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Chinese EFL learners’ basic psychological needs satisfaction and foreign

language emotions: A person-centered approach

Article in IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · October 2023
DOI: 10.1515/iral-2023-0087

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Enhao Feng*, Xian Zhao and Huiyu Wang

Chinese EFL learners’ basic

psychological needs satisfaction and
foreign language emotions: a person-
centered approach
Citation: Feng, E., Zhao, X. & Wang, H. (2023). Chinese EFL learners’
basic psychological needs satisfaction and foreign language emotions: a
person-centered approach. International Review of Applied Linguistics in
Language Teaching. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2023-0087

Abstract: The importance of emotion in language learning is well recognized, but the
significant contribution of basic psychological needs (BPNs) to emotion has been neglected.
Moreover, prior studies have mainly used variable-centered approaches to investigate
associations between emotions and their antecedents, which has uncovered only part of their
relationships. Therefore, this study first set out to reveal the general levels, and gender
differences of BPNs satisfaction (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) and foreign
language emotions (enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom), and the bivariate correlations
between them among 948 Chinese university English foreign language learners. Using a
person-centered approach (i.e., latent profile analysis), the present study further investigated
the latent profiles of BPNs satisfaction and examined how emotions differ across these profiles.
Results revealed middle to high levels of BPNs satisfaction, enjoyment, and anxiety, but a low
level of boredom. Males reported higher levels of BPNs satisfaction, enjoyment, and lower
anxiety than females. Four profiles of BPNs satisfaction were identified, namely average-
satisfaction, below-average satisfaction, low-satisfaction, and high-satisfaction. The majority of
students fell into the average-satisfaction profile. Students in the high-satisfaction had the most
positive emotional outcomes, while those in the low-satisfaction reported the opposite pattern.
Theoretical and pedagogical implications were then provided.

Keywords: basic psychological needs; self-determination theory; foreign language

emotion; latent profile analysis; person-centered approach

*Corresponding author: Enhao Feng, School of Foreign Languages, Huazhong University of Science
and Technology, Wuhan, China, E-mail: enhaofeng@hust.edu.cn. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4639-
8777 Xian Zhao, School of Cultures, Languages, and Linguistics, The University of Auckland,
Auckland, New Zealand, E-mail: xzha950@aucklanduni.ac.nz. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0396-6682
Huiyu Wang, Faculty of Foreign Languages, Harbin Institute of Petroleum, Harbin City,
China, E-mail: huiyu.wang.19@alumni.ucl.ac.uk. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6540-2981
 1 Introduction
Emotions are crucial indicators of psychological wellbeing (Seligman 2018) and predictors
of language learning attainment (e.g., Feng and Hong 2022; Li et al. 2019). Although the emerging
emotion-focused studies in second language acquisition (SLA) have offered insight into how
discrete emotions differentially affect language learning outcomes (e.g., Feng et al. 2023;
Zhao and Wang 2023a, 2023b), emotion-related research remains to be further extended due to
many inconsistent findings and gaps in the extant literature.
One area that requires more research is foreign language learning boredom. It is a pervasive
negative emotion that undermines learners’ academic performance across various contexts,
but has received limited attention (Li and Li 2023). Thus, a holistic investigation of the
perception and function of boredom in language learning, along with other frequently
experienced emotions (e.g., enjoyment and anxiety) is urgently needed, because such
knowledge can deepen the understanding of emotions in SLA (Dewaele and MacIntyre 2016).
Moreover, although some studies reported the significant effect of gender on emotions (e.g.,
Dewaele and MacIntyre 2014; Feng and Hong 2022), mixed findings concerning the
influence of gender necessitate further exploration across different contexts and participants
(e.g., Jiang and Dewaele 2020; Li 2022; Zhao and Wang 2023b).
A second significant gap is that, despite foreign language emotions arising as a
consequence of multiple factors (Li 2022), the associations between basic psychological
needs (BPNs) and emotions are yet to be fully explored. This deficit can lead to an incomplete
understanding of the nomological network of emotions in L2 learning, and thus prevents the
discovery of effective means to boost learners’ wellbeing and language proficiency. Self-
determination theory (SDT; Deci and Ryan 2000; Ryan and Deci 2017) suggests that satisfaction
of learners’ BPNs is vital to their emotional wellbeing and optimal learning. Hence, empirical
investigation is needed to examine the associations between BPNs satisfaction and emotions in
the English as a foreign language (EFL) learning context.
An additional gap concerns the analytical approach. Previous research has mainly used
variable-centered approaches (e.g., regression and structural equation modelling), and research
adopting person-centered approaches is scarce. However, traditional variable-centered
approaches assume that the role of factors is homogeneous across populations, which usually
does not hold in real contexts. In contrast, the person-centered approach, such as latent profile
analysis (LPA), considers the possibility that the sample might include multiple
subpopulations (profiles) characterized by different sets of parameters (Morin et al. 2018). LPA
typically provides solutions that help categorize individuals into distinct profiles. Since
individuals experience satisfaction of distinct BPNs simultaneously (Ryan and Deci 2017), LPA
is an ideal technique for investigating the effect of different configurations of BPNs
satisfaction on emotions (Zyphur 2009). Based on the identified profiles, a deeper and fuller
understanding of the connections between BPNs and emotions might be derived.
In light of the gaps mentioned above, we investigated the latent profiles of Chinese
EFL learners’ three dimensions of BPNs satisfaction, and how foreign language emotions
differ across these profiles using a person-centered approach (i.e., LPA). We also revealed
the general levels of students’ BPNs satisfaction and foreign language (FL) emotions, the
gender differences, and the bivariate correlations between them among 948 Chinese
university EFL learners.
2 Literature review
2.1 Emotions in foreign language learning

Foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA), defined as “the worry and negative emotional
reaction aroused when learning or using a second language” (MacIntyre 1999: 27), has long been
the most studied emotion in SLA (e.g., Dewaele and MacIntyre 2014, 2016; Horwitz et al. 1986),
because of its profound debilitating effect on learners’ psychological, physical, and academic
development. Nevertheless, the past decade has witnessed the emerging of an “affective turn”
in SLA. The dominant focus on negative emotions, especially FLCA, has been shifted to a
broader spectrum of emotions, encompassing both positive emotions (e.g., enjoyment) and
negative ones (e.g., boredom) (Li et al. 2019; Li and Li 2023; Zhao and Wang 2023a, 2023b).
Foreign language enjoyment (FLE) is an emotion experienced by language learners when
their psychological needs are met during challenging language-learning activities (Dewaele
and MacIntyre 2014). Based on the holistic view of emotions in SLA, FLE and FLCA have been
investigated as a pair of “emotional counterparts”, and were found to negatively correlate with
each other with a medium effect size (e.g., Feng et al. 2023; Li 2022; Zhao et al. 2023). A
plethora of research has revealed the debilitating and the facilitating roles of anxiety and
enjoyment respectively on language learning (e.g., Dewaele 2019; Feng et al. 2023; Li et al.
2019).
Recently, boredom has garnered growing scholarly interest, driven by researchers’
call for the inclusion of a broader spectrum of emotions (Li and Li 2023). Based on the control-
value theory (Pekrun and Perry 2014), Li et al. (2023) conceptualized ‘foreign language
learning boredom’ (FLLB) and developed measurement tools. According to Li et al. (2023),
FLLB is a negative academic emotion that deactivates FL learners from ongoing FL
learning activities. Various factors were found to arouse FLLB, such as over-challenging,
under-challenging, uninteresting, irrelevant, unimportant, dull, or tedious activities or
interactions (Li et al. 2023). Similarly, Pawlak et al. (2020) identified disengagement, monotony,
repetitiveness, and lack of satisfaction and challenge as sources of boredom, and Pawlak et
al. (2020) also found task repetitiveness, lack of challenge, and negative previous L2 learning
experiences responsible for boredom. Prior studies have further identified the negative
association between FLLB and FLE (Li 2022; Zhao and Wang 2023a, 2023b), and the positive
link between FLLB and FLCA (Dewaele et al. 2022; Li et al. 2023).
Gender has been investigated as a key antecedent of emotions. However, the gender
difference in FLE, FLCA and FLLB appeared to be mixed (e.g., Dewaele and MacIntyre 2016;
Dewaele et al. 2018). For instance, among Chinese university EFL learners, Jiang and Dewaele
(2020) found no gender difference in FLE and FLCA. In contrast, in international samples,
Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) found that high school girls typically have more FLE and FLCA
than boys. Li (2022) did not identify a gender difference in FLE and FLLB in the context of Chinese
university EFL learners. Feng and Hong (2022) did not find a significant gender difference in
FLCA among Chinese senior high school students, but girls were found to have higher FLE
than boys. However, in the context of Chinese middle and high schools, Zhao and Wang
(2023b) found that male EFL learners reported higher levels of FLLB than females. Given the
inconclusive findings, more research on the gender difference is needed. Such research efforts
are essential for informing pedagogical interventions that are more precise and effective in
boosting students’ emotional wellbeing.
 2.2 Basic psychological needs

SDT holds that human beings have an inherent tendency to function and engage in society (Deci
and Ryan 2000). The satisfaction of three kinds of basic psychological needs, the need for
competence (NC), autonomy (NA), and relatedness (NR), is the prerequisite for people’s
optimal functioning and wellbeing. They are “innate psychological nutrients that are essential
for ongoing psychological growth, integrity, wellbeing” (Deci and Ryan 2000: 229). The NA is
the need to experience behaviours emanating from and as endorsed by the self; it is the inner
endorsement of one’s behaviours (Deci and Ryan 1985). The NC is the need to be effective in
one’s pursuits and interactions with the environment. It is one’s desire to exercise his/her
capacities to master challenges (Reeve 2012). The NR is the need to establish emotional bonds
and secure attachments with others, and be interpersonally involved in warm, caring, and
responsive relationships as well as environments (Deci and Ryan 1991). Satisfaction of these
three BPNs is highly correlated and usually balanced. Under most circumstances, the
satisfaction of each need facilitates the fulfillment of the others (Ryan and Deci 2017).
Levels of BPNs satisfaction can vary across genders. For instance, Carter (2014) indicates
that girls tend to experience a greater need for closeness and caring (need for relatedness), while
boys tend to pursue more autonomy and achievement needs (need for autonomy and
competence). Gómez-Baya et al. (2018) found that females reported lower overall BPNs
satisfaction than males. On the contrary, Zayed et al. (2021) found that females tended to be
more satisfied with all the BPNs than males. Yet, Turgeon et al. (2022) found that high school
boys reported higher satisfaction of autonomy than girls, while other dimensions of BPNs
satisfaction did not differ significantly across genders. To our knowledge so far, scant research
has focused on gender difference in BPNs satisfaction among EFL learners. Given the mixed
findings in extant educational research and the paucity of relevant SLA research, more
studies on gender differences in BPNs satisfaction in EFL learning are needed. Such research
endeavors can provide valuable insights into the interventions tailored to the specific needs of
different genders in EFL education.

