toots, olivc, etm and ash rrerc
lavoured and traces of lrsh have been found in the sockets of chiscts in a hoard
of scrap iron from Brampton, Cumberland.
With such an nppreciation of the need to search out sutabte limbcr, fbrests
\,erc one of thc Empire's chicf assets. Apart from locat needs lor building
malcriats and firc wood, supplics were movcd by the mcmbers of thc guild oI
den&apharoi, us.Jally by $rater. A retieffrom Bordeaux shows iour of them with
a trce trunl(. Thc loresls of caul and cernany wcrc ftmous, and firs from the
Vosgcs and Jura, oaks from rhc Ardennes. and pine, maple and birch hom various
localities all found their rray to rtaty. Corsica was another sour.c of oak. ESypt
was short of trees, but turrh€r east Asia Mnlor and Syria were bettcr provjded,
and the cedars of r,ebanon renained poputar.
Diocletian's Edict oI pdces oI AD tot givcs the cosr of targe timbers which
wcrc no doubt intended for building or shipping. Measurcments arc given in
cubits which wcre probably equal ro r8 inches. Maxinum prices for pinc vary
lrom oon denJ tnr l2 \. rd, o. rimbr t2 in. h,\ \qLdrF ro .u noo d\ 1J i or
25 yards of tinber 18 inches square. Oak and ash cost 250 denarii for 7 vards of
rn^pr q in\he\ \qurrr ind J nihlv o \,v\i.reo trdgm{nr nt .}e r.l',r rrom
Aphrodisias adds bcech of rhe same lenglh, and shorter lcngths of cyprcss and
sappinus to the list. The last line ofthe new tragment ofthc Edict begins the tjsl
of pavments due to the rrorkcrs starting with those trimming the oak, thc
hardr.r u.oo. lor sni, h r.e.e s.r' fre.undb.j l-. hiShF.r rr.e; pdy. t. lre
on Dio. r'rJ.\ loi.r Lvr donn .jruld.ion. tor rhe pri.. nt J tojd oJ w,,,d
broughr by wagon, camet, ass or donkey.
Roman tombstones frc.tuenrly dcpict inplemcnts used for sctting ou1 wort<
and for mcasurements by carpenters. The fieednan caius from Bordeaux hotds
a rule in ore hand and an axe adze in the oiher, and etse.lvhere squares, circtcs
and levels are illustrated, and atso the dividcrs used to draw circles or geonelric
desiSns or to tramler m€asurements to rhc material. Bronze or iron dividers
survive not infrequeDtly wilh other tools easily recognizable by modern carpen
ters. Hoards of ironwork have bccn found at a number ot sites and t.om fhem
come axcs with flat butts and graccful, slighllv curved btadcs, and spoon shaped
adzcs. These were used lbr rhe preparatory work. Som€rimcs two implemcnrs
nrc combincd, one on eirher sidc of the haDdte. The Bordeaux reti..t shows an
axc adze; there is an adze-hanner from crcat Chesterford. Essex. .nd simitir
combined axe-hammcrs are also looh,n.

Sclws
Saw blades occur not inFequently and sho$/ sevcral developments comparcd
'lvith carlier tools. Thc Romans appre.iatcd the value of settinS the rccth so thar
theyp.ojected right and left a lternatclv. pliny nores rhis as a devicefor prevenrjng
rhe \rw gclling cloggeo sh( n s,.r,i.E hirh g,-n hood l hr\ mcrt-nd ot ., lli.!
261 Tombst.ne of t!. .tufentcr
allowed thc hand-saw to be used wirh a straighr handlc, and the bladc coutd be

156
 264 The basc ol" laLe Roman grlt
Sliss borvl sholins a figue sur
round€d by six small scencs ol

pushed rather than pulled and so be less inclined to buckle. Frame saws in
which thc blade was held at both cnds are fbund in varying sizes. The simplest
fbrm consists ofa blade lo inches 1on8 littcd into the end ofa piece of wood bent
into a semi circle aDd fastened with crude spil<es. A bo.r/-saw of this type from
the Faiyum is now in the museum at University College, London, and it has been
suggested that the Romans brought the tool to Egypt from creecc.
More often thc saw btade is held betwecn wooden uprights connccted eirher
by a cross-bar above and below, as with the large two-man ripping saws, or
else the blade app€ars below a cross bar. Above the bar the uprights are linked