2.3 Foreign language emotions and basic psychological needs

satisfaction

Numerous studies have offered compelling evidence for the SDT argument that greater
satisfaction of BPNs is associated with higher positive emotions and lower negative emotions
(Deci and Ryan 2002). For instance, Ryan et al. (2008) found that the satisfaction of BPNs may
also result in better mental health, such as less anxiety. The research conducted by Chen et al.
(2015), for instance, found that satisfaction of BPNs was positively associated with wellbeing
across four cultures. They also found that satisfaction of BPNs contributed most robustly to
wellbeing indicators, while their frustration yielded the strongest association with ill-being.
Zhen et al. (2017) identified that Chinese learners’ BPNs satisfaction was positively associated
with their positive emotions (enjoyment and pride) and negatively related to negative
emotions (anxiety, boredom, and anger). Zhen et al. (2017) also found that the effect sizes
between BPNs satisfaction and positive emotion were much stronger than that between BPNs
satisfaction and negative emotion. Buhr et al. (2019) revealed that, in the online MOOC learning
context, males’ autonomy satisfaction was negatively associated with boredom and
enjoyment, yet no significant direct effects were identified among females. Interestingly,
Buhr et al. (2019) also found that the effect sizes of the association between BPNs satisfaction and
enjoyment were stronger than those between BPNs satisfaction and boredom. These may
indicate that satisfaction of BPNs was a better indicator of wellbeing (e.g., positive emotions)
than ill-being (e.g., negative emotions).
Although studies have indicated the associations between BPNs satisfaction and emotions,
only a limited number of SLA studies have addressed the issue. One of the few is Alamer and
Lee (2019), who employed structural equation modelling to investigate the relationship
between EFL learners’ BPN, SDT orientations, and eight emotions. They found that satisfaction
of the need for competence was positively associated with positive emotions (e.g., FLE) and
negatively with negative emotions through the achievement goals. Another study by Alamer
and Almulhim (2021) reflected that only a sense of competence and relatedness negatively
predicted some types of FLCA, while autonomy did not predict any subtypes of language
anxiety. Kruk et al. (2022) revealed that students’ boredom in the online FL classes can be
aroused by multiple factors, such as their teachers’ controlling the class, lack of peer
participation and engagement, and unchallenging homework. Kruk et al. (2022) indicated
that boredom is induced due to the lack of autonomy (teachers’ controlling behaviours), peer
relatedness (lack of peer engagement), and a sense of competence (unchallenging homework).
Previous studies have showed that, although SDT is universal in its scope, BPNs can operate
differently across various cultural contexts (Ryan and Moller 2016). In China, for example, NA
may not be as important in Chinese classrooms as it is in individualistic cultures, because of
teachers’ authoritative role and the tradition of subjugating one’s impulses to social propriety (Ho
et al. 2001). Thus, it is necessary to investigate whether these patterns are valid across distinct
cultures, domains, contexts, and participants. Such inquiry not only adds depth to our
understanding of the associations between BPNs satisfaction and emotions, but also has
practical implications for designing tailored interventions that can optimize the language
learning experience and wellbeing for diverse learners.

2.4 Person-centered approach to BPNs satisfaction

The variable-centered approach and the person-centered approach are the two main
approaches in quantitative methods in the field of psychology and education. The variable-
centered approach (e.g., multiple regression, structural equation modelling) assumes that
all individuals from a sample are drawn from a single population, for which a single set of
“averaged” parameters can be estimated and the results are generalizable to other populations
(Morin et al. 2018). It is typically used to explore the relative contribution of distinct
predictors to a specified outcome (Feng et al. 2023). However, the variable-centered
approach is unable to reveal, for example, how students perceive different dimensions of
BPNs satisfaction simultaneously, how students vary in terms of their BPNs satisfaction
profiles, and whether emotions differ across these profiles. On the contrary, person-
centered approach, such as LPA, is able to take into consideration the heterogeneity of the
participants. LPA aims to identify types or profiles of people with different configural profiles
of certain attributes (Spurk et al. 2020). It is hence an ideal technique for addressing research
questions that probe into the effect of qualitatively different configurations of many variables
(Zyphur 2009). In typical LPA studies, profiles of individuals with similar patterns of certain
variables are identified, and compared with other profiles in terms of how the variables
combine to form the profiles, and how those combinations are differentially related to
 antecedents or outcomes.
Previous educational research that employed LPA typically identified three or four
profiles of BPNs satisfaction, ranging from profiles with low overall BPNs satisfaction to
profiles with high levels of all BPNs satisfaction (e.g., Gilbert et al. 2022; Santana-Monagas and
Núñez 2022). The majority of participants usually appeared in the group with average levels of
BPNs satisfaction. Students in the high BPNs satisfaction group typically reported the most
adaptive outcome, while those in the low satisfaction profile had the least adaptive outcomes.
For instance, Santana-Monagas and Núñez (2022) identified four profiles regarding secondary
students’ BPNs satisfaction: thwarted, fulfilled, low fulfillment, and neutral profiles. They
found that most students were in the average group (50.53 %), reporting an average level in all
BPNs satisfaction. Students in the fulfilled profile were found to also have the highest wellbeing
and grit, while those in the low fulfillment profile reported the lowest wellbeing and grit.
Gilbert et al. (2022) detected three BPN profiles among 2,450 Canadian undergraduates,
namely, high need satisfaction, average need satisfaction, and need frustration. Similarly, most
students fell into the average need satisfaction profile (45.34 %). They found that students in the
high need satisfaction profile reported the lowest anxiety, while those in the need-frustration
profile had the highest anxiety. Based on a sample of 491 Chinese university students, Li et al.
(2020) identified four BPN profiles, they are, unsatisfied and frustrated, satisfied and
unfrustrated, average, and satisfied and frustrated. They also found that most students were in the
average profile (43.38 %), which had average levels of all BPNs satisfaction. They observed
that students in the satisfied and unfrustrated profile had the highest life satisfaction, while those
in the unsatisfied and frustrated group reported the lowest life satisfaction.
A review of the literature suggested that most previous SLA research on BPNs has adopted
a variable-centered approach to investigate the associations between BPNs satisfaction and
other variables. For instance, Alamer (2022) adopted the structural equation modelling to
investigate how BPNs satisfaction was directly and indirectly associated with L2 vocabulary
knowledge. Shirvan and Alamer (2022) also used structural equation modelling to investigate
the associations between BPNs satisfaction, L2 grit and achievement. To the best of our
knowledge, almost no prior research has utilized LPA to reveal the latent profiles of EFL
learners’ BPNs satisfaction.
This gap has led to the under-exploration of the multivariate nature of BPNs, despite the
fact that the three fundamental dimensions of BPNs can operate in conjunction with one
another (Martinent et al. 2021). This can lead to ambiguity regarding the associations between
BPNs satisfaction and emotions, especially how students with varying patterns of BPNs
satisfaction experience different levels of emotions. Given the multifaced nature of BPNs,
and their relevance to emotions within the context of EFL learning, it is imperative to
employ LPA to reveal the combinations of BPNs satisfaction among EFL learners, and how
their emotions differ across these profiles.

3 Methods
3.1 Research questions

1. (a) What are the general levels of students’ basic psychological needs satisfaction and
foreign language emotions? Do they differ across gender?
(b) What are the bivariate correlations between students’ basic psychological needs
 satisfaction and foreign language emotions?
2. What are the distinct profiles ofstudents’basic psychological needs satisfaction?
3. Are there any significant differences in foreign language emotions across different
profiles of basic psychological needs satisfaction?

3.2 Participants and contexts

A convenience sampling approach was used to enroll the participants. 1,108 undergraduate
students from various majors in four private universities in China (located in the north-eastern
part of China) initially participated in the survey. However, 160 outliers were removed (see data
analysis), therefore 948 non-English major undergraduate students were included in the final
valid dataset (344 freshmen, 36.29 %; 556 sophomores, 58.65 %; 45 juniors, 4.75 %, and 3
seniors, 0.31 %). The students’ age ranged from 17 to 32 (M = 19.7, SD = 1.18), and there
were 380 males (40.08 %) and 568 females (59.92 %). All participants were Chinese L1
speakers, and they were learning English as a foreign language in the College English Course,
which is aimed mainly at freshmen and sophomores of non-English major students during
the undergraduate period (other students may also retake this course if they previously failed it).
In the Chinese university EFL learning context, English is one of the compulsory subjects, and
undergraduate students are required to pass the College English Test Level 4, a typical high-stakes
test, before they are awarded their bachelor’s degree. Therefore, students and parents are highly
concerned about the English exam results. Gaining a high score is the primary goal of educators
and students within the Chinese exam-driven context, which differs significantly from that in
Western countries. In light of this, it is necessary to deepen our understanding of Chinese EFL
learners’ diversified experiences of emotions and BPNs satisfaction to facilitate their
psychological wellbeing and language achievements in this high-stakes learning environment.

3.3 Instruments

The instrument of this present study is a composite questionnaire consisting of four sub-scales
and a section for demographic information, which were all in Chinese. All items were rated
on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree).
Basic psychological needs satisfaction. The Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale
(Chen et al. 2015) was adapted to measure EFL learners’ perceived satisfaction of the three
dimensions of BPN in the English class. There were 9 items in the scale with three factors,
namely satisfaction of the need for competence (3 items; e.g., “I think I can meet the
demands of the English class.”), the need for autonomy (3 items; e.g., “In English class, I
feel a sense of choice and freedom in the things I undertake.”), and the need for relatedness (3
items; e.g., “In English class, I feel like I have a close relationship with my teachers and
classmates.”). The reliability of the overall scale was good in the present study (Cronbach’s α =
0.95; McDonald’s ω = 0.95). Model fit indices for the CFA (confirmatory factor analysis)
were good (χ 2 (24) = 142.955, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.02).
Foreign language enjoyment. Foreign language enjoyment was measured through
the Chinese Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale (Li et al. 2018). The scale has 11 items and three
factors, namely FLE-private (5 items; e.g., “I don’t get bored in learning English.”), FLE-
teacher (3 items; e.g., “The English teacher is encouraging.”), and FLE-environment (3 items;
e.g., “There is a good atmosphere of English learning.”). Previous studies in China have
revealed good validity and reliability (Li et al. 2018, 2019). Its reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.92;
McDonald’s ω = 0.82) was good in the present study. The model fit indices for the CFA of
the scale were good (χ 2 (39) = 235.542, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR =
0.03).
Foreign language classroom anxiety. Foreign language classroom anxiety was
measured through the eight-item Short-Form Foreign Language Anxiety Scale, which was
extracted from the original 33-item Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (Horwitz et al.
1986) by MacIntyre (1992). This short version was recently validated by Botes et al. (2022). Its
reliability was satisfactory (Cronbach’s α = 0.86; McDonald’s ω = 0.86). The scale was found
to have good CFA model fits in the current study (χ 2 (16) = 54.179, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.98,
RMSEA = 0.05, SRMR = 0.04).
Foreign language learning boredom. The Foreign Language Learning Boredom Scale
was adapted to measure the students’ perception of classroom boredom in EFL (Li et al. 2023).
There are 4 items in this adapted version with one factor, which reflects EFL learners’
general boredom level in the English class (e.g., “The English class bores me.”). The scale had
good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.96; McDonald’s ω = 0.96). CFA model fits of
this scale were good in the present research (χ 2 (2) = 11.747, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA
= 0.07, SRMR = 0.01).