I58
 wood,otk

by a cord wel)-d;nped and lied to each cnd. This would shrink as it dried and
help to kccp the saw taut. In some cases, to avoid untying and damPing the cord,
a tosgle stick was providcd to lake up the slack. A frame sa$' of this tyPe uscd
by onc n1an appears as a detail on a gih Slass liom thc Roman catacombs Others
arc known from an altar dedicatcd lo Minerva by a guild ofworkmen, now in th.
capitoUne Muscum, and a relicf oI craftsnen carving a threc lcgged table in thc
Antiquarium comunale. wall paintjngs liom PomPeii and Herculaneun show
Ir\ro nen usinS the larger typcs of the samc tool as a doublc sa\/. Fragments of
bo$'or frame saw btades have been lirund at British sites in.luding Vcruhrnium
rnd creat chcslerford. and scveral survivc in a hoard ofironworl. from Hciden-
burg bei Krcimbach, now in the Historisches Museun dcr Pfalz, Speycr' Thc
teeth arc not always set and the back of the blade and lhe edge arc parallel'
unlike thc hand-saw blades which tend to be triansular' A fine examplc of the
latter survives at Verulamium.

P Lanes
Th€ earliest known planes come from PomPeii. Pliny was obviously familiar with
them and notes hoi{ the plane coutd cut continu)us shavings lion fir Planks
instcad ofthe chips rcmoved by othd tools. An example in beechwood survives
liom lhe lbrt al SaalburS, with thc cutling iron sel al an angte oI50- protruding
through the so1e, and wedged in position. A relieffrom the fort shows a workman
using such a tool. Olher planes have an iron sole to Sive greater accuracy and
durability, somelimes, like thc cxamples fiom Vcrulamiun and Silchcster, held
to the Nooden frane by fbur iron rjvets. In Ccrmany two central side plates
were addcd .onnected by thrcc cross rivets, onc oI tben securing the wedge
'which hcld lhe cutting iron in place. The tinest cxamPle found comcs from earlv

265 Marble reliel showirg car

peDte.s dl work naking a t)ble

J
 Jadn I.itersi.lie

266 0enl An iroD tla.d rion

Colognc. Fir{ renrury AD. 26?
(bel.r!)A bc.dlro.d Fc{ Ptane
from rhe Ronran 1bl1 ar s,Jlburg.
263 (bolton) An iroD Plane ftom

firsl century cologne and has in front a.urved piece corcave towards the front
ofthe plane. Thc spaces below the lrcttcd pieces were filled tu with wood, nirh
slots cut in to form grips for the r/orLcr's hand. The Vati.an eilt glass shows
planing in progress. A number of plane-irons have also been found in Britajn,
ccrmany and tirance, and they are evidence lortools ofvarying sizc and purpose.
Panelted cupboard doors of the type porrraycd on ihe reli€f showing a shoe-
makcr from ostia or the Simpelveld sarcophagus in Lcyden Museum, or panels
actually found at HerculancuD, give us some ideas ofthe finished arriclc. Experts
believc that part of a third or fourth cenrury door from the Faiyum, now in
Brislol City Museum, needed for its manufacture not only smoothing and jack
planes, but also a variety oI ]noulding, plough rabbct and shoulder planca.

Drills, chisels and gouges

Thc thvourite bofing tool was the bow drill which is lirst recorded in Egypt.
One is dcpicted on the glass in fi8. 264, bur thc artist has misrakenly shown thc
workman holding the drj11-srock in thc middle instead of by rhc nave at the top.
Spoon-bits set in Nooden handles \,vere probably used as augers. Thc chisel has
a remote ancestry. Made of materials in current usc, it develops from neolithic
flint or stone through bronzc and iron tanged and socketed varieties. Paring
chiscls Nith handles made in one piece wirh the bladc have been found itt
Verulamium. others in the Silchcstcr collection in Reading Museum are accom
panied by sockctcd morticing chisels varynlg from I to 5 in.hes wide. Dacdalus
in a Pompcian walt pa in ring from thc House of th e Vettii is using a tanSed mortice
chisel with a lo.g wooden handlc as he nakes the woodcn cow for Pasiphae,
and one with a shortd blade appears as one of the details of the gilt glass in
fig. 264. Other tanSed and socl.eted chisels have beeD fbund in I-ondon and h,ith
the iron work hoards fron crear Chesterlord and worlington. cougcs of
varving sizes also occur.

I6i)
 269 A panelled wooden door
fron the Failun, Egypt. Third
or foo.rh cenrury AD.270(belowl
carpente.s' tools fron Crea!
Chertelford, l$er. Fron left to
riSht: e adzc-hammer, a snall
hanmer and an axe, lrvo
sockelted gouges, and t\ro
socletted chiscls; belor{. two

h ffi
&
 Lathes
When thc lathe was inventcd is uncertain, but a date in the second millennium
Bc is gen€rally suggesred. Oncc the use ofrhe pottcr's wheel was discovered the
idea of a device for turning wooden objects may soor have fbltowed. The oldest
turned obj€ct known is a bowl from an Etruscan tomb oI..7oo Bc at Corneto, and
some fbrm of lathe would b€ necessary for rhe mouldings decoraring rhc wood
or nctal legs of Greek and Roman fumiture. Besides the rcmark of pliny aheady
quoted, literary evidence includes a reference in a work sometimes
ascribed to Phto, in which carpentcrs are described "tredg.s,
as the pcopte
,who saw and
borc and plane and turn'. No ancient illustrarion of thc lathe survives, but from
the Mcditenanean it spread norrh probably in pre-Roman times. In Britain shalc
armlets were ftshionablc and several lron Age workshops are t<nown near the
shale deposits in Kimneridge Bay, Dorset. Debris surviving inctudes the small
disks cul out fiom the armlets and these have holes where thcy fitted on to the
pegs or spindle of the lathc. In Roman rimcs the industry also made furniture,
usjng the lathe lbr small round table tops and couch tegs. Wood coutd be bcnt
into shape whcn necessary lor objects such as the klis"lrs, a favoudte creck
and Roman chair. Pieces w€re fixcd together wirh wooden tenons and do.n'ets
ol various shapes, metal nails and glue- Pliny remarking on the importance of
8luc, notes thar somc woods, notably hard oal., r rilt not tat<e it, and goes on to
list the best mate als to us€ for vcneers, among thcm maple, box, hotly, patm
and poplar. Fine i{ork was smoothed with skate or shark skin, and wax or oil
of ccdar or.juniper was rubbed in during the finishing process.
The devclopment ofthc plane probably led to rhe invention ofthe carpcnter,s
bench. somc work could be done placed on a block of wood or on ptanl$ taid
across tresrles as illustrated by sccncs in the Varican gold glass. Wh€n two
men used the large frane-saw onc might stand on a plank besidc the wood beinS
sawn with thc other nan on thc ground. The cobbler on a relicf from Rheins
who mav be a maker ofwooden shoes, sits astride a small bench with a tast fixed
in front of him and this method could be used whcn making small objects.
when the plane was used howcver, ttrere must bc room ro lay rhe materiat flat
and a means oI holdinS it in position. The paintinS depictinS Daedalus in rhe
House of the Vcttii shows a bench with pegs securing a piece of wood beinq
horl.d wrrh hammrr rnJ .h.\eJ uirh d ^ow-d,iU tv nE on rhc ground ned. i
Itemains of actual equipment discovercd at the Saalburg include planks with
norlices for legs and a nunber of small iron bench stops. A number of tools
found in a buckei represent the only evidcnce lbr rhe carpcnter's rool-bag.
A model rcconstruction of a carpenter's shop in the ReadinS Muscum shows a
carpenter at work h'ith his tools on the wa]l and shelves nearby.
The slatus of the carpentcr varied but usually he was a fteedman or stave.
Mcntion has already been made of the derd,,op,o/ot or timbcr deaters. At Oslia
lhey had an inportant coll.grm and sur\-iving fra8mcnts of its membership
lisls Sivc the names of at least sjx s,ell to do lreedmen. Originatly known as 272 ('ishtJ rhc hnb (sccrion)iDd
llgr.r/ii, thc guild got its nnmc from the part it played in providing aDd parading a slet.h ol dre u'oodcn lrh..l
tiom Nc$ncad, wilh r one Fle.e
rh( fine rree e.lJired rnrudl.) to' rl-e te.tivi ot th( Va.-a Mar, "r". n.prirg. jrh bound NitL an i..n tyr..
Ih{ . rdlr.men (c knos mo! dbour n-obdo y wor(cJ ,,n r.e:r o$ n,,. hirh 'inr