3.4 Procedures

Since there was no available Chinese version of the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale,
it was first translated into Chinese by the first author, and then doublechecked by the other authors.
A pilot study was conducted to verify the reliability and comprehensibility of the composite
questionnaire. Twenty-nine freshmen (not included in the formal survey) were recruited
to participate in the pilot study voluntarily through the online questionnaire tool “Wen Juan
Xing” (https://www.wjx. cn). Prior to the study, they were informed of the purpose and were
asked to (1) complete the questionnaire and (2) specify the questions that were elusive and
ambiguous. The questionnaire data in the pilot study were collected and analyzed for verification,
and the results indicated that the current Chinese version of the Basic Psychological Need
Satisfaction Scale was reliable (Cronbach’s α = 0.92; McDonald’s ω = 0.91). Oral feedback
from the participants indicated that the scales were comprehensible and reader-friendly.
After conducting the pilot study, the formal survey was officially sent to participants by
their English teachers through a QR code generated by “Wen Juan Xing”. Participants were first
informed of the voluntariness, confidentiality, and anonymity of the study as well as their right
to withdraw from the survey anytime with no negative consequences. Individual consent was
obtained before they proceeded with the survey. They were asked to fill out the online
questionnaire in 5 min and submit it as soon as they finished.

3.5 Data analysis

Data were first coded and screened through SPSS 26. No missing data were identified in the
present study because the online questionnaire requires participants to finish all the items
before submission. Univariate outliers were then identified and removed through the box
plot. Specifically, values that exceeded three interquartile ranges from the end of a box were
considered extreme outliers and were removed (Hoaglin and Iglewicz 1987). As a result, 18
univariate outliers were removed. Multivariate outliers were identified using the
Mahalanobis D2 measure. As recommended by Hair et al. (2019), any data point having a D2
value deviating significantly from the D2 values of the total dataset with a p < 0.001 was
removed. Consequently, 142 multivariate outliers were removed. To examine the normality of
our data, we used SPSS to test the skewness and kurtosis, which should fall within the range of −2.0
and +2.0 (Kim 2013). The reliability of the questionnaire was then checked through SPSS.
After data cleaning, a series of CFAs were conducted to test the model fits of the scales in the present
study. To evaluate the model quality of CFA, we used the following cut-off values (Hu and
Bentler 1999): the Comparative Fit Index (CFI ≥ 0.90), the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI ≥ 0.90),
the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA ≤ 0.08), and the Standardized
Root Mean Residual (SRMR ≤ 0.08).
For the RQ1, descriptive analysis, Pearson correlation analyses, and independent sample t-
tests were conducted through SPSS software. To address RQ2, LPA with maximum likelihood
estimation was employed using Mplus 8.3 (Muthén and Muthén 2017) to identify the most
suitable number of profiles underlying BPNs satisfaction. The composite scores of the three
dimensions of BPNs satisfaction were calculated and used to classify students into distinct
profiles. A model comparison was carried out to choose the best fit between the model and the
data. Indices such as AIC, BIC, aBIC, L-M-R LRT, and BLRT were used. According to Muthén
and Asparouhov (2012), lower values of AIC, BIC, and aBIC indicate a better fit, whereas a
significant L-M-R LRT and BLRT imply that the K model is superior to the K-1 model.
Entropy was utilized to determine the model’s accuracy in classifying data into distinct profiles,
and a higher entropy value closer to 1 suggests better classification (Jung and Wickrama
2008). To address RQ3, a series of one-way ANOVAs with post-hoc comparisons were
employed via SPSS to examine the differences in enjoyment, boredom, and anxiety levels
among students in various profiles of BPNs satisfaction.
 4 Results
The descriptives for the data are reported in Table 1. As indicated by the skewness and kurtosis,
variables were normally distributed (Kim 2013), allowing for the subsequent parametric
analysis.

Table 1. Descriptives of students’ BPNs satisfaction and foreign language emotions (N = 948)

NA NC NR FLE FLCA FLLB

NA —
NC .72*** —
NR .65*** .79*** —
FLE .59*** .70*** .71*** —
FLCA -.24*** -.39*** -.29*** -.34*** —
FLLB -.20*** -.31*** -.36*** -.41*** .52*** —
M 3.60 3.69 3.98 4.02 3.25 2.42
SD .84 .84 .75 .66 .74 1.08
Min 1 1 1 2 1 1
Max 5 5 5 5 5 5
Skewness .01 -.10 -.25 -.13 -.55 .44
Kurtosis -.12 -.27 -.30 -.71 .69 -.39
Note. FLE = foreign language enjoyment; FLCA = foreign language classroom anxiety; FLLB =
foreign language learning boredom; NA = the need for autonomy; NC = the need for
competence; NR = the need for relatedness; p*** < .001.

As indicated in Table 1, learners generally had a high level of FLE with a mean score much
higher than the midpoint (M = 4.02, SD = 0.66) and a middle to high level of FLCA with the mean
level slightly above the midpoint (M = 3.25, SD = 0.74). They also reported a low to the middle
level of FLLB, with a mean score that was lower than the midpoint (M = 2.42, SD = 1.08). Leaners’
levels of BPNs satisfaction were very close and were all at middle to high levels, with the mean
scores slightly higher than the midpoint (MNA = 3.60, SDNA = 0.84; MNC = 3.69, SDNC = 0.84;
MNR = 3.98, SDNR = 0.75). To
investigate gender differences, a series of independent-samples t-tests were conducted. The
results indicated that there were significant gender differences for FLE (t = 4.11, p < 0.001,
Cohen’s d = 0.27) and FLCA (t = −2.87, p < 0.01, Cohen’s d = −0.19), with girls reporting
significantly lower FLE and significantly higher FLCA than boys. No significant gender
differences were found for FLLB (t = 1.80, p = 0.07). Significant gender differences were
detected for all BPNs satisfaction (tNA = 3.79, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.25; tNC = 3.15, p <
0.01, Cohen’s d = 0.21; tNR = 2.06, p < 0.05, Cohen’s d = 0.14), with boys consistently
having higher BPNs satisfaction than girls.
The results of correlation analyses (Table 1) indicated that FLE was positively related to
 all BPNs satisfaction with large or approximately large effect sizes (rs > 0.60; Plonsky and
Oswald 2014), while FLCA and FLLB were both negatively correlated with all BPNs
satisfaction with small to medium effect sizes (0.25 < rs < 0.40). FLE was negatively related
to FLLB (r = −0.41) and FLCA (r = −0.34), while FLLB and FLCA was positively correlated (r =
0.52). All the BPNs satisfaction were positively correlated with large effect sizes (rs >
0.60).
To investigate the underlying profiles of students’ BPNs satisfaction, we conducted a
series of latent profile analyses to select the best-fit model. The results of model fits are
summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. The fit indices for latent profile analysis (LPA).

L-M-R
Nclass AIC BIC aBIC Entropy BLRT(p) N per profile
LRT(p)
1 6861.880 6891.006 6871.950 - - - 948
2 5871.969 5919.513 5887.754 .767 .000 .000 480,468
3 5070.085 5138.046 5093.583 .972 .095 .000 459,250,239
4 4770.507 4857.885 4800.718 .963 .019 .000 347,365,47,189
5 4614.648 4721.444 4651.573 .937 .102 .000 44,231,357,126,190
6 4141.087 4267.300 4184.726 .938 .472 .000 237,14,109,345,180,63
Note. The bold part indicated the optimal solution; AIC = Akaike Information Criterion; BIC = Bayesian Information
Criterion; aBIC = ample-size adjusted BIC; L-M-R LRT = Lo-Mendell-Rubin Likelihood Ratio Test; LRT =
Likelihood Ratio Test.

As indicated in Table 2, the solution of 4 profiles was considered to be the best-fit model.
Specifically, the 4-profile model had a relatively high entropy out of all the models, indicating
the accuracy of grouping. Although the 3-profile solution had the highest entropy, the p-value
of its L-M-R LRT indicated that this model was not significantly better than the 2-profile
model, hence should be discarded. Moreover, although AIC, BIC and aBIC continued to
decrease when moving to 5 and 6-profile solutions, their non-significant L-M-R LRT indicated
that they were not significantly better than the 4-profile grouping. Therefore, the 4-profile was
considered to be the optimal solution for its parsimony. The 4 profiles and their corresponding Z
scores of BPNs satisfaction were visualized in Figure 1.
Profile 1 was labelled as “below-average satisfaction”, as students in this group had mildly
lower BPNs satisfaction than the mean level. Students in profile 2 reported BPNs satisfaction that
was very close to the mean level, hence this profile was named “average-satisfaction”. Profile 3,
the “low-satisfaction” group, demonstrated the lowest levels of BPNs satisfaction, which
was much lower than the mean. The last profile had the highest BPNs satisfaction levels
among all groups; hence, it was named “high-satisfaction”. The foreign language
emotion levels of learners in distinct BPN satisfaction profiles are shown in Figure 2.
To compare whether differences in foreign language emotions among students from
distinct profiles were significant, a series of ANOVAs and post-hoc comparisons were
conducted, and the results were presented in Table 3.
Figure 1: Levels of BPNs satisfaction among students from different profiles.

Figure 2: Levels of foreign language emotions in different BPNs profiles.

 Table 3. Mean scores of variables and ANOVA across BPNs satisfaction profiles (SD in

Parentheses)

Profile1:
Profile2: Profile3: Profile4:
Below- Post-hoc
Average- Low- High- Partial
average F comparison
satisfaction, satisfaction, satisfaction, η²
satisfaction, (LSD)
n = 365 n = 47 n = 189
n = 347
FLE 3.62(.53) 4.10(.46) 3.15(.62) 4.79(.34) 304.62*** .49 4>2>1>3
FLCA 3.46(.54) 3.19(.59) 3.93(.77) 2.82(1.00) 52.83*** .14 3>1>2>4
FLLB 2.75(.65) 2.24(.97) 3.21(.95) 1.96(1.55) 37.95*** .11 3>1>2>4
NA 3.08(.47) 3.68(.57) 2.57(.81) 4.64(.71) 339.66*** .52 4>2>1>3
NC 3.01(.20) 3.93(.20) 1.90(.40) 4.95(.15) 5059.61*** .94 4>2>1>3
NR 3.46(.54) 4.11(.36) 2.87(.79) 4.95(.22) 567.12*** .64 4>2>1>3
Note. LSD = Least Significant Difference; *** p < .001.

As indicated in Table 3, levels of foreign language emotions differed significantly across

BPNs satisfaction profiles. Students in the high-satisfaction profile not only reported the
highest level of all BPNs satisfaction and enjoyment but also had the lowest levels of boredom
and anxiety. The average-satisfaction profile presented the second-highest overall BPNs
satisfaction and enjoyment, and the second-lowest anxiety and boredom. The below-average
satisfaction profile had the third-highest enjoyment and BPNs satisfaction levels, and students
in this profile had the second highest anxiety and boredom. Finally, the low-satisfaction profile
demonstrated the lowest BPNs satisfaction and enjoyment, and they had the highest levels of
boredom and anxiety.