r62

2?r Tomhslonc ol rhc .a'penrer
waodtLotk
the help ol one or t!\,o assistants or apprcnlices in shops with liviiS quafters
above or behind. A carpenters'quartcr is knor{n in Rome and mosl work r{as
done to order. Caius at Bordeaux is nol the oniy carpentcr kno\!n to us by nane
or appearance. A stone lragmcnt fron Cologne mcntions one c.lled Titus
cesatius. P. Beitenos Hermes, a couch naker fiom the Grcck isllnds, had a
plane, dividers and a ser square on his tombstone now in the Louvrc. Another
lombstone in thc Archaeological Muscum, Turin, shows thc wa8or naker
A. Minucius, bowhg along an eight sPok€d wh€el. Many rclicfs d.'picr the
craftsmanship of rnen lil<e him as do the actual wheels somctimcs recovered
tron damp sitcs. One fron Ne$'stcad. Scolland, with a rim of ash, $'illorr sPokes
and an eln hub shohs a careli choiceofmaterials. Dnrclctian's Edicl lists freight
and slccping wagons and also individual items such as axles, spol.es and Nhccl
hubs, turned and unturned, and a variety of two whcclcd .aniages and tiru
whcclcd wagors h'ith namcs lrequ€ntly ofGallic origin is known from numcrous
sources. A guild of.,sdri (rvagon nakcrs) exisred lrt ostia and orhcrs are known
From Astakos in aithynja we kDow of thc lreedman Maximus, a hood working
house builder of unrivalled skill. Hc is a rerninder of all thc u'oodwork needed
in Roman houses lor roofs, fl(Drs, balconies, stairs aDd partitions, even \,vher
nasonry or brick rather than timber or wattle and daub wcrc available for ihe
walls. whcn masonry \\as used, scaffolding night be necess y and temPor;ry
casing for concrete beams and vauhing. Seats, balustradcs, sta8es and other
platforms, and nasts tbr awnings \\rere needed in thcatrcs and arnphitheatres
crcck temple accounts rcmind us of the nunber of workers needed for large
buildjng frojects. Scven wood carvcrs. l$'cnty-lwo carpentcrs. sa\!ycrs,
joiners, and a laihe opcralor wer€ enttoyed in rhe final stages ol thc .onslruction
oI lhe Ere.htheion in 408 -407 Rc, some no doubl onl-v iemponry visilors to
rior such hork a knowledge ol carpcrtry must often havc been conbined
$rith other skills althouSh a wood llorker does not normally work in metal or
stone. In Rome..AD l3o one ofthe leadcrs ofrhe noman collcgium ol wood-
worl<ers was P. Cornelius Thallus, the son of an archirect. 'rhe inscdPtion on
his coffin fo nd at Arles tclls us that Q. cand us BeniSnus Nas a mi'mber of the
local collegium of build€rs and carpcnlcrs. He possessed great skill and tras a
student of building theory. A modcst man, Sreit craftsmcn ca1led him 'naster'
A specialist in walerworl<s and road building, he lvas swcct tcmpered, gentle,
studious and a good hosi. Thc rcfcrence to rlaterworks has Siven rise to the
suggestion that Candidus Benignus nay have designcd thc large flour mitt at
Barb6gal wilh its rows of watcr mills at eight difterent ]cvcls. Sldl h carPentry
would bc nceded to design thc mill-.l 'heels and othcr wooden fittings
For ship buitdjng, organizaliorl on a nuch larger scale musl often havc bccn
ncccssary ro saw and join plaDks and make oars and masts. rhe guild of the
&bn ,dvdlcs at lortus had over 150 names on ils lisl at the end of thc sccond
century, nostly frccdmen but including some arrny or navy vctcrans. Th€y
probably made nerchantm€n, and pcrhaps also barges, ler cs, al1d other sm;rll
claft fbr local use. Th€ veterans rrould be Putting their sldlls acquired in the
forces to good use. Another such guild existed at ostia and is l(no\,\'n to have
r{il
 271 l.mbd,)ne !l t, Iorgidierus
) .Lrhsnirn r1 h1)rr
cnnillus $.Nin8
.:;,:l' t
 \ oodu'ork