5 Discussion
The present study adopted a person-centered approach to investigate the latent profiles
underlying students’ BPNs satisfaction, and how foreign language emotions differ across these
profiles among 948 Chinese EFL learners.
RQ1a concerned learners’ general levels of BPNs satisfaction, foreign language emotions,
and gender differences. Results indicated that Chinese university students’ BPNs satisfaction and
enjoyment were at middle to high levels. Low to middle levels of anxiety and boredom in
learning English were found, which corroborated previous findings (e.g., Feng et al. 2023; Li et
al. 2023; Zhao and Wang 2023b). The results generally indicated participants’ positive EFL
learning experiences and satisfied basic psychological needs. In addition, this study found
that the levels of BPNs satisfaction, enjoyment, and anxiety varied significantly across genders.
Specifically, males reported significantly higher levels of BPNs satisfaction, partially
confirming the findings of Gómez-Baya et al. (2018) and Turgeon et al. (2022) but contradicting
some other findings (Carter 2014; Zayed et al. 2021). Such a discrepancy could be attributed
to the fact that due to differing socialization experiences, Chinese girls are more sensitive to
others’ emotional distress and more often engage in empathic responses than boys (Zhong et
al. 2020), making girls more susceptible to the frustration of psychological needs. Moreover,
boys had significantly higher enjoyment and lower anxiety than girls, which was partially
different from previous findings that girls generally had higher enjoyment and anxiety (Dewaele
and MacIntyre 2014, 2016; Feng and Hong 2022), or that there were no significant gender
differences (Jiang and Dewaele 2020; Li 2022). Girls’ higher anxiety levels are not surprising, as
they have been found to consistently report higher anxiety than boys over making mistakes
(Dewaele et al. 2016), receiving negative feedback (Abu-Rabia 1995), and performing
challenging communicative tasks (Jiang and Dewaele 2019). Boys’ higher enjoyment than girls’
may be attributed to the fact that boys are more reluctant to admit negative emotions such as
anxiety (Hill and Sarason 1966), and tend to report higher enjoyment to show that they have
met the traditional male gender role (Mclean and Hope 2010), which discourages them from
being perceived as vulnerable and weak (Bem 1981). Contextual factors could also have a play
in the present study, because they potentially moderate the relationship between gender and FL
emotions (Li 2022). Participants in Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) and Dewaele et al. (2016) were
all European FL learners, and participants in Jiang and Dewaele (2020) and Li (2022) were
mostly from Chinese public universities. In contrast, our participants were mostly from
Chinese private colleges, where teaching strategies, educational resources, syllabi, and
classroom environments differed significantly from the aforementioned studies. EFL
teaching and learning in China is typically knowledge-oriented and focuses on the
transmission of grammar and vocabulary knowledge out of the communicative context (Rao
2006). These contextual differences may be confounding factors that differed our findings
from previous ones. Finally, no significant gender difference was found in boredom in the
current study. This echoes the finding in Li (2022) that revealed no gender differences in FLLB,
but contradicts Zhao and Wang (2023b) who found that boys had higher levels of
boredom. This difference again indicates the moderating role of contexts in the
relationship between gender and FL emotions (Li 2022).
To answer RQ1b, we conducted a series of correlation analyses and found significant
bivariate correlations between all the variables. Three kinds of BPN satisfaction were positively
associated with each other, which confirmed the arguments of SDT that the satisfaction of BPNs
was balanced and highly correlated (Ryan and Deci 2017). Moreover, each facet of BPNs
satisfaction was positively correlated with enjoyment, and negatively associated with anxiety
and boredom, which was in line with previous studies (e.g., Alamer and Lee 2019; Buhr et al.
2019; Chen et al. 2015). This could be explained by SDT, which argues that the satisfaction of
BPNs is positively correlated with positive emotions, while negatively associated with negative
emotions (Ryan and Deci 2017). In addition, enjoyment was negatively correlated with
boredom and anxiety, replicating results in most previous research (Dewaele and MacIntyre
2014; Feng et al. 2023; Li 2022). Boredom was positively associated with anxiety, echoing the
findings of Dewaele et al. (2022) and Li et al. (2023). Interestingly, the associations between the
BPNs satisfaction and enjoyment were much stronger than those between BPNs satisfaction
and the two negative emotions (i.e., anxiety and boredom). This echoes the findings of Buhr et
al. (2019), Chen et al. (2015), and Zhen et al. (2017) who also revealed that the associations
between BPNs satisfaction with positive wellbeing indicators were more substantial than those
with negative ones. Combined, this may indicate that satisfaction of BPNs is more associated
with positive emotions (e.g., enjoyment) than with negative emotions (e.g., boredom and
anxiety). The other side of BPNs, namely BPNs frustration, maybe more correlated
with negative affect such as boredom (Chen et al. 2015). Future studies may investigate both the
satisfaction and frustration of BPNs and their unique relationships with positive and negative
emotions.
RQ2 concerned the latent profiles underlying learners’ BPNs satisfaction. Results revealed
four latent profiles of BPNs satisfaction, which differed significantly from each other regarding
levels of BPNs satisfaction. Our study extended the literature by offering insights into the distinct
unobserved profiles of BPNs satisfaction among Chinese EFL learners. Our findings echo
previous research by confirming the existence of three or four stable BPN satisfaction profiles
across domains (Gilbert et al. 2022; Li et al. 2020; Santana-Monagas and Núñez 2022). The four
identified profiles are below-average satisfaction, average-satisfaction, low-satisfaction, and
high-satisfaction. The high correlations between BPNs satisfaction proposed by SDT were
also fully demonstrated in the profiles identified (Ryan and Deci 2017), as we found that
students in the same profile had approximately the same levels of BPNs satisfaction
simultaneously. For example, the high-satisfaction profile consistently had the highest levels of
all BPNs satisfaction, while the low-satisfaction had the lowest levels of all dimensions of BPNs
satisfaction. Our results also indicated that the majority of students were in the average-
satisfaction profile, which had average levels in all BPNs satisfaction. This echoes the
profiles identified in previous research, which generally reveals that the majority of students
fell into the profile whose BPNs satisfaction was at an average level (Gilbert et al. 2022; Li et al.
2020; Santana-Monagas and Núñez 2022). This may suggest the existence of another
universality, that is, average levels of BPNs satisfaction tend to be the most common pattern
among learners. Nevertheless, more research is needed to examine such a pattern across
various contexts and populations.
RQ3 concerns the differences in foreign language emotions across different BPNs
satisfaction profiles. The results suggested that students in different profiles had unique
features of emotions. Specifically, students in the high-satisfaction group demonstrated the
most adaptive emotional outcomes, with the highest level of enjoyment and the lowest levels
of boredom and anxiety, which is the opposite to the students in the low-satisfaction group. The
average-satisfaction profile, as its name indicated, had average levels of all emotions. Students
in the below-average satisfaction profile reported the second lowest level of enjoyment and the
second highest level of anxiety and boredom. Our findings suggested that students’ level of
foreign language emotions accurately reflected the satisfaction of basic psychological needs.
The better their psychological needs were satisfied, the higher their reported level of positive
emotion and the lower their negative emotions (i.e., anxiety and boredom). This finding is in
accordance with SDT that basic psychological needs are “innate psychological nutrients” that
are essential for wellbeing (Ryan and Deci 2017). The
finding also confirms previous studies that students having high BPNs satisfaction tend to have
high wellbeing as reflected in high positive emotion, and low negative emotions (Gilbert et al.
2022; Santana-Monagas and Núñez 2022). The cross-BPNs profile differences in foreign
language emotions suggest the universal applicability of the SDT despite the uniqueness of
Chinese culture (Ho et al. 2001). Our findings also highlighted the significant and unique role of
BPNs satisfaction and its configurations in foreign language emotions.