h.rd a guildhall:rrd probably,tlso maintained a ].r-ge tenple. Dioclerian's Edict

diflerenliates bet\,\'een shipwriShts working on river vessels, who were paid
50 denarii, and on sea goinS ships Nho received 60 denarii daily. The latter
command th€ highest wages fbr a $,ood worker.
The best picture ol aldb.r nddl,s at work comcs from a tonbstonc at Ravcnna
put up in the tate second or early third ccntury. Abovc arc busts in a nichc and
an inscription giving ihe name P. Longidicnus camillus and his tradc. Bcloir hc is
seen lrt worl< beside a ship, holding a piccc oltimbcr which hc is carcfully shaping
into a grace{ul curvc with an adzc. Besidc him is thc inscribed commenl,
'P. Longidienus pushcs on i'ith his work'. The ship is lirn1ly supported on blocLs
and the craltsman stands on a substanlial objecl !\'ith a locl<. Can this be his tool
chcst? And s'hy is he worhing beside what appears to be a finished piece ofwork ?
AncieDt ships were constructed in one of two ways. [ilher a skeleton lvi1h
keel and ribs (fiamesl was set up and planks fastcncd to it. Or lhe skeleton was
omitted and a shell of planks, each pinncd to its ncighbour. lvas tashioned. In
norrhern Europe the planlcs overlappcd and wcre riverted together, producing
the clinker-built ships of the Vikings and others. In lhe eastern Mediterranean
the planks were set edge to cdgc (carvel-buih) and secured with dowels. rhe
Romans $'ere belicvcd to usc thc skeleton keel method, but a fresh exrnination
of the above mcntioncd tombslone by Lionel Casson seems to qualify this theory.
Remains of wrcckcd merchantmen discover€d b)' underwater archaeolog]' did
indeed show a skeleton of heel lrnd frames but combined with cdgejoined
planks. Thcse planks w€re fixed toSether with great care and skill, with tcnon
and mortice ioints and held by a dowel b prevent thcm workinS loose. on s€a-
going ships in particular the joints alnost adjoin. It sccms lhat elements of both
rypes of ship building were presenti which did the /dle,'rdrdlis use wh€n he
se1 out to construct a new ship?
longidienus'ship appears so well made that it sccms its planhing was alreadl'
complere. The piece of wood he is shaping is surely a frane lo insen in hjs
completed shell, and the tops of other frames already in posilion ar€ visjble in
the photograph. Such a method called tor great shill and precisjon fron the
shipwright and the result was a hull ol remarkable strength. On one fragmenr
of planking brought out of thc Mcditerranean is lhe line scored across the inside
of the hull rvhich indicatcd to thc craltsman $rh€re a frarne was to 8(r. Remains
of boats recovered from the riv€r Thames at London were also carvet built,
solid flat bottomcd sailing barSes ofoak whjch may represent the Celtic traditions
mentioncd by Caesar when descdbing the ships of the Veneti.

Bibliography
Burford, A., Crdftsmen in Greek and Roman SotiatJ, London, t972
coodman, w., A HistorJ oJ wooduar&;n3 London, 1964
Pl ny. vdrl',/ H nl. b,",k\ - l{.rnd lb."dols,
Singer, c., .t dl., A I/rs.ary ol Technolo|l, II, Oxfotd, )956
Theophraslus, O''' Pldrts