6 Implications, limitations, and future directions

The findings of the present study suggest some key implications. Theoretically, our study
revealed the relationships between profiles of BPNs satisfaction and foreign language
emotions, extending the nomological network of foreign language emotions from a person-
centered perspective. Additionally, our findings, together with previous ones (Buhr et al. 2019;
Chen et al. 2015; Zhen et al. 2017), indicate that satisfaction of BPNs is a better indicator of
positive emotions than negative emotions. Moreover, the current study also provided new
findings that boys did not always have higher anxiety and lower enjoyment than girls in EFL
class. This echoes Li’s (2022) argument that gender differences in foreign language emotion
heavily rely on contextual factors. Our study also identified four profiles of BPNs satisfaction in
the Chinese university EFL learning context, which can serve as a basis for future person-
centered research on BPNs satisfaction. Our findings, combined with previous research (Gilbert
et al. 2022; Li et al. 2020; Santana-Monagas and Núñez 2022), may indicate that the majority
of students experienced average levels of BPNs satisfaction. Finally, emotion differences
across these profiles not only confirmed the applicability of SDT in the context of Chinese EFL
learning but also highlighted the significance of BPNs satisfaction in foreign language
emotions.
Pedagogically, our findings suggest that teachers should satisfy students’ basic
psychological needs in their classes, because the satisfaction of basic psychological needs is
positively associated with enjoyment and negatively related to anxiety and boredom, and
boosting positive emotions not only increases psychological wellbeing, but also facilitates
language learning (e.g., Feng et al. 2023; Feng and Hong 2022; Zhao and Wang 2023a, 2023b). In
addition, teachers should pay attention to potential gender discrepancies in satisfaction of
basic psychological needs and emotions, and carry out suitable interventions. Teachers should
also give attention to students with low BPNs satisfaction levels, because they are vulnerable to
negative emotions, and such emotions could undermine their psychological health and
language achievements. Specifically, we suggest teachers give students guidance,
encouragement, and expectations through assistance, and competence-relevant feedback to
satisfy the need for competence (Stroet et al. 2015). To satisfy the need for autonomy, teachers
should offer students freedom and choice, the relevance of learning materials, showing
respect, and using informational rather than controlling language (Hornstra et al. 2020). The
need for relatedness can be satisfied by expressing involvement with their students by
showing affection, and interest, taking the perspective of the students, and offering emotional
support (Stroet et al. 2015).
Despite the contribution of the present study, it is certainly not free from limitations. First,
as a purely quantitative study, we may have missed details regarding the associations between
BPNs satisfaction and foreign language emotions. Hence, future research adopting a mixed-
methods approach may yield further insights. For instance, researchers may supplement their
quantitative findings with in-depth qualitative data (e.g., interviews) to reveal different topics
regarding emotions and basic psychological needs satisfaction in EFL classrooms. Second, the
present study was cross-sectional, preventing it from revealing how students’ profiles
develop longitudinally. Therefore, future research with a longitudinal design is welcomed.
Finally, the present study was based on the Chinese university EFL learning context. Therefore,
the generalizability of our findings to other contexts (in terms of educational levels, regions,
L1, etc.) should be examined in future research.

7 Conclusions
The present research revealed the general levels and gender differences of Chinese university
EFL learners’ basic psychological needs satisfaction and foreign language emotions, and the
correlations between them. Students were found to have middle to high levels of BPNs
satisfaction, enjoyment and anxiety, and low levels of boredom. Moreover, males have higher
levels of enjoyment, BPNs satisfaction, and lower levels of anxiety than females. Dimensions of
BPNs satisfaction were positively related to each other and enjoyment, and were negatively
related to anxiety and boredom. Enjoyment was negatively related to anxiety and
boredom, while anxiety and boredom were positively associated. Four latent profiles of
BPNs satisfaction were identified in our study. Students in the high-satisfaction had the
most adaptive emotional outcomes, while those in the low-satisfaction had the least
adaptive emotional features. The findings of this study have advanced the understanding of
EFL learners’ basic psychological needs and foreign language emotions, and the
associations between these two important constructs.
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